Dialectic
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| + | "[[Heraclitus]] is surrealist in [[dialectic]]" --[[What is Surrealism?]] (1934) by André Breton | ||
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| + | [[Image:466px-Yin yang.svg.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Yin and yang]]]] | ||
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| - | Broadly speaking, a '''dialectic''' is an exchange of propositions(thesis) and counter-'''''''''propositions (anti-thesis)resulting''''''''' in a synthesis of the opposing assertions or at least a qualitative transformation of the direction of the dialogue. | ||
| - | ==In Philosophy== | + | The term ''dialectic'' has [[several meaning]]s, and the meanings have evolved over time. The [[Hegelian thesis-antithesis-synthesis dialectic]], which is the most recent form of dialectics, is far removed in meaning from the Socratic dialogue, which is a conversation between two people. Originally, '''Dialectic''' (also ''dialectics'' and ''the dialectical method'') was a method of argument for resolving [[disagreement]] that has been central to European and Indian philosophy since antiquity. The word ''dialectic'' originated in [[ancient Greece]], and was made popular by [[Plato]] in the [[Socratic dialogues]]. The dialectical method is [[discourse]] between two or more people holding different [[Opinion|points of view]] about a subject, who wish to establish the [[truth]] of the matter guided by [[Rationality|reasoned]] arguments. |
| - | When using the word "dialectic" philosophers usually refer to either the Socratic dialectical method of cross-examination, or to Hegel's dialectical model of [[history]]. | + | In its original meaning, the term dialectics is not synonymous with the term [[debate]]. While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view, in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgement. Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent; proving one's argument correct; or proving the opponent's argument incorrect. Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser; however clear winners are frequently determined by either a [[judge]], [[jury]], or by [[Consensus decision-making|group consensus]]. The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term [[rhetoric]], a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience. Concepts, like ''"[[Logos#Aristotle' rhetorical logos|logos]]"'' or rational appeal, ''"[[pathos]]"'' or emotional appeal, and ''"[[Ethos#Rhetoric|ethos]]"'' or ethical appeal, are intentionally used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience. |
| - | ===Socratic Dialectic=== | + | The [[Sophism|Sophists]] taught ''[[Arete|aretē]]'' (Greek: ''ἀρετή'', ''quality'', ''excellence'') as the highest value, and the determinant of one's actions in life. The Sophists taught artistic quality in oratory (motivation via speech) as a manner of demonstrating one's ''aretē''. Oratory was taught as an art form, used to please and to influence other people via excellent speech; nonetheless, the Sophists taught the pupil to seek ''aretē'' in all endeavours, not solely in oratory. |
| - | In [[Plato]]'s dialogues, [[Socrates]] typically "argues" by means of cross-examining someone else's assertions in order to draw out the inherent contradictions within the other's position. For example, in the [[Euthyphro]], Socrates asks Euthyphro to provide a definition of piety. Euthyphro replies that the pious is that which is loved by the gods. But, Socrates points out, the gods are quarrelsome and their quarrels, like human quarrels, concern objects of love or hatred. Euthyphro consents that this is the case. Therefore, Socrates reasons, at least one thing exists which certain gods love but other gods hate. Again, Euthyphro consents. Socrates concludes that if Euthyphro's definition of piety is true, then there must exist at least one thing which is both pious and impious (as it is both loved and hated by the gods) -- which, Euthyphro admits, is absurd. | + | [[Socrates]] favoured ''truth'' as the highest value, proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion: ergo, ''dialectic''. Socrates valued [[rationality]] (appealing to logic, not emotion) as the proper means for persuasion, the discovery of truth, and the determinant for one's actions. To Socrates, ''truth'', not ''aretē'', was the greater good, and each person should, above all else, seek truth to guide one's life. Therefore, Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof. Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from [[South Asia]] and [[Western world|the West]] (Europe). These forms include the [[Socratic method]], [[Hindu]], [[Upaya|Buddhist]], [[Medieval]], [[Hegel|Hegelian]], [[Marxist]], [[pilpul|Talmudic]], and [[Neo-orthodoxy]]. |
| + | ==Etymology== | ||
| + | From Old French ''dialectique'', from Late Latin ''dialectica'', from Ancient Greek ''διαλεκτική'' (dialektike, “the art of argument through interactive questioning and answering”), from ''διαλεκτικός'' (dialektikos, “competent debater”), from ''διαλέγομαι'' (dialegomai, “to participate in a dialogue”), from ''[[διά]]'' (dia, “through, across”) + ''[[λέγειν]]'' (legein, “to speak”). | ||
| + | == Namesakes == | ||
| + | *''[[Dialectic of Enlightenment]]'' by Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno | ||
| + | *''[[Negative Dialectics]]'' by Theodor W. Adorno | ||
| + | *''[[Dialectics of Nature]]'', an unfinished work by Friedrich Engels | ||
| + | *''[[Can Dialectics Break Bricks?]]'', a 1973 Situationist film produced by the French director René Viénet | ||
| - | ===Hegelian Dialectic=== | + | ==See also== |
| - | Although [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] never used such a classification himself, Hegel's dialectic is often described as consisting of three stages: a thesis, an antithesis which contradicts or negates the thesis, and a synthesis embodying what is essential to each. In the ''Logic'', for instance, Hegel describes a dialectic of [[existence]]: first, existence must be posited as pure Being (thesis); but pure Being, upon examination, is found to be indistinguishable from Nothing (antithesis); yet both Being and Nothing are united as Becoming (synthesis), when it is realized that what is coming into being is, at the same time, also returning to nothing (consider life: old organisms die as new organisms are created or born). Like Socratic dialectic, Hegel's dialectic proceeds by making implicit contradictions explicit: each stage of the process is the product of contradictions inherent or implicit in the preceding stage. For [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], the whole of western history is one tremendous dialectic, the largest moments of which chart a progression from self-alienation as [[slavery]] to self-unification and realization as the rational, constitutional [[state]] of free and equal citizens. | + | ;Philosophy |
| + | * [[Chinese philosophy]] | ||
| + | * [[Critical theory (Frankfurt School)]] | ||
| + | * [[Dialectical materialism]] | ||
| + | * [[Dialogic]] | ||
| + | * [[Doublethink]] | ||
| + | * [[False dilemma]] | ||
| + | * [[Hegelian dialectic]] | ||
| + | * [[Marxist dialectic]] | ||
| + | * [[Master-slave dialectic]] | ||
| + | * [[Paradox]] | ||
| + | * [[Recursion]] | ||
| + | * [[Strange loop]] | ||
| + | * [[Taoism]] | ||
| + | ;Interdisciplinary concepts | ||
| + | * [[List of cycles]] | ||
| + | * [[Möbius strip]] | ||
| - | ==Marxist Dialectic== | ||
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| - | [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] believed Hegel was "standing on his head", and claimed to put him back on his feet, ridding Hegel's [[logic]] of its [[idealism|idealist]] orientation, and conceiving what is now known as [[materialism|materialist]] or [[Marxism|Marxist]] dialectics. The dialectical approach to the study of [[history]] then gave rise to [[historical materialism]], the school of thought exemplified by the works of [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Engels]], [[Lenin]], and [[Trotsky]]. Dialectical method came to be seen as the vital foundation for any Marxist politics, through the work of [[Karl Korsch]], [[Georg Lukacs]] and certain members of the [[Frankfurt School]]. | ||
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| - | Under [[Stalinism]], Marxist dialectics developed into what was called "diamat" (short for [[dialectical materialism]]), a system of thought which became increasingly dogmatic and thus intellectually bankrupt due to the overpowering influence of its attendant political ideology. Some [[Soviet]] academics, most notably [[Evald Ilyenkov]], did continue with philosophical studies of the marxist dialectic free from ideological bias, as did a number of thinkers in [[the West]]. | ||
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| - | <i>See also:</i> [[Dialectician]], [[Universal Dialectic]] | ||
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"Heraclitus is surrealist in dialectic" --What is Surrealism? (1934) by André Breton |
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The term dialectic has several meanings, and the meanings have evolved over time. The Hegelian thesis-antithesis-synthesis dialectic, which is the most recent form of dialectics, is far removed in meaning from the Socratic dialogue, which is a conversation between two people. Originally, Dialectic (also dialectics and the dialectical method) was a method of argument for resolving disagreement that has been central to European and Indian philosophy since antiquity. The word dialectic originated in ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato in the Socratic dialogues. The dialectical method is discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject, who wish to establish the truth of the matter guided by reasoned arguments.
In its original meaning, the term dialectics is not synonymous with the term debate. While in theory debaters are not necessarily emotionally invested in their point of view, in practice debaters frequently display an emotional commitment that may cloud rational judgement. Debates are won through a combination of persuading the opponent; proving one's argument correct; or proving the opponent's argument incorrect. Debates do not necessarily require promptly identifying a clear winner or loser; however clear winners are frequently determined by either a judge, jury, or by group consensus. The term dialectics is also not synonymous with the term rhetoric, a method or art of discourse that seeks to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience. Concepts, like "logos" or rational appeal, "pathos" or emotional appeal, and "ethos" or ethical appeal, are intentionally used by rhetoricians to persuade an audience.
The Sophists taught aretē (Greek: ἀρετή, quality, excellence) as the highest value, and the determinant of one's actions in life. The Sophists taught artistic quality in oratory (motivation via speech) as a manner of demonstrating one's aretē. Oratory was taught as an art form, used to please and to influence other people via excellent speech; nonetheless, the Sophists taught the pupil to seek aretē in all endeavours, not solely in oratory.
Socrates favoured truth as the highest value, proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion: ergo, dialectic. Socrates valued rationality (appealing to logic, not emotion) as the proper means for persuasion, the discovery of truth, and the determinant for one's actions. To Socrates, truth, not aretē, was the greater good, and each person should, above all else, seek truth to guide one's life. Therefore, Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof. Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from South Asia and the West (Europe). These forms include the Socratic method, Hindu, Buddhist, Medieval, Hegelian, Marxist, Talmudic, and Neo-orthodoxy.
Etymology
From Old French dialectique, from Late Latin dialectica, from Ancient Greek διαλεκτική (dialektike, “the art of argument through interactive questioning and answering”), from διαλεκτικός (dialektikos, “competent debater”), from διαλέγομαι (dialegomai, “to participate in a dialogue”), from διά (dia, “through, across”) + λέγειν (legein, “to speak”).
Namesakes
- Dialectic of Enlightenment by Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno
- Negative Dialectics by Theodor W. Adorno
- Dialectics of Nature, an unfinished work by Friedrich Engels
- Can Dialectics Break Bricks?, a 1973 Situationist film produced by the French director René Viénet
See also
- Philosophy
- Chinese philosophy
- Critical theory (Frankfurt School)
- Dialectical materialism
- Dialogic
- Doublethink
- False dilemma
- Hegelian dialectic
- Marxist dialectic
- Master-slave dialectic
- Paradox
- Recursion
- Strange loop
- Taoism
- Interdisciplinary concepts
