Culture of Europe
From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
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| - | [[Image:Nicolas Ledoux.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Théatre de Besançon]], interior view by [[Claude Nicolas Ledoux]] ]] | + | [[Image:Tommaso.Laureti.Triumph.of.Christianity.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''[[Triumph of Christianity]]'' by [[Tommaso Laureti]] (1530-1602), ceiling painting in the [[Sala di Constantino]], [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican Palace]]. Images like this one celebrate the destruction of ancient [[Paganism|pagan]] culture and the victory of [[Christianity]].]] |
| + | [[Image:Nicolas Ledoux.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Théatre de Besançon]], interior view by [[Claude Nicolas Ledoux]] ]] | ||
| + | [[Image:Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat, 1895.jpg|thumb|right|200px| | ||
| + | This page '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' is part of the [[world culture]] series. | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | Illustration: screen shot from ''[[L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat]]'']] | ||
| {{Template}} | {{Template}} | ||
| - | :''[[Europe]], [[culture]], [[world culture]]'' | ||
| - | The '''[[culture]] of [[Europe]]''' might better be described as a series of [[overlapping]] cultures. Whether it is a question of West as opposed to East; Catholicism and Protestantism as opposed to Eastern Orthodoxy; Christianity as opposed to Islam; many have claimed to identify cultural fault lines across the continent. There are many cultural [[innovation]]s and movements, often at odds with each other, such as Christian proselytism or [[Humanism]]. Thus the question of "common culture" or "common values" is far more complex than it seems. | ||
| - | ==Music== | ||
| - | :''[[European music]]'' | ||
| - | Europe was the birthplace of classical music- notably, Germany, France, Italy, and Russia. Important classical composers from Europe include Beethoven, Mozart, Bach, Haydn, and Vivaldi. | ||
| - | Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from America, ranging from pop, rap, hip'hop, r'n'b, dance, jazz, soul etc. Britain has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music from the [[Beatles]] to [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]]; however, countries like Spain and Germany have not been far behind with artists such as [[Julio iglesias|Julio Iglesias]] and [[Kraftwerk]]. | + | The '''culture of [[Europe]]''' might better be described as a series of multiple cultures, often competing; geographical regions opposing one another, [[Orthodoxy]] as opposed to [[Catholicism]] as opposed to [[Protestantism]] as opposed to [[Judaism]] as opposed to [[Secularism]] as opposed to [[Islam]]; many have claimed to identify cultural [[fault line]]s across the continent. There are many cultural [[innovation]]s and movements, often at odds with each other, such as Christian proselytism or [[Humanism]]. Thus the question of "common culture" or "common values" is far more complex than it seems to be. |
| - | The [[Eurovision Song Contest]] brings European states together every May, in which each country submits a song and an eventual winner is chosen at the end, through voting. | + | Upon the [[pagan]] cultures of [[aboriginal Europe]], the foundations of modern European cultures were laid by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], strengthened by the [[Culture of ancient Rome|Romans]], stabilized by [[Christianity]], added to by the rest of Europe, reformed and modernized by the fifteenth-century [[Renaissance]] and [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], and globalized by successive European empires between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries. Thus the European Culture developed into a very complex phenomenon of wider range of philosophy, Judeo-Christian and secular [[humanism]], rational ways of life and logical thinking developed through a long age of change and formation with the experiments of [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]], [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], [[romanticism]], [[science]], [[democracy]], [[fascism]], [[communism]], and [[socialism]]. Because of its global connection, the European culture grew with an all-inclusive urge to adopt, adapt and ultimately influence other trends of culture. As a matter of fact, therefore, from the middle of the nineteenth century with the expansion of European education and the spread of Christianity, European culture and way of life, to a great extent, turned into "global culture," if anything has to be so named. |
| + | ==Common cultural heritage== | ||
| + | :''[[Pan-European identity]]'' | ||
| + | European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its "common cultural heritage". Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes: | ||
| - | ==Philosophy== | + | *A common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from [[Greco-Roman]] antiquity, [[Christianity]], the [[Renaissance]] and its [[Humanism]], the political thinking of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and the [[French Revolution]], and the developments of [[Modernity]], including all types of [[socialism]]; |
| - | :''[[European philosophy]]'' | + | |
| - | European [[philosophy]] is a predominant strand of philosophy globally, and is central to philosophical enquiry in [[Americas|America]] and most other parts of the world which have fallen under its influence. [[Christian]] thought is a huge influence on many fields of European philosophy (as European philosophy has been on Christian thought too), sometimes as a reaction; the Greek schools of philosophy in [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]] provide the basis of philosophical discourse that extends to today. | + | *A rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of [[industrialization]] and [[colonialism]] during the "[[Great Divergence]]"; |
| + | |||
| + | *A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees [[human rights]] and the [[Political freedom|liberty of the individual]]; | ||
| + | |||
| + | *A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another; | ||
| + | |||
| + | *Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe. | ||
| - | Perhaps the most important single philosophical periods since the classical era were the [[Renaissance]], the [[Age of Reason]] and the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. There are many disputes as to its value and even its timescale. What is indisputable is that the tenets of ''[[reason]]'' and rational discourse owe much to [[René Descartes]], [[John Locke]] and others working at the time. | + | Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realisations". |
| - | ==two== | + | |
| - | The '''culture of [[Europe]]''' might better be described as a series of overlapping cultures. Whether it is a question of North as opposed to South; West as opposed to East; [[Christianity]] as opposed to [[Islam]]; [[Protestantism]] as opposed to [[Catholicism]]; many have claimed to identify cultural fault lines across the continent. There are many cultural [[innovation]]s and movements, often at odds with each other, such as Christian proselytism or [[Humanism]]. Thus the question of "common culture" or "common values" is far more complex than it seems to be. | + | |
| - | The foundation of European culture was laid by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], strengthened by the [[Culture of ancient Rome|Romans]], stabilized by [[Christianity]], reformed and modernized by the fifteenth-century [[Renaissance]] and [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] and globalized by successive European empires between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries, including predominantly [[Muslim]] [[Ottoman Turks]]. Thus the European Culture developed into a very complex phenomenon of wider range of philosophy, Islamic mysticism, Christian and secular [[humanism]], rational way of life and logical thinking developed through a long age of change and formation with the experiments of [[enlightenment]], [[naturalism]], [[romanticism]], [[science]], [[democracy]], and [[socialism]]. Because of its global connection, the European culture grew with an all-inclusive urge to adopt, adapt and ultimately influence other trends of culture. As a matter of fact, therefore, from the middle of the nineteenth century with the expansion of European education and the spread of Christianity, European culture and way of life, to a great extent, turned to be "global culture," if anything has to be so named (Vide. Sailen Debnath, "Secularism: Western and Indian," Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi). | + | The concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the [[Western world]]. In this definition, Western culture is the set of [[Western literature|literary]], [[Science|scientific]], [[Modernity#Political_thought|political]], [[European art|art]]istic and [[European philosophy|philosophical]] principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the [[Western canon]]. The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as [[the Americas]], and [[Australasia]], and is not restricted to Europe. |
| ==Art== | ==Art== | ||
| :''[[European art]]'' | :''[[European art]]'' | ||
| - | |||
| *'''[[Painting]]''' | *'''[[Painting]]''' | ||
| - | The oldest known paintings are at the Grotte Chauvet in France, claimed by some historians{{Who|date=April 2010}} to be about 32,000 years old. The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from antiquity. Until the mid 19th century it was primarily concerned with representational and Classical modes of production, after which time more modern, abstract and conceptual forms gained favor. Developments in Western painting historically parallel those in Eastern painting, in general a few centuries later. [[Africa]]n art, [[Islam]]ic art, [[India]]n art, [[China|Chinese]] art, and [[Japan]]ese art each had significant influence on Western art, and, eventually, vice-versa. | + | The oldest known paintings are at the [[Grotte Chauvet]] in France, claimed by some historians to be about 32,000 years old. The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from antiquity. Until the mid 19th century it was primarily concerned with representational and Classical modes of production, after which time more modern, abstract and conceptual forms gained favor. Developments in Western painting historically parallel those in Eastern painting, in general a few centuries later. [[Africa]]n art, [[Islam]]ic art, [[India]]n art, [[China|Chinese]] art, and [[Japan]]ese art each had significant influence on Western art, and, eventually, vice-versa. |
| *'''[[Sculpture]]''' | *'''[[Sculpture]]''' | ||
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| *'''[[Music]]''' | *'''[[Music]]''' | ||
| - | **'''[[Classical Music]]''' : Europe was the birthplace of classical music- notably, Austria, Germany, France, Hungary, Italy, and Russia. Important classical composers from Europe include [[J.S. Bach]], [[Handel]], [[Vivaldi]], [[Haydn]], [[Mozart]], [[Beethoven]], [[Schubert]], [[Schumann]], [[Liszt]], [[Chopin]], [[Wagner]], [[Rimsky-Korsakov]], [[Bruckner]], [[Tchaikovsky]], [[Verdi]], [[Mahler]], [[Richard Strauss]], [[Schoenberg]], [[Bartok]], [[Sibelius]], [[Prokofiev]], [[Puccini]], [[Debussy]], [[Rossini]], [[Ravel]], [[Stravinsky]] and [[Shostakovich]]. [[Luciano Pavarotti]] was a contemporary popular [[opera]] singer. Orchestras such as the [[Berliner Philharmoniker]], the [[Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra]], the Amsterdam [[Concertgebouw Orchestra]] and the [[London Symphony Orchestra]] are considered to be amongst the finest ensembles in the world. The [[Salzburg Festival]], the [[Bayreuth Festival]], the [[Edinburgh International Festival]] and the [[BBC Proms]] are major European classical music festivals. | + | :''[[European music]]'' |
| - | **'''[[Folk Music]]''' : Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, travelling or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, aural tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk has influenced some popular music in Europe. | + | |
| - | **'''[[Popular Music]]''' : Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from America, ranging from Blues, Jazz, Soul, Pop, Rap, Hip-Hop, R'n'B, Dance, etc. UK has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music and creating many of its own genres with [[The Beatles]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Elton John]], [[Pink Floyd]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[David Bowie]], [[Deep Purple]], [[Sex Pistols]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[The Clash]], [[Van Morrison]], [[Dire Straits]], [[Fleetwood Mac]], [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]], [[George Michael]], [[Pet Shop Boys]], [[Phil Collins]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[The Who]], [[Eurythmics]], [[Dusty Springfield]], [[The Cure]], [[Black Sabbath]], [[Def Leppard]], [[Duran Duran]], [[Iron Maiden]], [[Radiohead]], [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]], [[Coldplay]], [[The Police]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Bee Gees]], [[Spice Girls]], [[UB40]], [[Amy Winehouse]], [[Jay Sean]], [[Leona Lewis]]... Other European popular musicians are [[U2]] (Ireland), [[ABBA]] (Sweden), [[a-ha]] (Norway), [[Andrea Bocelli]] (Italy), [[Julio Iglesias]] (Spain), [[Nana Mouskouri]] (Greece/France), [[Boney M.]] (Germany), [[Charles Aznavour]] (France), [[Johnny Hallyday]] (France), [[Modern Talking]] (Germany), [[Scorpions]] (Germany), [[Rammstein]] (Germany) [[Ace of Base]] (Sweden), [[Enya]] (Ireland), [[James Last]] (Germany), [[Doda (singer)|Doda]] (Poland), [[Jean Michel Jarre]] (France), [[Roxette]] (Sweden)... The [[Eurovision Song Contest]]. Main festivals : Glastonbury (UK), [[Wacken]] (Germany), Benicassim (Spain), Roskilde (Denmark). | + | Europe was the birthplace of classical music- notably, Germany, France, Italy, and Russia. Important classical composers from Europe include Beethoven, Mozart, Bach, Haydn, and Vivaldi. |
| + | |||
| + | Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from America, ranging from pop, rap, hip'hop, r'n'b, dance, jazz, soul etc. Britain has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music from the [[Beatles]] to [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]]; however, countries like Spain and Germany have not been far behind with artists such as [[Julio Iglesias]] and [[Kraftwerk]]. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The [[Eurovision Song Contest]] brings European states together every May, in which each country submits a song and an eventual winner is chosen at the end, through voting. | ||
| + | |||
| + | **'''[[European classical music]]''' : Europe was the birthplace of classical music- notably, Austria, Germany, France, Hungary, Italy, and Russia. Important classical composers from Europe include [[J.S. Bach]], [[Handel]], [[Vivaldi]], [[Haydn]], [[Mozart]], [[Beethoven]], [[Schubert]], [[Schumann]], [[Liszt]], [[Chopin]], [[Wagner]], [[Rimsky-Korsakov]], [[Bruckner]], [[Tchaikovsky]], [[Verdi]], [[Mahler]], [[Richard Strauss]], [[Schoenberg]], [[Bartok]], [[Sibelius]], [[Prokofiev]], [[Puccini]], [[Debussy]], [[Rossini]], [[Ravel]], [[Stravinsky]] and [[Shostakovich]]. [[Luciano Pavarotti]] was a contemporary popular [[opera]] singer. | ||
| + | |||
| + | **'''[[European folk music]]''' : Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, travelling or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, aural tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk has influenced some popular music in Europe. | ||
| + | **'''[[European popular music]]''' : Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from America, ranging from Blues, Jazz, Soul, Pop, Rap, Hip-Hop, R'n'B, Dance, etc. UK has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music and creating many of its own genres with [[The Beatles]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Elton John]], [[Pink Floyd]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[David Bowie]], [[Deep Purple]], [[Sex Pistols]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[The Clash]], [[Van Morrison]], [[Dire Straits]], [[Fleetwood Mac]], [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]], [[George Michael]], [[Pet Shop Boys]], [[Phil Collins]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[The Who]], [[Eurythmics]], [[Dusty Springfield]], [[The Cure]], [[Black Sabbath]], [[Def Leppard]], [[Duran Duran]], [[Iron Maiden]], [[Radiohead]], [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]], [[Coldplay]], [[The Police]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Bee Gees]], [[Spice Girls]], [[UB40]], [[Amy Winehouse]], [[Jay Sean]], [[Leona Lewis]]... Other European popular musicians are [[U2]] (Ireland), [[ABBA]] (Sweden), [[a-ha]] (Norway), [[Andrea Bocelli]] (Italy), [[Julio Iglesias]] (Spain), [[Nana Mouskouri]] (Greece/France), [[Boney M.]] (Germany), [[Charles Aznavour]] (France), [[Johnny Hallyday]] (France), [[Modern Talking]] (Germany), [[Scorpions]] (Germany), [[Rammstein]] (Germany) [[Ace of Base]] (Sweden), [[Enya]] (Ireland), [[James Last]] (Germany), [[Doda (singer)|Doda]] (Poland), [[Jean Michel Jarre]] (France), [[Roxette]] (Sweden)... The [[Eurovision Song Contest]]. Main festivals : Glastonbury (UK), [[Wacken]] (Germany), Benicassim (Spain), Roskilde (Denmark). | ||
| [[EMI]] is the largest European music company. | [[EMI]] is the largest European music company. | ||
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| ==Science== | ==Science== | ||
| - | *'''[[CERN]]''' (pronounced /ˈsɜrn/ (French pronunciation: [sɛʀn]) : The European Organization for Nuclear Research, is the birthplace of the [[World Wide Web]] and home of the world's largest machine : the [[Large Hadron Collider]]. It is the world's largest particle physics laboratory, situated in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, established in 1954. | ||
| - | *'''[[ESA]]''' : The European Space Agency's space flight program includes human spaceflight, mainly through the participation in the International Space Station program, the launch and operations of unmanned exploration missions to other planets and the Moon, Earth observations, science, telecommunication as well as maintaining a major spaceport, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou, French Guiana and designing launch vehicles. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching and further developing this launch vehicle. | ||
| Europe has produced some of the greatest scientists, inventors and intellectuals in history. Germany; [[Albert Einstein]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Johannes Gutenberg]], [[Gottfried Leibniz]], [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]], [[Max Planck]], [[Karl Benz]]. England; [[Isaac Newton]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[James Joule]], [[Edward Jenner]], [[John Dalton]], [[George Stephenson]], [[Florence Nightingale]], [[George Cayley]], [[Frank Whittle]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Tim Berners Lee]]. Scotland; [[James Watt]], [[Alexander Fleming]], [[Alexander Graham Bell]], [[John Logie Baird]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Adam Smith]]. Italy; [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Guglielmo Marconi]], [[Enrico Fermi]]. France; [[Louis Pasteur]], [[Antoine Lavoisier]], [[Henri Becquerel]], [[René Descartes]]. Poland; [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], [[Marie Curie]]. Ireland; [[Lord Kelvin]]. Sweden; [[Alfred Nobel]], [[Anders Celsius]]. Denmark; [[Niels Bohr]]. Serbia; [[Nikola Tesla]]. Switzerland; [[Carl Jung]]. Hungary; [[Leo Szilard]]. Russia; [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]. Austria: [[Sigmund Frued]]. | Europe has produced some of the greatest scientists, inventors and intellectuals in history. Germany; [[Albert Einstein]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Johannes Gutenberg]], [[Gottfried Leibniz]], [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]], [[Max Planck]], [[Karl Benz]]. England; [[Isaac Newton]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[James Joule]], [[Edward Jenner]], [[John Dalton]], [[George Stephenson]], [[Florence Nightingale]], [[George Cayley]], [[Frank Whittle]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Tim Berners Lee]]. Scotland; [[James Watt]], [[Alexander Fleming]], [[Alexander Graham Bell]], [[John Logie Baird]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Adam Smith]]. Italy; [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Guglielmo Marconi]], [[Enrico Fermi]]. France; [[Louis Pasteur]], [[Antoine Lavoisier]], [[Henri Becquerel]], [[René Descartes]]. Poland; [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], [[Marie Curie]]. Ireland; [[Lord Kelvin]]. Sweden; [[Alfred Nobel]], [[Anders Celsius]]. Denmark; [[Niels Bohr]]. Serbia; [[Nikola Tesla]]. Switzerland; [[Carl Jung]]. Hungary; [[Leo Szilard]]. Russia; [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]. Austria: [[Sigmund Frued]]. | ||
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| Christianity has been the dominant feature in shaping up European culture for at least the last 1700 years. Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus. | Christianity has been the dominant feature in shaping up European culture for at least the last 1700 years. Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus. | ||
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| - | Millions of Europeans profess no religion or are [[atheist]] or [[agnostic]]. The largest non-confessional populations (as a percentage) are found in [[Sweden]], the [[Czech Republic]] and [[France]] although most former [[communist]] countries have significant non-confessional populations. Attendance at church is a minority activity in most Western European countries - as an example, the Church of England attracts around 1 million worshippers on a Sunday,<ref>[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/news/pr0306.html Anglican.org]</ref> which corresponds to about 2% of the population of [[England]]. | ||
| - | |||
| - | The most popular religions of Europe are the following: | ||
| - | *'''[[Christianity]]''' | ||
| - | **'''[[Roman Catholicism]]''': Countries or areas with significant Catholic populations are [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Belgium]], southern [[Netherlands]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Scotland]], [[Northern Ireland]], southern [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Malta]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], the Croatian parts of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Slovakia]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Poland]], western and central [[Belarus]], western [[Ukraine]], The Hungarian parts of [[Romania]], parts of [[Russia]], [[Latgale]] region of [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]]. There are also large Catholic minorities in [[England]] and [[Wales]]. | ||
| - | **'''[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]]''': The countries with significant Orthodox populations are [[Albania]], [[Armenia]], [[Belarus]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]] ([[Karelia]]), [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Greece]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Moldova]], [[Montenegro]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia]], [[Ukraine]]. | ||
| - | **'''[[Protestantism]]''': Countries with significant Protestant populations include [[Norway]], [[Iceland]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Switzerland]]. There are significant minorities in [[France]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], and indeed small minorities in most European Countries. | ||
| - | *'''[[Islam]]''': Countries with significant Muslim population are [[Albania]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Montenegro]], [[Serbia]], [[Kosovo]], several republics of [[Russia]], [[Crimea]] in [[Ukraine]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkey]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. Also, {{As of|2005|lc=on}}, about 5% of the EU identify themselves as Muslims, with many Muslim immigrants in [[Germany]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Sweden]] and [[France]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} | ||
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| - | Other minor religions exist in Europe, some brought by migrants, including: | ||
| - | *'''[[Judaism]]''', mainly in [[France]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[Russia]]. | ||
| - | *'''[[Hinduism]]''', mainly among [[India]]n immigrants in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. | ||
| - | *'''[[Buddhism]]''', thinly spread throughout Europe, yet it is in [[Kalmykia]], [[Russia]] | ||
| - | *Indigenous European '''[[Polytheistic reconstructionism|pagan]]''' traditions and beliefs, many countries. | ||
| - | *'''[[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]]''', communities in the UK, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and elsewhere. | ||
| - | *'''[[Sikhism]]''' and '''[[Jainism]]''', both mainly among Indian immigrants in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. | ||
| - | *'''[[West African Vodun]]''' and '''[[Haitian Vodou]]''' (Voodoo), mainly among [[West Africa]]n and [[Black people|black]] [[Caribbean]] immigrants in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[France]]. | ||
| - | *'''[[African religions|Traditional African Religions]]''' (including [[Muti]]), mainly in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[France]]. | ||
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| - | === Official religions === | ||
| - | A number of countries in Europe have [[State religion|official religion]]s, including [[Liechtenstein]], [[Malta]], [[Monaco]], [[Vatican City]] (Catholic); and [[Greece]] (Eastern Orthodox), [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]] and [[Norway]] (Lutheran). In [[Switzerland]], some [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]] are officially Catholic, others Reformed Protestant. Some Swiss villages even have their religion as well as the village name written on the signs at their entrances. In [[Bulgaria]], an article in the constitution defines Eastern Orthodox Christianity as the country's "traditional religion". | ||
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| - | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] has no established church, but the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] enjoys "''de facto''" privileged status. In [[Finland]], both [[Finnish Orthodox Church]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland|Lutheran church]] are official. [[Russia]] recognises Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam, Buddhism and Judaism as all "traditional" {{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} (with three states, [[Kalmykia]], [[Buryatia]] and [[Tuva]], officially Buddhist {{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}). [[England]], a country in the [[UK]], has [[Anglicanism]] as its official religion. | ||
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| ==Cuisine== | ==Cuisine== | ||
| :''[[European cuisine]]'' | :''[[European cuisine]]'' | ||
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| ==Sport== | ==Sport== | ||
| :''[[Sport in Europe]]'' | :''[[Sport in Europe]]'' | ||
| - | Europe's influence on sport is enormous. Indeed, it is difficult to think of a modern sport, apart from [[basketball]] and related sports, that does not have its origins in Europe. European sports include: | ||
| - | * [[Association football]], which has contested origins between [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Italy]] (where [[Mussolini]] insisted the game be called by the name [[Calcio]]). What is uncontestable is that the oldest association is [[The Football Association]] of England (1863) and the first international match was between [[Scotland]] and [[England]] (1872). It is now the world's most popular sport and is played throughout Europe. | ||
| - | * [[Cricket]] has its origins in south east Britain. It's popular throughout England and Wales, and parts of Netherlands. It is also popular in other areas and also played in [[northwest Europe]]. It is however very popular worldwide, especially in [[Africa]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[Indian subcontinent]]. | ||
| - | * [[Cycling]], which is immensely popular as a means of [[transport]] has most of its sporting adherents in Europe, particularly [[Western Europe]]. The [[Tour de France]] is the world's most watched live annual sporting event. The [[bicycle]] itself is probably from France (see [[History of the bicycle]]). | ||
| - | * The [[discus throw]], [[javelin throw]] and [[shot put]] have their origins in [[ancient Greece]]. The [[Olympic Games|Olympics]], both ancient and modern, have their origins too in Europe, and have a massive influence globally. | ||
| - | * [[Field Hockey]] as a modern game began in 18th Century Britain with [[Ireland]] having the oldest federation. It is popular in [[Western Europe]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Australia]] and [[East Asia]]. [[Ice hockey]], popular in Europe and [[North America]] may derive from this sport. | ||
| - | * [[Golf]], one of the most popular sports in Europe, [[Asia]] and North America, has its origins in Scotland, with the oldest course being at [[Musselburgh]]. | ||
| - | * [[Team handball|Handball]], which is popular in [[Europe]] and elsewhere, has its origins in [[ancient history|antiquity]]. The modern game is from [[northern Europe]] with Germany having been involved in both the first women's and men's internationals. | ||
| - | * [[Rugby League]] and [[Rugby Union]] which both have similar origins to football. Rugby Union is the older of the two codes and has rules that date from 1845 (see articles: [[History of rugby league]] and [[History of rugby union]]). They [[History_of_rugby_league#The_schism_in_England|acrimoniously split]] in the late 19th century over the treatment of injured players. Rugby league gradually changed its laws over the next century with the end result that today both sports have little in common, apart from the basics. They have both been carried abroad by colonization, particularly to many former British colonies. [[American football]] and [[Canadian Football]] are derivatives of rugby. | ||
| - | * [[Tennis]] which originates from [[United Kingdom]] and related games such as [[Table Tennis]] derive from the game [[Real Tennis]] which is from [[France]]. It is popular throughout the world. | ||
| - | In addition, Europe has numerous national or regional sports which do not command a large international following outside of emigrant groups. These include: | + | See [[Olympic games]] |
| - | *[[Alpine Wrestling]] in [[Switzerland]]. | + | |
| - | *[[Bandy]] in [[Russia]], [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]] | + | |
| - | *[[Basque Pelota]] in parts of [[Spain]] and [[France]], and which has been brought to the [[Americas]] by emigrants. | + | |
| - | *[[Bullfighting]] in [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], and parts of southern France near the Spanish Border. | + | |
| - | *[[Gaelic Football]] in [[Ireland]], which influenced [[Australian rules football]]. | + | |
| - | *[[Gaelic Handball]] (Ireland) which was taken to the [[USA]] in the form of [[American Handball]]. | + | |
| - | *[[Hurling]] in Ireland. | + | |
| - | *[[Korfbal]] in [[The Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]]. | + | |
| - | *[[Pesäpallo]] ''(Boboll)'' in [[Finland]] | + | |
| - | *[[Pétanque]], [[Boules]], [[Petanca]], [[Calitx]], [[Irish Road Bowling]], [[Skittles (sport)|Skittles]], [[Bocce]], and [[Bowls]] and others are variations of bowling games which are popular throughout western Europe and have been spread around the world. | + | |
| - | *[[Rounders]] from Britain<ref>[[Alice Bertha Gomme]], Traditional Games of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Volume 2, 1898</ref><ref>[http://www.nra-rounders.co.uk/dyncat.cfm?catid=17177 NRA-rounders.co.uk] History of Rounders</ref> now popular in northwest Europe from which [[Baseball]] derives. | + | |
| - | *[[Shinty]] in [[Scotland]], [[United Kingdom]], which influenced [[ice hockey]] in [[Canada]] (''see also [[Shinny]]''). | + | |
| - | *[[Trotting]] in [[southern Europe]]. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Some sporting organisations hold European Championships. | + | |
| - | *[[European Cricket Council]] | + | |
| - | *[[European Rugby Cup]] (Club/Regional competition) | + | |
| - | *[[European SC Championships]] | + | |
| - | *[[FIRA - Association of European Rugby]] | + | |
| - | *[[IIHF]] | + | |
| - | *[[Mitropa Cup]] | + | |
| - | *[[Rugby League European Federation]] - [[Rugby League European Nations Cup|European Nations Cup]] | + | |
| - | *[[Sport in the European Union]] | + | |
| - | *[[UEFA]] | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Some sport competitions feature a [[Team Europe|European team]] gathering athletes from different European countries. These teams uses the European flag as an emblem. The most famous of these competitions is the [[Ryder Cup]] in golf. | + | |
| ==European Capital of Culture== | ==European Capital of Culture== | ||
| Line 160: | Line 112: | ||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| + | :''[[Europe]], [[culture]], [[Western culture]], [[European tourism]]'' | ||
| *[[Europalia]] | *[[Europalia]] | ||
| *[[Europeanisation]] | *[[Europeanisation]] | ||
| *[[Romano-Germanic culture]] | *[[Romano-Germanic culture]] | ||
| *[[Westernization]] | *[[Westernization]] | ||
| - | |||
| - | |||
| - | == See also == | ||
| - | |||
| *[[European art]] | *[[European art]] | ||
| *[[European film]] | *[[European film]] | ||
| *[[European erotica]] | *[[European erotica]] | ||
| + | *[[European low culture]] | ||
| + | **[[May 68]] | ||
| *[[European counterculture]] | *[[European counterculture]] | ||
| - | **[[May 68]] | + | **[[European avant-garde]] |
| - | *[[European counterculture]] [http://www.google.com/search?hl=nl&q=%22European+counterculture%22&meta= "European counterculture"] | + | **[[European underground]] |
| - | **[[European avant-garde]] [http://www.google.com/search?hl=nl&q=%22European+avant-garde%22&meta= "European avant-garde"] | + | |
| - | **[[European underground]] [http://www.google.com/search?hl=nl&q=%22European+underground%22&meta= "European underground"] | + | |
| *[[European Capital of Culture]] | *[[European Capital of Culture]] | ||
| *[[European cuisine]] | *[[European cuisine]] | ||
Revision as of 12:23, 27 July 2017
Illustration: screen shot from L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat
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The culture of Europe might better be described as a series of multiple cultures, often competing; geographical regions opposing one another, Orthodoxy as opposed to Catholicism as opposed to Protestantism as opposed to Judaism as opposed to Secularism as opposed to Islam; many have claimed to identify cultural fault lines across the continent. There are many cultural innovations and movements, often at odds with each other, such as Christian proselytism or Humanism. Thus the question of "common culture" or "common values" is far more complex than it seems to be.
Upon the pagan cultures of aboriginal Europe, the foundations of modern European cultures were laid by the Greeks, strengthened by the Romans, stabilized by Christianity, added to by the rest of Europe, reformed and modernized by the fifteenth-century Renaissance and Reformation, and globalized by successive European empires between the sixteenth and twentieth centuries. Thus the European Culture developed into a very complex phenomenon of wider range of philosophy, Judeo-Christian and secular humanism, rational ways of life and logical thinking developed through a long age of change and formation with the experiments of enlightenment, naturalism, romanticism, science, democracy, fascism, communism, and socialism. Because of its global connection, the European culture grew with an all-inclusive urge to adopt, adapt and ultimately influence other trends of culture. As a matter of fact, therefore, from the middle of the nineteenth century with the expansion of European education and the spread of Christianity, European culture and way of life, to a great extent, turned into "global culture," if anything has to be so named.
Contents |
Common cultural heritage
European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its "common cultural heritage". Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes:
- A common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, the Renaissance and its Humanism, the political thinking of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution, and the developments of Modernity, including all types of socialism;
- A rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of industrialization and colonialism during the "Great Divergence";
- A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees human rights and the liberty of the individual;
- A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;
- Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.
Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realisations".
The concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.
Art
The oldest known paintings are at the Grotte Chauvet in France, claimed by some historians to be about 32,000 years old. The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from antiquity. Until the mid 19th century it was primarily concerned with representational and Classical modes of production, after which time more modern, abstract and conceptual forms gained favor. Developments in Western painting historically parallel those in Eastern painting, in general a few centuries later. African art, Islamic art, Indian art, Chinese art, and Japanese art each had significant influence on Western art, and, eventually, vice-versa.
The earliest European sculpture to date portrays a female form, and has been estimated at dating from 35,000 years ago. See Classical sculpture, Ancient Greek sculpture, Gothic art, Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque, Neoclassicism, Modernism, Postminimalism, found art, Postmodern art, Conceptual art.
Europe was the birthplace of classical music- notably, Germany, France, Italy, and Russia. Important classical composers from Europe include Beethoven, Mozart, Bach, Haydn, and Vivaldi.
Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from America, ranging from pop, rap, hip'hop, r'n'b, dance, jazz, soul etc. Britain has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music from the Beatles to Oasis; however, countries like Spain and Germany have not been far behind with artists such as Julio Iglesias and Kraftwerk.
The Eurovision Song Contest brings European states together every May, in which each country submits a song and an eventual winner is chosen at the end, through voting.
- European classical music : Europe was the birthplace of classical music- notably, Austria, Germany, France, Hungary, Italy, and Russia. Important classical composers from Europe include J.S. Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, Chopin, Wagner, Rimsky-Korsakov, Bruckner, Tchaikovsky, Verdi, Mahler, Richard Strauss, Schoenberg, Bartok, Sibelius, Prokofiev, Puccini, Debussy, Rossini, Ravel, Stravinsky and Shostakovich. Luciano Pavarotti was a contemporary popular opera singer.
- European folk music : Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, travelling or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, aural tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk has influenced some popular music in Europe.
- European popular music : Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from America, ranging from Blues, Jazz, Soul, Pop, Rap, Hip-Hop, R'n'B, Dance, etc. UK has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music and creating many of its own genres with The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Queen, Elton John, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, David Bowie, Deep Purple, Sex Pistols, Eric Clapton, The Clash, Van Morrison, Dire Straits, Fleetwood Mac, Genesis, George Michael, Pet Shop Boys, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, The Who, Eurythmics, Dusty Springfield, The Cure, Black Sabbath, Def Leppard, Duran Duran, Iron Maiden, Radiohead, Oasis, Coldplay, The Police, Robbie Williams, Bee Gees, Spice Girls, UB40, Amy Winehouse, Jay Sean, Leona Lewis... Other European popular musicians are U2 (Ireland), ABBA (Sweden), a-ha (Norway), Andrea Bocelli (Italy), Julio Iglesias (Spain), Nana Mouskouri (Greece/France), Boney M. (Germany), Charles Aznavour (France), Johnny Hallyday (France), Modern Talking (Germany), Scorpions (Germany), Rammstein (Germany) Ace of Base (Sweden), Enya (Ireland), James Last (Germany), Doda (Poland), Jean Michel Jarre (France), Roxette (Sweden)... The Eurovision Song Contest. Main festivals : Glastonbury (UK), Wacken (Germany), Benicassim (Spain), Roskilde (Denmark).
EMI is the largest European music company.
Neolithic architecture : Born in the Levant, Neolithic architecture spread to Europe. The Mediterranean neolithic cultures of Malta worshiped in megalithic temples. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs for the dead were also built. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges flint mines and cursus monuments., Architecture of ancient Greece, Roman architecture, Medieval architecture, Renaissance architecture, Baroque architecture, Beaux-Arts architecture, Expressionist architecture, Deconstructivism.
Europe is the birthplace of some of the most prominent or popular fiction writers of all time : Homer, Dante Alighieri, François Rabelais, Miguel de Cervantes, William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Geoffrey Chaucer, Voltaire, Jane Austen, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, H. G. Wells, Robert Louis Stevenson, C. S. Lewis, Franz Kafka, Agatha Christie, Henrik Ibsen, J. R. R. Tolkien, Rudyard Kipling, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Alexander Pushkin, Knut Hamsun, George Orwell, Jules Verne, Bram Stoker, James Joyce, Mary Shelley, Albert Camus, Oscar Wilde, Roald Dahl, Lewis Carroll, Virginia Woolf, Daniel Defoe, Anne Frank, John Milton, Umberto Eco, Walter Scott, Beatrix Potter, D. H. Lawrence, Hans Christian Andersen, Brothers Grimm, Joseph Conrad, Terry Pratchett, Jonathan Swift, J. M. Barrie, Alan Moore, Anton Chekhov, Patrick Süskind, J. K. Rowling, Sigrid Undset...
See Western art history, dance, drama, and circus arts.
In 1897, Georges Méliès established the first cinema studio on a rooftop property in Montreuil, near Paris. Some notable European film movements include German Expressionism, Italian neorealism, French New Wave, Polish Film School, New German Cinema, Portuguese Cinema Novo, Czechoslovak New Wave, Dogme 95, New French Extremity, and Romanian New Wave. The cinema of Europe has its own awards, the European Film Awards. Main festivals : Cannes Film Festival (France), Berlin International Film Festival (Germany). The Venice Film Festival (Italy) or Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia, is the oldest film festival in the world.
Some of the most popular games of all time come from Europe : the Grand Theft Auto (series), Tomb Raider, Cossacks: European Wars, Brain Challenge, Block Breaker Deluxe...
Science
Europe has produced some of the greatest scientists, inventors and intellectuals in history. Germany; Albert Einstein, Johannes Kepler, Johannes Gutenberg, Gottfried Leibniz, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, Max Planck, Karl Benz. England; Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Michael Faraday, James Joule, Edward Jenner, John Dalton, George Stephenson, Florence Nightingale, George Cayley, Frank Whittle, Alan Turing, Stephen Hawking, Tim Berners Lee. Scotland; James Watt, Alexander Fleming, Alexander Graham Bell, John Logie Baird, James Clerk Maxwell, Adam Smith. Italy; Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Galileo Galilei, Niccolò Machiavelli, Alessandro Volta, Guglielmo Marconi, Enrico Fermi. France; Louis Pasteur, Antoine Lavoisier, Henri Becquerel, René Descartes. Poland; Nicolaus Copernicus, Marie Curie. Ireland; Lord Kelvin. Sweden; Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius. Denmark; Niels Bohr. Serbia; Nikola Tesla. Switzerland; Carl Jung. Hungary; Leo Szilard. Russia; Dmitri Mendeleev. Austria: Sigmund Frued.
Philosophy
European philosophy is a predominant strand of philosophy globally, and is central to philosophical enquiry in America and most other parts of the world which have fallen under its influence. Christian thought is a huge influence on many fields of European philosophy (as European philosophy has been on Christian thought too), sometimes as a reaction; the Greek schools of philosophy in antiquity provide the basis of philosophical discourse that extends to today.
Perhaps one of the most important single philosophical periods since the classical era were the Renaissance, the Age of Reason and the Age of Enlightenment. There are many disputes as to its value and even its timescale. What is indisputable is that the tenets of reason and rational discourse owe much to René Descartes, John Locke and others working at the time.
Other important European philosophical strands include: Analytic philosophy, Calvinism, Christian Democracy, Communism, Conservatism, Constructionism, Deconstructionism, Empiricism, Epicureanism, Existentialism, Fascism, Humanism, Idealism, Liberalism, Logical positivism, Marxism, Materialism, Monarchism, Nationalism, Perspectivism, Platonism, Positivism, Postmodernism, Rationalism, Romanticism, Scepticism, Scholasticism, Social Democracy, Socialism, Stoicism, Structuralism, Thomism, Utilitarianism, Spenglerism
Religion
Christianity has been the dominant feature in shaping up European culture for at least the last 1700 years. Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus.
Cuisine
The cuisines of Western countries are diverse by themselves, although there are common characteristics that distinguishes Western cooking from cuisines of Asian countries and others. Compared with traditional cooking of Asian countries, for example, meat is more prominent and substantial in serving-size. Steak in particular is a common dish across the West. Similarly to some Asian cuisines, Western cuisines also put substantial emphasis on sauces as condiments, seasonings, or accompaniments (in part due to the difficulty of seasonings penetrating the often larger pieces of meat used in Western cooking). Many dairy products are utilized in the cooking process, except in nouvelle cuisine. Wheat-flour bread has long been the most common sources of starch in this cuisine, along with pasta, dumplings and pastries, although the potato has become a major starch plant in the diet of Europeans and their diaspora since the European colonization of the Americas.
Clothing
The earliest definite examples of needles originate from the Solutrean culture, which existed in France from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a cave the Republic of Georgia and date back to 36,000 BP. see Clothing in ancient Rome, 1100-1200 in fashion, 1200-1300 in fashion, 1300-1400 in fashion, 1400-1500 in fashion, 1500-1550 in fashion, 1550-1600 in fashion, 1600-1650 in fashion, 1650-1700 in fashion, Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution.
Sport
See Olympic games
European Capital of Culture
Each year since 1985 one or more cities across Europe are chosen as European Capital of Culture.
Symbols
See also
- Europalia
- Europeanisation
- Romano-Germanic culture
- Westernization
- European art
- European film
- European erotica
- European low culture
- European counterculture
- European Capital of Culture
- European cuisine
- Europeanisation
- Westernization
- Battles of macrohistorical importance involving invasions of Europe
- Europalia
- Romano-Germanic culture
