Decadence
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- | [[Image:Elagabalus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''[[Elagabalus]]''' was a [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] known for [[perverse]] and [[decadent]] behavior. Due to these associations with [[Roman decadence]], Elagabalus became something of a hero to the [[Decadent movement]] in the [[late 19th century]]. Characterizing him and other historical persons in antiquity as "[[psychopath]]s" — for example, the five "[[mad emperors]]" of [[ancient Rome]]: [[Caligula]], [[Nero]], [[Domitian]], [[Commodus]], and [[Elagabalus]] — is however a retroactive speculation premised on a decidedly modern view of [[human nature]] and individual [[psychology]]. This modern view did not start to develop until the [[Late Middle Ages]], reaching full fruition in the [[Enlightenment]] and [[Romantic movement]] of the [[eighteenth century|eighteenth]] and [[nineteenth century|nineteenth centuries]] ]] | + | [[Image:The Remorse of Nero by Waterhouse.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[The Remorse of the Emperor Nero after the Murder of his Mother]]'' (1878) by John William Waterhouse]] |
- | [[Image:The Remorse of Nero by Waterhouse.jpg|thumb|200px|''The Remorse of [[Nero]] After the [[Matricide|Murder of His Mother]]'' ([[1878]]) by [[John William Waterhouse]]]] | + | {| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5" |
- | [[Image:Degenerate art exhibition in Nazi Germany.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Nazi Germany]] disapproved of contemporary German art movements such as [[Expressionism]] and [[Dada]] and on [[July 19]], [[1937]] it opened the [[Degenerate art]] travelling [[exhibition]] in the [[Haus der Kunst]] in [[Munich]], consisting of [[modernist]] artworks chaotically hung and accompanied by text labels deriding the art, to inflame public opinion against [[modernity]].]][[Image:Western face of the Greek Parthenon.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[1872]] [[photograph]] of the western face of the [[Greek]] [[Parthenon]]]][[Image:Tepidarium Lawrence Alma-Tadema.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''In the [[Tepidarium]]'' ([[1881]]) - [[Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]]]{{Template}} | + | | style="text-align: left;" | |
- | ''See also [[Decadent movement]]'' | + | "Turning to the critics for the definition of [[Decadence]] is much like listening to the famous orchestra of the King of Siam, where each musician plays the way he wants to and without paying any attention to the score." --[[Gustave Leopold van Roosbroeck]] in "[[Legend of the Decadents]]" (New York 1927) |
+ | <hr> | ||
+ | See also [[Decadent movement]], [[Roman Orgy in the Time of Caesars]], [[I love this word decadence]]'', [[Degeneration_%28Max_Nordau%29_full_text#CHAPTER_III._DECADENTS_AND_AESTHETES.|'Decadents and Aesthetes' by Max Nordau]], | ||
+ | [[I came too late into a world too old]] and other [[decadent dicta]] | ||
+ | |} | ||
+ | [[Image:Western face of the Greek Parthenon.jpg|thumb|right|200px| | ||
+ | This page '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' is part of the ''[[ruin]]'' series. | ||
+ | <br> | ||
+ | <small> | ||
+ | Photo: western face of the [[Parthenon]]</small>]] | ||
+ | [[Image:Elagabalus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''[[Elagabalus]]''' , one of the five "[[mad emperors]]" of [[ancient Rome]].]] | ||
+ | [[Image:Degenerate art exhibition in Nazi Germany.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cover of the catalogue of the Nazi "[[Degenerate Art Exhibition]]" (1937). The exhibition was held to defame modern and Jewish artists. On the cover is ''[[Der Neue Mensch]]'' sculpture by [[Otto Freundlich]].]] | ||
+ | [[Image:Jean-Leon Gerome Pollice Verso.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This page '''{{PAGENAME}}''' is part of the ''[[morality]]'' series.<br> <small>Illustration: ''[[Pollice Verso (Gérôme)|Pollice Verso]]'' by Jean-Léon Gérôme, [[1872]]</small>]] | ||
+ | {{Template}} | ||
+ | '''Decadence''' (originally meaning "decline") usually means a perceived [[decay]] in standards, [[morals]], [[dignity]], [[religious faith]], or [[leadership]] among the members of the elite of a large social structure. By extension, it may mean a decline in art or literature, or (very loosely) to [[self-indulgent]] behaviour. | ||
- | '''Decadence''' refers to a [[personal trait]] and, much more commonly, to a [[condition|state of society]]. In a person, or used to describe a person's [[lifestyle]], it describes a [[lack]] of moral and intellectual [[discipline]]. In a society, it describes corrosive [[decline]] due to a perceived erosion of necessary [[moral]] [[tradition]]s. (A society that discards unnecessary and outmoded values would not be considered decadent.) Due to the subjective nature of morality, whether a society is decadent or not is a matter of debate, though certain [[history|historical]] societies (such as [[ancient Rome]] near its end) are generally held to have been decadent, as decadence may lead to objective decline. | + | In literature, the [[Decadent movement]]—late nineteenth century ''[[fin de siècle]]'' writers who were associated with [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] or the [[Aesthetic movement]]—was first given its name by hostile critics. Later it was triumphantly adopted by some of the writers themselves. The Decadents praised artifice over nature and sophistication over simplicity, defying contemporary discourses of decline by embracing subjects and styles that their critics considered morbid and over-refined. Some of these writers were influenced by the tradition of the [[Gothic novel]] and by the poetry and fiction of [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. |
- | Decadent societies are often prosperous but usually have severe social and economic [[inequality]], to such a degree that the [[upper class]] becomes either complacent or greedy, while the [[lower class]]es become hopeless and apathetic. The [[middle class]] may exhibit either or both patterns, or it may vanish entirely. Poor leadership is generally held to be both a cause and a symptom of decadence, as the lifestyle of a decadent individual is usually considered to be incompatible with responsibility. Applied to the arts, decadence implies an elevation of [[self-indulgence]] and pretension over effort and [[talent]]; when applied to science and the professions, it describes an erosion of [[professional ethics]]. Individual or collective [[greed]] is generally disliked in societies with strong moral beliefs, and for this reason, societies that nurture it are sometimes accused of decadence. | + | Use of the term ''decadent'' frequently implies moral censure that such declines are objectively observable and that they inevitably precede the [[destruction]] of the society in question; for this reason, modern historians use the term with caution. The word originated in Medieval Latin (dēcadentia), appeared in 16th-century French, and entered English soon afterwards. It bore the neutral meaning of decay, [[decrease]], or [[decline]] until the late 19th century, when the influence of new theories of social [[degeneration]] contributed to its modern meaning. |
+ | ==History== | ||
+ | ===Roman decadence=== | ||
+ | :''[[Roman decadence]]'' | ||
- | Societies that persist in a state of decadence may become unable or unwilling to commit to their own upkeep and fall into decline. One historical perspective on ancient Rome is that it became decadent due to a succession of poor emperors like [[Nero]] and [[Caligula]]. While they ruled centuries before the date of Rome's [[Fall of the Roman Empire|fall]], their leadership may have played a role in its decline. This point of view may also be biased by ex-post interpretation : beyond his eccentricity [[Nero]] was also viewed as a good ruler and very popular during his reign, and [[Caligula]] only reigned a few years. [[Machiavelli]] attributed Roman decadence to the rise of [[Christianity]]. See also: [[Roman decadence]]. | + | '''Roman decadence''' defines the gradual and moral decline in the [[ancient Roman]] republican values of family, farming, [[virtus (virtue)|virtus]], and [[Dignitas (Roman concept)|dignitas]]. It is personified by the '[[Valeria Messalina|mad emperors]]' and [[Valeria Messalina]] and is said to have led to the [[decline of the Roman Empire]]. |
+ | |||
+ | Some contemporary critics of Roman decadence, such as [[Cato the Younger]], attributed its rise to the influence of the Hellenistic philosophy [[epicureanism]], while modern historians such as [[Edward Gibbon]] ( ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788.) and Cyril Robinson also attribute increasing Roman affluence and the pacifying luxury it afforded. | ||
+ | ===Renaissance decadence=== | ||
+ | :''[[Banquet of Chestnuts]], [[House of Borgia]], [[Renaissance Papacy]]'' | ||
+ | |||
+ | The '''Borgias''' Valencian-Italian noble family who became prominent during the [[Renaissance]]. They are remembered today for their corrupt rule when one of them was [[Pope]]. The Borgias have been accused of many different crimes, generally on considerable evidence, including [[adultery]], [[simony]], [[theft]], [[rape]], [[bribery]], [[incest]], and [[murder]] (especially murder by [[arsenic poisoning]]). The most famous account of their debauchery is described in the "[[Banquet of Chestnuts]]". | ||
+ | |||
+ | ===Dandies=== | ||
+ | |||
+ | :''[[dandies]]'' | ||
+ | |||
+ | A dandy (also known as a beau, or gallant) is a man who places particular importance upon [[physical appearance]], refined language, and leisurely hobbies, pursued with the appearance of nonchalance in a cult of Self. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The model dandy in [[United Kingdom|British]] society was [[Beau Brummell|George Bryan "Beau" Brummell]] (1778–1840), an undergraduate student at [[Oriel College, Oxford|Oriel College]], [[Oxford]], and an associate of the [[George IV of the United Kingdom|Prince Regent]], who was not from an aristocratic background and whose greatness was "based on nothing at all," as [[Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly|J.A. Barbey d'Aurevilly]] observed in 1845. He was ever unpowdered, unperfumed, immaculately bathed and shaved, and dressed in a plain, dark blue coat, perfectly brushed, perfectly fitted, showing much perfectly starched linen, all freshly laundered, and composed with an elaborately knotted [[cravat]]. From the mid-1790s, Beau Brummell was an early incarnation of the [[celebrity]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | During his heyday, Brummell's ''dictat'' on both fashion and etiquette reigned supreme. His habits of dress and fashion were much imitated, especially in [[France]], where, in a curious development, they became the rage, especially in [[bohemianism|bohemian]] quarters. There, dandies sometimes were celebrated in revolutionary terms: self-created men of consciously designed personality, radically breaking with past traditions. With elaborate dress and idle, decadent styles of life, French bohemian dandies sought to convey [[contempt]] for and superiority to bourgeois society. In the latter 19th century, this fancy-dress bohemianism was a major influence on the [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist movement]] in French literature. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Charles Baudelaire]] was deeply interested in dandyism, and memorably wrote that a dandy aspirant must have "no profession other than elegance ... no other status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons ... The dandy must aspire to be sublime without interruption; he must live and sleep before a mirror." Other French intellectuals also were interested in the dandies strolling the streets and [[boulevard]]s of Paris. [[Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly]] wrote ''The Anatomy of Dandyism'', an essay devoted, in great measure, to examining the career of Beau Brummell. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[George Walden]], in the essay ''Who's a Dandy?'', identifies [[Noël Coward]], [[Andy Warhol]], and [[Quentin Crisp]] as modern dandies. | ||
+ | |||
+ | === Decadent movement === | ||
+ | :''[[Decadent movement]]'' | ||
+ | |||
+ | Decadence was the name given, originally by hostile critics, to a number of late nineteenth-century writers who valued artifice over the earlier Romantics' naïve view of nature. Some of them triumphantly adopted the name, referring to themselves as Decadents. For the most part, they were influenced by the tradition of the [[Gothic novel]] and by the poetry and fiction of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], and were associated with [[symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and/or [[Aestheticism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | This concept of decadence dates from the eighteenth century, especially from [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], and was taken up by critics as a term of abuse after [[Désiré Nisard]] used it against [[Victor Hugo]] and [[Romanticism]] in general. A later generation of Romantics, such as [[Théophile Gautier]] and [[Charles Baudelaire]] took the word as a badge of pride, as a sign of their rejection of what they saw as banal "progress." In the 1880s a group of [[French literature|French writers]] referred to themselves as Decadents. The classic [[novel]] from this group is [[Joris-Karl Huysmans]]' ''[[À rebours|Against Nature]]'', often seen as the first great decadent work, though others attribute this honor to Baudelaire's works. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In Britain the leading figure associated with the Decadent movement was [[Oscar Wilde]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Symbolist movement has frequently been confused with the Decadent movement. Several young writers were derisively referred to in the press as "decadent" in the mid 1880s. [[Jean Moréas]]' manifesto was largely a response to this [[polemic]]. A few of these writers embraced the term while most avoided it. Although the aesthetics of Symbolism and Decadence can be seen as overlapping in some areas, the two remain distinct. | ||
+ | |||
+ | ===1920s Berlin=== | ||
+ | :''[[1920s Berlin]]'' | ||
+ | |||
+ | This ''fertile culture'' of Berlin extended onwards until [[Adolf Hitler]] rose to power in early 1933 and stamped out any and all resistance to the [[Nazi Party]]. Likewise, the Nazis decried Berlin as a haven of vice. A new [[culture]] developed in and around Berlin, including architecture and design ([[Bauhaus]], 1919–33), a variety of literature ([[Alfred Döblin|Döblin]], ''[[Berlin Alexanderplatz]]'', 1929), film ([[Fritz Lang|Lang]], ''[[Metropolis (film)|Metropolis]]'', 1927, [[Marlene Dietrich|Dietrich]], ''[[Der blaue Engel]]'', 1930), painting ([[Grosz]]), and music ([[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]] and [[Kurt Weill|Weill]], ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'', 1928), criticism (Benjamin), philosophy/psychology ([[Carl Jung|Jung]]), and fashion. This culture was often considered to be [[decadent]], and socially, morally, destructive. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Cinema of Germany|Film]] was making huge technical and artistic strides during this period of time in Berlin, and gave rise to the influential movement called [[German Expressionism]]. "[[Talkies]]", the Sound films, were also becoming more popular with the general public across Europe, and Berlin was producing very many of them. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The so-called ''mystical arts'' also experienced a revival during this time-period in Berlin, with [[astrology]], the [[occult]], and [[esoteric]] religions and off-beat religious practices becoming more mainstream and acceptable to [[General public|the masses]] as they entered popular culture. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Berlin in the 20s also proved to be a haven for English writers such as [[W.H. Auden]], [[Stephen Spender]] and [[Christopher Isherwood]], who wrote a series of 'Berlin novels', inspiring the play ''[[I Am a Camera]]'', which was later adapted into a musical, ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]'', and an [[Academy Award]] winning [[Cabaret (film)|film of the same name]]. Spender's semi-autobiographical novel ''[[The Temple (Stephen Spender)|The Temple]]'' evokes the attitude and atmosphere of the place at the time. | ||
+ | |||
+ | ==Use in Marxism== | ||
+ | :''[[Decadence theory in Marxism]]'' | ||
+ | [[Vladimir Lenin]] continued and extended the use of the word "decadence" in his theory of [[imperialism]] to refer to economic matters underlying political manifestations. According to Lenin, [[capitalism]] had reached its highest stage and could no longer provide for the general development of society. He expected reduced vigor in economic activity and a growth in unhealthy economic phenomena, reflecting capitalism's gradually decreasing capacity to provide for social needs and preparing the ground for [[socialist]] revolution in the [[Western world|West]]. Politically, [[World War I]] proved the decadent nature of the advanced capitalist countries to Lenin, that [[capitalism]] had reached the stage where it would destroy its own prior achievements more than it would advance. | ||
+ | |||
+ | One who directly opposed the idea of decadence as expressed by Lenin was [[José Ortega y Gasset]] in ''[[The Revolt of the Masses]]'' (1930). He argued that the "[[mass man]]" had the notion of material progress and scientific advance deeply inculcated to the extent that it was an expectation. He also argued that contemporary progress was opposite the true decadence of the [[Roman Empire]]. | ||
- | Contemporary [[post-industrial]] societies such as the [[United States]] and [[Western Europe]] are sometimes accused of decadence, the argument being that [[consumerism]], [[materialism]], and [[selfishness]] have eroded traditional moral values of community, democracy, and the work ethic. | ||
- | In literature, the [[Decadent movement]]—late [[19th century in literature|nineteenth century]] ''[[fin de siècle]]'' writers who were associated with [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] or the [[Aesthetic movement]]—was first given its name by hostile critics, and then the name was triumphantly adopted by some writers themselves. These "decadents" relished artifice over the earlier Romantics' naive view of nature (see [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]). Some of these writers were influenced by the tradition of the [[Gothic novel]] and by the poetry and fiction of [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. | ||
== See also == | == See also == | ||
+ | *[[Degeneration]] | ||
*[[Degenerate art]] | *[[Degenerate art]] | ||
*[[Decadent movement]] | *[[Decadent movement]] | ||
*[[Jacques Barzun ]] | *[[Jacques Barzun ]] | ||
*[[Friedrich Nietzsche]] | *[[Friedrich Nietzsche]] | ||
- | *[[Oswald Spengler]]'s ''[[The Decline of the West]]'' (1918) | ||
- | *[[Edward Gibbon]]'s ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' | ||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
- | * [[Richard Gilman]], ''Decadence: The Strange Life of an Epithet''. ISBN 0-374-13567-3 | + | * ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' by Edward Gibbon |
- | * [[Matei Calinescu]], ''[[Five Faces of Modernity]]''. ISBN 0-8223-0767-7 | + | * ''[[Degeneration (Nordau)|Degeneration]]'' (1892) by Max Nordau |
- | * [[Mario Praz]], ''[[The Romantic Agony]]'' (1930). ISBN 0-19-281061-8 | + | * ''[[The Decline of the West]]'' (1918) by Oswald Spengler |
- | * [[Jacques Barzun]], [[From Dawn to Decadence]] (2000). ISBN 0-06-017586-9 | + | * ''[[The Romantic Agony]]'' (1930) by Mario Praz |
- | * A. E. Carter, [[The Idea of Decadence in French Literature]] (1978). ISBN 0-8020-7078-7 | + | * ''[[Five Faces of Modernity]]'' (1977|1987) by Matei Calinescu |
- | == Decadent movement == | + | * ''[[From Dawn to Decadence]]'' (2000) by Jacques Barzun |
- | [[Decadent movement]] | + | |
{{GFDL}} | {{GFDL}} |
Current revision
![The Remorse of the Emperor Nero after the Murder of his Mother (1878) by John William Waterhouse](/images/thumb/200px-The_Remorse_of_Nero_by_Waterhouse.jpg)
"Turning to the critics for the definition of Decadence is much like listening to the famous orchestra of the King of Siam, where each musician plays the way he wants to and without paying any attention to the score." --Gustave Leopold van Roosbroeck in "Legend of the Decadents" (New York 1927) See also Decadent movement, Roman Orgy in the Time of Caesars, I love this word decadence, 'Decadents and Aesthetes' by Max Nordau, I came too late into a world too old and other decadent dicta |
![Cover of the catalogue of the Nazi "Degenerate Art Exhibition" (1937). The exhibition was held to defame modern and Jewish artists. On the cover is Der Neue Mensch sculpture by Otto Freundlich.](/images/thumb/200px-Degenerate_art_exhibition_in_Nazi_Germany.jpg)
![This page Decadence is part of the morality series. Illustration: Pollice Verso by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1872](/images/thumb/200px-Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg)
Illustration: Pollice Verso by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1872
Related e |
Featured: |
Decadence (originally meaning "decline") usually means a perceived decay in standards, morals, dignity, religious faith, or leadership among the members of the elite of a large social structure. By extension, it may mean a decline in art or literature, or (very loosely) to self-indulgent behaviour.
In literature, the Decadent movement—late nineteenth century fin de siècle writers who were associated with Symbolism or the Aesthetic movement—was first given its name by hostile critics. Later it was triumphantly adopted by some of the writers themselves. The Decadents praised artifice over nature and sophistication over simplicity, defying contemporary discourses of decline by embracing subjects and styles that their critics considered morbid and over-refined. Some of these writers were influenced by the tradition of the Gothic novel and by the poetry and fiction of Edgar Allan Poe.
Use of the term decadent frequently implies moral censure that such declines are objectively observable and that they inevitably precede the destruction of the society in question; for this reason, modern historians use the term with caution. The word originated in Medieval Latin (dēcadentia), appeared in 16th-century French, and entered English soon afterwards. It bore the neutral meaning of decay, decrease, or decline until the late 19th century, when the influence of new theories of social degeneration contributed to its modern meaning.
Contents |
History
Roman decadence
Roman decadence defines the gradual and moral decline in the ancient Roman republican values of family, farming, virtus, and dignitas. It is personified by the 'mad emperors' and Valeria Messalina and is said to have led to the decline of the Roman Empire.
Some contemporary critics of Roman decadence, such as Cato the Younger, attributed its rise to the influence of the Hellenistic philosophy epicureanism, while modern historians such as Edward Gibbon ( The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788.) and Cyril Robinson also attribute increasing Roman affluence and the pacifying luxury it afforded.
Renaissance decadence
The Borgias Valencian-Italian noble family who became prominent during the Renaissance. They are remembered today for their corrupt rule when one of them was Pope. The Borgias have been accused of many different crimes, generally on considerable evidence, including adultery, simony, theft, rape, bribery, incest, and murder (especially murder by arsenic poisoning). The most famous account of their debauchery is described in the "Banquet of Chestnuts".
Dandies
A dandy (also known as a beau, or gallant) is a man who places particular importance upon physical appearance, refined language, and leisurely hobbies, pursued with the appearance of nonchalance in a cult of Self.
The model dandy in British society was George Bryan "Beau" Brummell (1778–1840), an undergraduate student at Oriel College, Oxford, and an associate of the Prince Regent, who was not from an aristocratic background and whose greatness was "based on nothing at all," as J.A. Barbey d'Aurevilly observed in 1845. He was ever unpowdered, unperfumed, immaculately bathed and shaved, and dressed in a plain, dark blue coat, perfectly brushed, perfectly fitted, showing much perfectly starched linen, all freshly laundered, and composed with an elaborately knotted cravat. From the mid-1790s, Beau Brummell was an early incarnation of the celebrity.
During his heyday, Brummell's dictat on both fashion and etiquette reigned supreme. His habits of dress and fashion were much imitated, especially in France, where, in a curious development, they became the rage, especially in bohemian quarters. There, dandies sometimes were celebrated in revolutionary terms: self-created men of consciously designed personality, radically breaking with past traditions. With elaborate dress and idle, decadent styles of life, French bohemian dandies sought to convey contempt for and superiority to bourgeois society. In the latter 19th century, this fancy-dress bohemianism was a major influence on the Symbolist movement in French literature.
Charles Baudelaire was deeply interested in dandyism, and memorably wrote that a dandy aspirant must have "no profession other than elegance ... no other status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons ... The dandy must aspire to be sublime without interruption; he must live and sleep before a mirror." Other French intellectuals also were interested in the dandies strolling the streets and boulevards of Paris. Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly wrote The Anatomy of Dandyism, an essay devoted, in great measure, to examining the career of Beau Brummell.
George Walden, in the essay Who's a Dandy?, identifies Noël Coward, Andy Warhol, and Quentin Crisp as modern dandies.
Decadent movement
Decadence was the name given, originally by hostile critics, to a number of late nineteenth-century writers who valued artifice over the earlier Romantics' naïve view of nature. Some of them triumphantly adopted the name, referring to themselves as Decadents. For the most part, they were influenced by the tradition of the Gothic novel and by the poetry and fiction of Edgar Allan Poe, and were associated with Symbolism and/or Aestheticism.
This concept of decadence dates from the eighteenth century, especially from Montesquieu, and was taken up by critics as a term of abuse after Désiré Nisard used it against Victor Hugo and Romanticism in general. A later generation of Romantics, such as Théophile Gautier and Charles Baudelaire took the word as a badge of pride, as a sign of their rejection of what they saw as banal "progress." In the 1880s a group of French writers referred to themselves as Decadents. The classic novel from this group is Joris-Karl Huysmans' Against Nature, often seen as the first great decadent work, though others attribute this honor to Baudelaire's works.
In Britain the leading figure associated with the Decadent movement was Oscar Wilde.
The Symbolist movement has frequently been confused with the Decadent movement. Several young writers were derisively referred to in the press as "decadent" in the mid 1880s. Jean Moréas' manifesto was largely a response to this polemic. A few of these writers embraced the term while most avoided it. Although the aesthetics of Symbolism and Decadence can be seen as overlapping in some areas, the two remain distinct.
1920s Berlin
This fertile culture of Berlin extended onwards until Adolf Hitler rose to power in early 1933 and stamped out any and all resistance to the Nazi Party. Likewise, the Nazis decried Berlin as a haven of vice. A new culture developed in and around Berlin, including architecture and design (Bauhaus, 1919–33), a variety of literature (Döblin, Berlin Alexanderplatz, 1929), film (Lang, Metropolis, 1927, Dietrich, Der blaue Engel, 1930), painting (Grosz), and music (Brecht and Weill, The Threepenny Opera, 1928), criticism (Benjamin), philosophy/psychology (Jung), and fashion. This culture was often considered to be decadent, and socially, morally, destructive.
Film was making huge technical and artistic strides during this period of time in Berlin, and gave rise to the influential movement called German Expressionism. "Talkies", the Sound films, were also becoming more popular with the general public across Europe, and Berlin was producing very many of them.
The so-called mystical arts also experienced a revival during this time-period in Berlin, with astrology, the occult, and esoteric religions and off-beat religious practices becoming more mainstream and acceptable to the masses as they entered popular culture.
Berlin in the 20s also proved to be a haven for English writers such as W.H. Auden, Stephen Spender and Christopher Isherwood, who wrote a series of 'Berlin novels', inspiring the play I Am a Camera, which was later adapted into a musical, Cabaret, and an Academy Award winning film of the same name. Spender's semi-autobiographical novel The Temple evokes the attitude and atmosphere of the place at the time.
Use in Marxism
Vladimir Lenin continued and extended the use of the word "decadence" in his theory of imperialism to refer to economic matters underlying political manifestations. According to Lenin, capitalism had reached its highest stage and could no longer provide for the general development of society. He expected reduced vigor in economic activity and a growth in unhealthy economic phenomena, reflecting capitalism's gradually decreasing capacity to provide for social needs and preparing the ground for socialist revolution in the West. Politically, World War I proved the decadent nature of the advanced capitalist countries to Lenin, that capitalism had reached the stage where it would destroy its own prior achievements more than it would advance.
One who directly opposed the idea of decadence as expressed by Lenin was José Ortega y Gasset in The Revolt of the Masses (1930). He argued that the "mass man" had the notion of material progress and scientific advance deeply inculcated to the extent that it was an expectation. He also argued that contemporary progress was opposite the true decadence of the Roman Empire.
See also
Further reading
- The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon
- Degeneration (1892) by Max Nordau
- The Decline of the West (1918) by Oswald Spengler
- The Romantic Agony (1930) by Mario Praz
- Five Faces of Modernity (1977|1987) by Matei Calinescu
- From Dawn to Decadence (2000) by Jacques Barzun