City network  

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-y [[Referendum|plebiscite]]". 
-The nation has been described by [[Benedict Anderson]] as an "[[Imagined communities|imagined community]]" and by [[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] as an "abstract community". It is an imagined community in the sense that the material conditions exist for imagining extended and shared connections. It is an abstract community in the sense that it is objectively impersonal, even if each individual in the nation experiences him or herself as subjectively part of an embodied unity with others. For the most part, members of a nation remain strangers to each other and will never likely meet. Hence the phrase, "a nation of strangers" used by such writers as [[Vance Packard]]. According to [[Homi K. Bhabha]] nation is an ambivalent construction.It is a cultural determinant.It is something between a concept and object because there is a geography and at the same time a mental image of nation. +'''City networks''' are the connections between [[city|cities]]. These networks can be of different nature and of different importance. In [[City#Modern Conceptions|modern conceptions]] of cities, these networks play an important role in understanding the nature of cities. City networks can be physical connections to other places, such as [[railway]]s, [[canal]]s or scheduled flights. City networks also exist in immaterial form, such as trade, global [[finance]], [[finance|markets]], migration, [[culture|cultural]] links, shared social spaces or shared [[history|histories]]. There are also networks of [[religion|religious]] nature, in particular through [[pilgrimage]].
-==Etymology and terminology==+The city itself is then regarded as the node where different networks run together. Some of these networks are more powerful than others, and networks of global finance are currently (2009) dominant. Some urban thinkers have argued that cities can only be understood if the context of the city's connections is understood.
-The word ''nation'' came to English from the [[Old French]] word ''nacion'' – meaning "birth" (''naissance''), "place of origin" -, which in turn originates from the [[Latin language|Latin]] word ''[[wikt:Special:Search/natio|natio]]'' (''nātĭō'') literally meaning "birth".+
-The word "nation" is sometimes used as synonym for:+It has been argued that city networks are a key ingredient of what defines a city, along with the number of people (density) and the particular way of life in cities.
-* [[State (polity)]] or [[sovereign state]]: a government which controls a specific territory, which may or may not be associated with any particular ethnic group+
-* [[Country]]: a geographic territory, which may or may not have an affiliation with a government or ethnic group+
- +
-Thus the phrase "nations of the world" could be referring to the top-level governments (as in the name for the [[United Nations]]), various large geographical territories, or various large ethnic groups of the planet.+
- +
-Depending on the meaning of "nation" used, the term "[[nation state]]" could be used to distinguish larger states from small [[city state]]s, or could be used to distinguish [[multinational state]]s from those with a single ethnic group.+
- +
-==Medieval nations==+
-In her book ''Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe 900–1300'', [[Susan Reynolds]] argues that many European medieval kingdoms were nations in the modern sense except that political participation in nationalism was available only to a limited prosperous and literate class. In his book ''The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism'', [[Adrian Hastings]] argues that England's Anglo Saxon kings mobilized mass nationalism in their struggle to repel Norse invasions. Hastings argues that [[Alfred the Great]], in particular, drew on [[biblical nationalism]], using biblical language in his law code and that during his reign selected books of the Bible were translated into [[Old English]] to inspire Englishmen to fight to turn back the Norse invaders. Hastings argues for a strong renewal of English nationalism (following a hiatus after the [[Norman conquest]]) beginning with the [[Wycliffe's Bible|translation of the complete bible into English by the Wycliffe circle in the 1380s]], arguing that [[English nationalism]] and the English nation have been continuous since that time.+
- +
-Another prudent example of Medieval nationalism is the [[Declaration of Arbroath]], a document produced by Scottish nobles and clergy during the [[Scottish Wars of Independence]]. The purpose of the document was to demonstrate to the Pope that Scotland was indeed a nation of its own, with its own unique culture, history and language and that it was indeed an older nation than England. The document went on to justify the actions of [[Robert the Bruce]] and his forces in resisting the occupation and to chastise the English for having violated Scottish sovereignty without justification. The propaganda campaign supplemented a military campaign on the part of the Bruce, which after the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] was successful and eventually resulted in the end of England's occupation and recognition of Scottish independence on the part of the English crown. The document is widely seen as an early example of both [[Scottish nationalism]] and [[popular sovereignty]].+
- +
-[[Anthony Kaldellis]] affirms in ''Hellenism in Byzantium'' (2008) that what is called the [[Byzantine Empire]] was the Roman Empire transformed into a [[nation-state]] in Middle Ages.+
- +
-Azar Gat is among the scholars who argue that [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]] were nations by the time of the European Middle Ages.+
- +
-===Use of term ''nationes'' by medieval universities and other medieval institutions===+
-A significant early use of the term ''nation'', as ''natio'', occurred at [[Medieval university|Medieval universities]] to describe the colleagues in a college or students, above all at the [[University of Paris]], who were all born within a ''pays'', spoke the same language and expected to be ruled by their own familiar law. In 1383 and 1384, while studying theology at Paris, [[Jean Gerson]] was elected twice as a procurator for the French ''natio''. The [[Charles University in Prague|University of Prague]] adopted the division of students into ''nationes'': from its opening in 1349 the ''[[studium generale]]'' which consisted of Bohemian, Bavarian, Saxon and Silesian ''nations''.+
- +
-In a similar way, the ''nationes'' were segregated by the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem]], who maintained at [[Rhodes]] the hostels from which they took their name "where foreigners eat and have their places of meeting, each nation apart from the others, and a Knight has charge of each one of these hostels, and provides for the necessities of the inmates according to their religion", as the Spanish traveller [[Pedro Tafur]] noted in 1436.+
- +
-==Early modern nations==+
- +
-In his article, "The Mosaic Moment: An Early Modernist Critique of the Modernist Theory of Nationalism", [[Philip S. Gorski]] argues that the first modern nation was the [[Dutch Republic]], created by a fully modern political nationalism rooted in the model of [[biblical nationalism]]. In a 2013 article "Biblical nationalism and the sixteenth-century states", [[Diana Muir|Diana Muir Appelbaum]] expands Gorski's argument to apply to a series of new, Protestant, sixteenth-century nation states. A similar, albeit broader, argument was made by [[Anthony D. Smith]] in his books, ''Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity'' and ''Myths and Memories of the Nation''.+
- +
-In her book ''Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity'', [[Liah Greenfeld]] argued that nationalism was invented in England by 1600. According to Greenfeld, England was “the first nation in the world".+
- +
-==Social science==+
-In the late 20th century, many social scientists argued that there were two types of nations, the [[civic nation]] of which France was the principal example and the [[ethnic nationalism|ethnic nation]] exemplified by the German peoples. The German tradition was conceptualized as originating with early 19th-century philosophers, like [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], and referred to people sharing a common language, religion, culture, history, and [[ethnic origins]], that differentiate them from people of other nations. On the other hand, the civic nation was traced to the [[French Revolution]] and ideas deriving from 18th-century French philosophers. It was understood as being centered in a willingness to "live together", this producing a nation that results from an act of affirmation. This is the vision, among others, of [[Ernest Renan]].+
- +
-Present day analysis tend to be based in socio-historical studies about the building of [[national identity]] sentiments, trying to identify the individual and collective mechanisms, either conscient or non-conscient, intended or un-intended. According to some of these studies, it seems that the [[State (polity)|State]] often plays a significant role, and communications, particularly of economic content, also have a high significance.+
- +
-==Black nationalism==+
-The 18th century brought an alteration to the meaning of the term "nation", which became more narrowly referred to as a group with a recognizable and sovereign government with physical borders. This new definition aligns more with the concept of a nation-state. The nation began to emerge in the late 18th century as the leading form of government and social organization. In the Americas, the catalyst that brought about this change in meaning was the influence of the African diaspora and its people in other states. National identity brought rights to vote, to hold office, and independence for a growing number of black territories held under colonial rule.+
- +
-This change occurred in the New World as Africans were brought as enslaved peoples. The white population of the New World considered these aliens to be in one category of nation that was based entirely on color and continent of origin. The identity of the enslaved at the time was then shaped by their skin color rather than what nation or tribe they truly originated from. Prior to the 18th and 19th centuries, the term mainly referred to a group of people unified by language, region and cultural background; what is now considered to be one's ethnicity. It was through the process of emancipation and the end of the slave trade that the concept of nation began to change. As the previously enslaved began to fight for rights they had to discover what kind of rights they were searching for. It was in this process of emancipation that nationality began to take on a different meaning. Language and cultural background were no longer the only requirements of nation. Instead, now the idea of an established government and physical boundaries also shaped what it meant to be a nation.+
- +
-However, within the diaspora, particularly among groups that have been politicized, the term ''nation'' has been used to describe a more abstract national experience, one that transcends physical borders and language differences. This description of nation is pinned to the shared experience of being radicalized and termed as Black. The expansion of [[Black nationalism]] demonstrates that although some expanded the view that nation requires definable boundaries, those who shared the experience of the diaspora also found a nationality among themselves.+
- +
-==Debate about a potential evolution or end of nations==+
-There is an ongoing debate about the future of nations − about whether this framework will persist as is and whether there are viable or developing alternatives.+
- +
-[[Postnationalism]] is the process or trend by which nation states and national identities lose their importance relative to supranational and global entities. Several factors contribute to its aspects including [[economic globalization]], a rise in importance of [[multinational corporation]]s, the internationalization of financial markets, the transfer of [[socio-political power]] from national authorities to supernational entities, such as multinational corporations, the [[United Nations]] and the [[European Union]] and the advent of new information and culture technologies such as the [[Internet]]. However attachment to citizenship and [[national identities]] often remains important.+
- +
-Transnational communities are social groups that emerge from mutual interaction and shared culture across national boundaries, oriented around a common project − such as the solving of a [[global issue]] − or 'imagined' identity.+
- +
-Humans like being around people like themselves. Other types of [[Local community|local communities]] − such as cities − might gain identity, influence and relevance as well as see increased sociocultural identification.+
- +
-Jan Zielonka of the University of Oxford states that "the future structure and exercise of political power will resemble the medieval model more than the Westphalian one" with the latter being about "concentration of power, sovereignty and clear-cut identity" and [[neo-medievalism]] meaining "overlapping authorities, divided sovereignty, multiple identities and governing institutions, and fuzzy borders".+
- +
-In the view of [[Ian Goldin]], head of the Oxford Martin School, which analyses global problems, such networks must emerge. He quotes Slaughter, saying "Networked problems require a networked response" and states that existing institutions such as the World Bank and UN agencies are structurally unable to deal with problems emerging from global interconnectivity, such as [[Global financial crisis|economic instability]], [[pandemics]], [[climate change]] and [[cybersecurity]].+
- +
-For a society to survive, its [[collective behaviour]] must be as complex as the challenges it faces and national agendas seem to repeatedly trump the global good in such vital matters.+
- +
-As both city or regional administrations and cooperation on the international level often prove to be more effective in solving critical issues than traditional models and as identities of transnational or nation-separate cultures develop the framework of nations might change, be extended or even be somewhat abolished.+
-== See also ==+
-*[[Volksgeist]] +
-*[[Nationalism]] +
-*[[Ethnic stereotypes]]+
-*[[National stereotype]]s +
-*[[National trauma]] +
- +
-==See also==+
-* [[Citizenship]]+
-* [[City network]]+
-* [[Country]]+
-* [[Government]]+
-* [[Identity (social science)]]+
-* ''[[Imagined Communities]]''+
-* [[Invented tradition]]+
-* [[Lists of people by nationality]]+
-* [[Meta-ethnicity]]+
-* [[Multinational state]]+
-* [[National emblem]]+
-* [[National god]]+
-* [[National memory]]+
-* [[Nationalism]]+
-* [[Nationality]]+
-* [[Polity]]+
-* [[Qaum]]+
-* [[Race (human categorization)]]+
-* [[Separatism]]+
-* [[Society]]+
-* [[Sovereign state]]+
-* [[Stateless nation]]+
-* [[Tribe]]+
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City networks are the connections between cities. These networks can be of different nature and of different importance. In modern conceptions of cities, these networks play an important role in understanding the nature of cities. City networks can be physical connections to other places, such as railways, canals or scheduled flights. City networks also exist in immaterial form, such as trade, global finance, markets, migration, cultural links, shared social spaces or shared histories. There are also networks of religious nature, in particular through pilgrimage.

The city itself is then regarded as the node where different networks run together. Some of these networks are more powerful than others, and networks of global finance are currently (2009) dominant. Some urban thinkers have argued that cities can only be understood if the context of the city's connections is understood.

It has been argued that city networks are a key ingredient of what defines a city, along with the number of people (density) and the particular way of life in cities.


Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "City network" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.

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