Cambridge Platonists
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| - | :''[[Socrates's metaphor of the three beds]]'' | ||
| - | '''Platonic idealism''' usually refers to [[Plato|Plato's]] [[theory of forms]] or doctrine of ideas, the exact philosophical meaning of which is perhaps one of the most disputed questions in higher academic philosophy. At least one may say, with some degree of certitude, that Plato held the realm of ideas to be absolute reality. As for the exact relationship between the ideal and non-ideal world, the platonic corpus is silent, insofar as interpretation must rely upon literary device, metaphor, and amphibology. | ||
| - | Some commentators hold Plato argued that [[truth]] is an abstraction. In other words, we are urged to believe that [[Plato]]'s theory of ideas is an [[abstraction]], divorced from the so-called external world, of modern European philosophy, despite the fact Plato taught that ideas are ultimately real, and different from non-ideal things--indeed, he argued for a distinction between the ideal and non-ideal realm. | ||
| - | These commentators speak thus: For example, a particular tree, with a branch or two missing, possibly alive, possibly dead, and with the initials of two lovers carved into its bark, is distinct from the abstract form of Tree-ness. A Tree is the ideal that each of us holds that allows us to identify the imperfect reflections of trees all around us. | + | The '''Cambridge Platonists''' were a group of [[philosopher]]s at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] in the middle of the 17th century (between 1633 and 1688). |
| - | Plato gives the [[The divided line of Plato | divided line]] as an outline of this theory. At the top of the line, the Form of the Good is found, directing everything underneath. | + | == Programme == |
| - | Some contemporary linguistic philosophers construe "Platonism" to mean the proposition that [[universals]] exist independently of particulars (a universal is anything that can be predicated of a particular). | + | The Cambridge Platonists were reacting to two pressures. On the one hand, the dogmatism of the [[Puritan]] divines, with their anti-[[rationalism|rationalis]]t demands, were, they felt, immoral and incorrect. They also felt that the Puritan/[[Calvinism|Calvinist]] insistence upon individual revelation left God uninvolved with the majority of mankind. At the same time, they were reacting against the reductive [[materialism|materialist]] writings of [[Thomas Hobbes]]. They felt that the latter, while properly rationalist, were denying the idealistic part of the universe. To the Cambridge Platonists, religion and reason were in harmony, and reality was known not by physical sensation alone, but by intuition of the [[Platonic Forms|intelligible Forms]] that exist behind the material world of everyday [[perception]]. [[Problem of universals|Universal]], ideal forms (à la [[Plato]]) inform matter, and the physical senses are unreliable guides to their reality. |
| - | Platonism is an ancient school of [[philosophy]], founded by Plato; at the beginning, this school had a physical existence at a site just outside the walls of [[History of Athens|Athens]] called the [[Academy]], as well as the intellectual unity of a shared approach to philosophizing. | + | As divines and in matters of polity, the Cambridge Platonists argued for moderation. They believed that reason is the proper judge of all disagreements, and so they advocated dialogue between the Puritans and the [[high church|High Churchmen]]. They had a mystical understanding of reason, believing that reason is not merely the sense-making facility of the mind, but, instead, "the candle of the Lord" - an echo of the divine within the human soul and an ''imprint'' of God within man. Thus, they believed that reason could lead beyond the sensory, because it is semi-divine. Reason was, for them, of God, and thus capable of nearing God. Therefore, they believed that reason could allow for judging the private revelations of Puritan theology and the proper investigation of the rituals and liturgy of the [[Established Church]]. For this reason, they were called [[latitudinarian]]s. |
| - | Platonism is usually divided into three periods: | + | == Representatives == |
| - | # [[Early Platonism]] | + | * [[Anne Conway, Viscountess Conway]] (1631-1679) |
| - | # [[Middle Platonism]] | + | * [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury]] (1671-1713) |
| - | # [[Neoplatonism]] | + | * [[Ralph Cudworth]] (1617–1688) |
| + | * [[Nathaniel Culverwel]] (1619–1651) | ||
| + | * [[Joseph Glanvill]] (1636-1680) | ||
| + | * [[Damaris Cudworth Masham]] (1659-1708) | ||
| + | * [[Henry More]] (1614–1687) | ||
| + | * [[John Norris (philosopher)|John Norris]] (1657-1711) | ||
| + | * [[George Rust (bishop)|George Rust]] (d.1670) | ||
| + | * [[John Smith (Platonist)|John Smith]] (1618–1652) | ||
| + | * [[Peter Sterry]] (1613–1672) | ||
| + | * [[Benjamin Whichcote]] (1609–1683) | ||
| + | * [[John Worthington (academic)|John Worthington]] (1618-1671) | ||
| - | Plato's students used the [[hypomnemata]] as the foundation to his philosophic approach to [[knowledge]]. The hypomnemata constituted a material memory of things read, heard, or thought, thus offering these as an accumulated treasure for rereading and later meditation. For the Neoplatonist they also formed a raw material for the writing of more systematic treatises in which were given arguments and means by which to struggle against some defect (such as anger, envy, gossip, flattery) or to overcome some difficult circumstance (such as a mourning, an exile, downfall, disgrace). | + | == Major Works of the Cambridge Platonists == |
| - | Platonism is considered to be, in mathematics departments the world over, the predominant [[philosophy of mathematics]], especially regarding the [[foundations of mathematics]]. | + | * Conway's only surviving treatise, ''The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy'' (1692) presents an ontology of spirit in opposition to [[Henry More|More]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and utilizes a concept of a monad derived from [[Christian Kabbalah|Kabbala]] and which anticipates [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] who may have plagiarized the idea from her. |
| + | * Cudworth's chief philosophical work was ''The True Intellectual System of the Universe'' (1678) and the ''Treatise concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality'', which appeared posthumously in 1731. | ||
| + | * Culverwel's chief work was ''Light of Nature'' (1652). Culverwel died young (probably at the age of 32). He had intended to write a multi-part work reconciling the [[Gospel]] with philosophical reason. | ||
| + | * Henry More (1614–1687) wrote many works. As a Platonist, his important works were ''Manual of Ethics'' (1666), the ''Divine Dialogues'' (1668), and the ''Manual of Metaphysics'' (1671). While all of More's works enjoyed popularity, the ''Divine Dialogues'' were perhaps most influential. | ||
| + | * John Smith, a student of Benjamin Whichcote, is best remembered today for the elegance of his style and the depth of his learning in the posthumously published ''Select Discourses'' (1660). | ||
| + | * Peter Sterry is remembered for his ''A Discourse of the Freedom of the Will'' (1675) among other works. | ||
| + | *Benjamin Whichcote (1609–1683) was one of the leaders of the movement, but he was also an active pastor and academic who did not publish in his lifetime. His sermons were notable and caused controversies, and Whichcote wrote a great deal without publishing. In 1685, ''Some Select Notions of B. Whichcote'' was published due to demand. After that was ''Select Sermons'' (1689) (with a preface by Shaftesbury) and ''Several Discourses'' (1701). Finally, a collection of his sayings appeared as ''Moral and Religious Aphorisms'' in 1703. | ||
| - | One statement of this philosophy is the thesis that mathematics is not created but discovered. | ||
| - | A lucid statement of this is found in an essay written by the British mathematician [[G. H. Hardy]] in defense of pure mathematics. | ||
| - | The absence in this thesis of clear distinction between mathematical and nonmathematical "creation" leaves open the inference that it applies to allegedly creative endeavors in art, music, and literature. | ||
| - | |||
| - | It is unknown if Plato's ideas of [[idealism]] have some earlier origin, but Plato held [[Pythagoras]] in high regard, and Pythagoras as well as his followers in the movement known as [[Pythagoreanism]] claimed the world was literally built up from numbers, an abstract, absolute form. | ||
| - | |||
| - | == See also == | ||
| - | |||
| - | * [[Cambridge Platonists]] | ||
| - | * [[Gnosticism]] | ||
| - | * [[Idealism]] | ||
| - | * [[Plato]] | ||
| - | * [[Platonic epistemology]] | ||
| - | * [[Platonic realism]] | ||
| - | * [[Philosophy of mathematics]] | ||
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The Cambridge Platonists were a group of philosophers at Cambridge University in the middle of the 17th century (between 1633 and 1688).
[edit]
Programme
The Cambridge Platonists were reacting to two pressures. On the one hand, the dogmatism of the Puritan divines, with their anti-rationalist demands, were, they felt, immoral and incorrect. They also felt that the Puritan/Calvinist insistence upon individual revelation left God uninvolved with the majority of mankind. At the same time, they were reacting against the reductive materialist writings of Thomas Hobbes. They felt that the latter, while properly rationalist, were denying the idealistic part of the universe. To the Cambridge Platonists, religion and reason were in harmony, and reality was known not by physical sensation alone, but by intuition of the intelligible Forms that exist behind the material world of everyday perception. Universal, ideal forms (à la Plato) inform matter, and the physical senses are unreliable guides to their reality.
As divines and in matters of polity, the Cambridge Platonists argued for moderation. They believed that reason is the proper judge of all disagreements, and so they advocated dialogue between the Puritans and the High Churchmen. They had a mystical understanding of reason, believing that reason is not merely the sense-making facility of the mind, but, instead, "the candle of the Lord" - an echo of the divine within the human soul and an imprint of God within man. Thus, they believed that reason could lead beyond the sensory, because it is semi-divine. Reason was, for them, of God, and thus capable of nearing God. Therefore, they believed that reason could allow for judging the private revelations of Puritan theology and the proper investigation of the rituals and liturgy of the Established Church. For this reason, they were called latitudinarians.
[edit]
Representatives
- Anne Conway, Viscountess Conway (1631-1679)
- Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1713)
- Ralph Cudworth (1617–1688)
- Nathaniel Culverwel (1619–1651)
- Joseph Glanvill (1636-1680)
- Damaris Cudworth Masham (1659-1708)
- Henry More (1614–1687)
- John Norris (1657-1711)
- George Rust (d.1670)
- John Smith (1618–1652)
- Peter Sterry (1613–1672)
- Benjamin Whichcote (1609–1683)
- John Worthington (1618-1671)
[edit]
Major Works of the Cambridge Platonists
- Conway's only surviving treatise, The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy (1692) presents an ontology of spirit in opposition to More, Descartes, Hobbes and Spinoza and utilizes a concept of a monad derived from Kabbala and which anticipates Leibniz who may have plagiarized the idea from her.
- Cudworth's chief philosophical work was The True Intellectual System of the Universe (1678) and the Treatise concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality, which appeared posthumously in 1731.
- Culverwel's chief work was Light of Nature (1652). Culverwel died young (probably at the age of 32). He had intended to write a multi-part work reconciling the Gospel with philosophical reason.
- Henry More (1614–1687) wrote many works. As a Platonist, his important works were Manual of Ethics (1666), the Divine Dialogues (1668), and the Manual of Metaphysics (1671). While all of More's works enjoyed popularity, the Divine Dialogues were perhaps most influential.
- John Smith, a student of Benjamin Whichcote, is best remembered today for the elegance of his style and the depth of his learning in the posthumously published Select Discourses (1660).
- Peter Sterry is remembered for his A Discourse of the Freedom of the Will (1675) among other works.
- Benjamin Whichcote (1609–1683) was one of the leaders of the movement, but he was also an active pastor and academic who did not publish in his lifetime. His sermons were notable and caused controversies, and Whichcote wrote a great deal without publishing. In 1685, Some Select Notions of B. Whichcote was published due to demand. After that was Select Sermons (1689) (with a preface by Shaftesbury) and Several Discourses (1701). Finally, a collection of his sayings appeared as Moral and Religious Aphorisms in 1703.
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