18th century  

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-==Eighteenth century==+[[Image:Duck of Vaucanson.jpg|thumb|200px|
-:[[1800]] - [[1799]] - [[1798]] - [[1797]] - [[1796]] - [[1795]] - [[1794]] - [[1793]] - [[1792]] - [[1791]]+<small>The '''''Canard Digérateur''''', or '''[[Digesting Duck]]''', was an [[automaton]] in the form of [[duck]], created by [[Jacques de Vaucanson]] in [[1739]].
-:[[1790]] - [[1789]] - [[1788]] - [[1787]] - [[1786]] - [[1785]] - [[1784]] - [[1783]] - [[1782]] - [[1781]]+Voltaire wrote that "without [...] the duck of [[Vaucanson]], you have nothing to remind you of the glory of [[France]]." (''"Sans...le canard de Vaucanson vous n'auriez rien qui fit ressouvenir de la gloire de la France."'') This is often misquoted as "Without the shitting duck, we would have nothing to remind us of the glory of France."</small>]]
-:[[1780]] - [[1779]] - [[1778]] - [[1777]] - [[1776]] - [[1775]] - [[1774]] - [[1773]] - [[1772]] - [[1771]]+[[Image:Capriccio with the Colosseum (1743-44) - B. Bellotto.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Capriccio]] with the [[Colosseum]]'' ([[1743]]-[[1743|44]]) - [[Bernardo Bellotto]]]]
-:[[1770]] - [[1769]] - [[1768]] - [[1767]] - [[1766]] - [[1765]] - [[1764]] - [[1763]] - [[1762]] - [[1761]]+[[Image:Drawing by Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728 - 1799) .jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Cenotaph]] for [[Newton]]'' ([[1784]]) by French architect [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]]]]
-:[[1760]] - [[1759]] - [[1758]] - [[1757]] - [[1756]] - [[1755]] - [[1754]] - [[1753]] - [[1752]] - [[1751]]+[[Image:Therese_Philosophe_Frontispiece.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Thérèse Philosophe]]'' ([[1748]]) by [[Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens]]]]
-:[[1750]] - [[1749]] - [[1748]] - [[1747]] - [[1746]] - [[1745]] - [[1744]] - [[1743]] - [[1742]] - [[1741]]+[[Image:Honoré Gabriel Riqueti de Mirabeau, pained by Joseph Boze.jpg|thumb|right|200px|In May [[1777]], [[Comte de Mirabeau]], [[18th century]] French aristocrat was imprisoned at [[prison of Vincennes|Vincennes]]. There he met [[Marquis de Sade]], both of them imprisoned by [[lettre de cachet]], both [[libertine]]s; however the two [[dislike]]d each other intensely. They both [[writing in prison|wrote prolifically in prison]], both suffered from [[graphomania]], Mirabeau would write ''[[Lettres à Sophie|letters to Sophie]]'', ''[[Le Libertin de qualité|Le libertin de qualité]]'' and the ''[[Erotika Biblion]]''; Sade was incarcerated in various [[prison]]s and [[insane asylum]]s for about 32 years (out of a total of 74) of his life; much of his writing, starting with his debut ''[[Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man]]'' [[writing in prison|was done during his imprisonment]].]]
-:[[1740]] - [[1739]] - [[1738]] - [[1737]] - [[1736]] - [[1735]] - [[1734]] - [[1733]] - [[1732]] - [[1731]]+{{Template}}
-:[[1730]] - [[1729]] - [[1728]] - [[1727]] - [[1726]] - [[1725]] - [[1724]] - [[1723]] - [[1722]] - [[1721]]+ 
-:[[1720]] - [[1719]] - [[1718]] - [[1717]] - [[1716]] - [[1715]] - [[1714]] - [[1713]] - [[1712]] - [[1711]]+The '''18th century''' lasted from [[1701]] to [[1800]] in the [[Gregorian calendar]], in accordance with the [[Anno Domini]]/[[Common Era]] numbering system.
-:[[1710]] - [[1709]] - [[1708]] - [[1707]] - [[1706]] - [[1705]] - [[1704]] - [[1703]] - [[1702]] - [[1701]]+ 
 +However, Western historians may sometimes specifically define the 18th [[century]] otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as [[1715]][[1789]], denoting the period of time between the death of [[Louis XIV of France]] and the start of the [[French Revolution]] with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.
 + 
 +To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century may run from the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]] to the [[battle of Waterloo]] in [[1815]] or even later. During the 18th century, the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] culminated in the [[French Revolution|French]] and [[American Revolution|American revolutions]]. Philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers were dreaming about a better age without the Christian fundamentalism of earlier centuries. This dream turned into a nightmare during the [[Reign of Terror|terror]] of [[Maximilien Robespierre]] in the early 1790s. At first, the monarchies of Europe embraced enlightenment ideals, but with the French revolution, they were on the side of the counterrevolution.
 + 
 +[[Great Britain]] became a major power worldwide with the [[French and Indian War|defeat of France in the Americas]] in the 1760s and [[Company rule in India|the conquest of large parts of India]]. However, Britain lost much of her North American colonies after the American revolution. The [[industrial revolution]] started in Britain around the 1770s. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, it would radically change human society and the geology of the surface of the earth.
 + 
 += Culture =
 +*[[Enlightenment]], an 18th century counterculture
 +*[[European exploitation|the roots of European exploitation]]
 +*[[Orientalism]]
 +*[[Venus in the 18th century]]
 +== art==
 +:''[[18th century art]]''
 + 
 +Art in the 18th century was dominated first by [[Rococo]] and than by [[Neoclassicism]]. The center of the art world shifted from [[Italy]] and the [[art of the Low Countries|Low Countries]] to [[France]].
 + 
 +After [[Rococo]] there arose in the late 18th century, in [[architecture]], and then in painting severe [[neo-classicism]], best represented by such artists as [[Jacques Louis David|David]].
 + 
 +This movement turned its attention toward landscape and nature as well as the [[human figure]] and the supremacy of natural order above mankind's will. There is a [[pantheism|pantheist]] philosophy (see [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]) within this conception that opposes [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] ideals by seeing mankind's destiny in a more tragic or pessimistic light. The idea that human beings are not above the forces of [[Nature]] is in contradiction to [[Ancient Greek]] and Renaissance ideals where mankind was above all things and owned his fate. This thinking led romantic artists to depict the [[Sublimation (psychology)|sublime]], ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness.
 + 
 +The century also saw the rise of [[Academic art|academies]] and the [[Paris salon]]s.
 +== Literature ==
 +:''[[18th century literature]]''
 + 
 +:All in all, literature was not so widespread as in the following century, since paper was still quite expensive, see [[cheap paper]].
 +[[Literature]] of the [[18th century]] refers to [[world literature]] produced during the [[18th century]]. The 18th century saw the development of the [[modern novel]] as literary genre, in fact many [[First novel in English|candidates for the first novel in English]] date from this period. Subgenres of the novel during the 18th century were the [[epistolary novel]], the [[sentimental novel]], [[Histories (history of the novel)|"histories"]], the [[gothic novel]] and the [[libertine novel]]. 18th Century Europe started in the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and gradually moved towards [[Romanticism#Art and literature|Romanticism]]. In the visual arts, it was the period of [[Neoclassicism]].
 + 
 +Although the [[modern novel]] as [[literary genre]] solidified, [[literacy]] rates were still very low as there was no primary education for the [[common man]]. As [[Resa L. Dudovitz]] notes in ''The Myth of Superwoman'', "a novel which sold well in the [[18th century in literature|eighteenth century]] - and even the most successful book rarely sold more than a few thousand copies - did so within a fairly closed circle of readers, many of whom as writers also participated in deciding the prevailing criteria of [[literary merit|literary excellence]], [...], by the mid-[[19th century in literature|nineteenth century]] [[cheap]]er [[edition]]s and improved access to reading material through subscriptions and in France, through reading rooms, pushed sales of a popular novel as high as 10,000 copies. Although critics continued to function as the [[arbiters of taste]], the critical [[elite]] could no longer claim literature to be their exclusive property."
 + 
 +The [[English novel]] became a popular form in the [[18th century]], with [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' ([[1719]]) and [[Samuel Richardson]]'s ''[[Pamela]]'' ([[1740]]). Another very popular form was the [[Gothic novel]] (''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'', 1764) and its European equivalents the [[roman noir]] in France and the [[Schauerroman]] in Germany.
 + 
 +Early European bestsellers were ''[[Julie, or the New Heloise]]'' by Rousseau and ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'' by Goethe.
 + 
 +There was already literature of subversion such as that from [[Voltaire]] and [[Sade]] and other [[libertine writer]]s. In the United Kingdom there was the renegade publisher [[Edmund Curll]] known for his [[radical]] [[pamphlet]]s and [[bawdy]] books.
 + 
 +A good introduction to this period, one which describes the [[popular literature]] of that era in France very well, is ''[[The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France]]''.
 + 
 +== Philosophy==
 +:''[[18th century philosophy]]''
 +[[18th-century philosophy]] centers around "[[The Enlightenment]]" and its antagonist, [[Counter-Enlightenment]].
 + 
 +== Architecture==
 +:''[[18th century architecture]]''
 + 
 +==Films about the 18th century==
 +Two films about the 18th century in Europe are ''[[Ridicule (film)|Ridicule]]'' (1996) and ''[[Dangerous Liaisons]]'' (1988).
 + 
 +{{GFDL}}

Revision as of 15:12, 14 January 2012

 The Canard Digérateur, or Digesting Duck, was an automaton in the form of duck, created by Jacques de Vaucanson in 1739.   Voltaire wrote that "without [...] the duck of Vaucanson, you have nothing to remind you of the glory of France." ("Sans...le canard de Vaucanson vous n'auriez rien qui fit ressouvenir de la gloire de la France.") This is often misquoted as "Without the shitting duck, we would have nothing to remind us of the glory of France."
Enlarge
The Canard Digérateur, or Digesting Duck, was an automaton in the form of duck, created by Jacques de Vaucanson in 1739. Voltaire wrote that "without [...] the duck of Vaucanson, you have nothing to remind you of the glory of France." ("Sans...le canard de Vaucanson vous n'auriez rien qui fit ressouvenir de la gloire de la France.") This is often misquoted as "Without the shitting duck, we would have nothing to remind us of the glory of France."
Cenotaph for Newton (1784) by French architect Étienne-Louis Boullée
Enlarge
Cenotaph for Newton (1784) by French architect Étienne-Louis Boullée
In May 1777, Comte de Mirabeau, 18th century French aristocrat was imprisoned at Vincennes. There he met Marquis de Sade, both of them imprisoned by lettre de cachet, both libertines; however the two disliked each other intensely. They both wrote prolifically in prison, both suffered from graphomania, Mirabeau would write letters to Sophie, Le libertin de qualité and the Erotika Biblion; Sade was incarcerated in various prisons and insane asylums for about 32 years (out of a total of 74) of his life; much of his writing, starting with his debut Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man was done during his imprisonment.
Enlarge
In May 1777, Comte de Mirabeau, 18th century French aristocrat was imprisoned at Vincennes. There he met Marquis de Sade, both of them imprisoned by lettre de cachet, both libertines; however the two disliked each other intensely. They both wrote prolifically in prison, both suffered from graphomania, Mirabeau would write letters to Sophie, Le libertin de qualité and the Erotika Biblion; Sade was incarcerated in various prisons and insane asylums for about 32 years (out of a total of 74) of his life; much of his writing, starting with his debut Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man was done during his imprisonment.

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The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini/Common Era numbering system.

However, Western historians may sometimes specifically define the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 17151789, denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.

To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the battle of Waterloo in 1815 or even later. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French and American revolutions. Philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers were dreaming about a better age without the Christian fundamentalism of earlier centuries. This dream turned into a nightmare during the terror of Maximilien Robespierre in the early 1790s. At first, the monarchies of Europe embraced enlightenment ideals, but with the French revolution, they were on the side of the counterrevolution.

Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in the Americas in the 1760s and the conquest of large parts of India. However, Britain lost much of her North American colonies after the American revolution. The industrial revolution started in Britain around the 1770s. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, it would radically change human society and the geology of the surface of the earth.

Contents

Culture

art

18th century art

Art in the 18th century was dominated first by Rococo and than by Neoclassicism. The center of the art world shifted from Italy and the Low Countries to France.

After Rococo there arose in the late 18th century, in architecture, and then in painting severe neo-classicism, best represented by such artists as David.

This movement turned its attention toward landscape and nature as well as the human figure and the supremacy of natural order above mankind's will. There is a pantheist philosophy (see Spinoza and Hegel) within this conception that opposes Enlightenment ideals by seeing mankind's destiny in a more tragic or pessimistic light. The idea that human beings are not above the forces of Nature is in contradiction to Ancient Greek and Renaissance ideals where mankind was above all things and owned his fate. This thinking led romantic artists to depict the sublime, ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness.

The century also saw the rise of academies and the Paris salons.

Literature

18th century literature
All in all, literature was not so widespread as in the following century, since paper was still quite expensive, see cheap paper.

Literature of the 18th century refers to world literature produced during the 18th century. The 18th century saw the development of the modern novel as literary genre, in fact many candidates for the first novel in English date from this period. Subgenres of the novel during the 18th century were the epistolary novel, the sentimental novel, "histories", the gothic novel and the libertine novel. 18th Century Europe started in the Age of Enlightenment and gradually moved towards Romanticism. In the visual arts, it was the period of Neoclassicism.

Although the modern novel as literary genre solidified, literacy rates were still very low as there was no primary education for the common man. As Resa L. Dudovitz notes in The Myth of Superwoman, "a novel which sold well in the eighteenth century - and even the most successful book rarely sold more than a few thousand copies - did so within a fairly closed circle of readers, many of whom as writers also participated in deciding the prevailing criteria of literary excellence, [...], by the mid-nineteenth century cheaper editions and improved access to reading material through subscriptions and in France, through reading rooms, pushed sales of a popular novel as high as 10,000 copies. Although critics continued to function as the arbiters of taste, the critical elite could no longer claim literature to be their exclusive property."

The English novel became a popular form in the 18th century, with Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1740). Another very popular form was the Gothic novel (The Castle of Otranto, 1764) and its European equivalents the roman noir in France and the Schauerroman in Germany.

Early European bestsellers were Julie, or the New Heloise by Rousseau and The Sorrows of Young Werther by Goethe.

There was already literature of subversion such as that from Voltaire and Sade and other libertine writers. In the United Kingdom there was the renegade publisher Edmund Curll known for his radical pamphlets and bawdy books.

A good introduction to this period, one which describes the popular literature of that era in France very well, is The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France.

Philosophy

18th century philosophy

18th-century philosophy centers around "The Enlightenment" and its antagonist, Counter-Enlightenment.

Architecture

18th century architecture

Films about the 18th century

Two films about the 18th century in Europe are Ridicule (1996) and Dangerous Liaisons (1988).




Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "18th century" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.

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