Entheogen  

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-'''Psychedelic therapy''' refers to [[therapy|therapeutic]] practices involving the use of [[psychedelic drug]]s, particularly serotonergic psychedelics such as [[Lysergic acid diethylamide|LSD]], [[psilocin]] and [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]]. As an alternative to synonyms such as "[[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogen]]", "[[entheogen]]", "psychotomimetic" and other functionally constructed names, the use of the term ''psychedelic'' ("mind-manifesting") emphasizes that those who use these drugs as part of a therapeutic practice believe these drugs can facilitate beneficial exploration of the psyche. Proponents of psychedelic therapy also believe psychedelics enhance or unlock key [[psychoanalytic]] abilities, and so make it easier for conventional psychotherapy to take place.+ 
 +An '''entheogen''' ("generating the divine within") is a [[psychoactive]] substance used in a [[religion|religious]], [[shamanism|shamanic]], or [[spirituality|spiritual]] context. Entheogens can supplement many diverse practices for healing, [[Transcendence (philosophy)|transcendence]], and [[revelation]], including: [[meditation]], [[psychonautics]], [[art]] projects, and [[psychedelic therapy]].
 + 
 +== Archaeological record ==
 +:''[[Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record]]''
 +[[R. Gordon Wasson]] and [[Giorgio Samorini]] have proposed several examples of the cultural use of entheogens that are found in the archaeological record. Evidence for the first use of entheogens may come from [[Tassili n'Ajjer|Tassili, Algeria]], with a cave painting of a mushroom-man, dating to 8000 [[Before Present|BP]]. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at [[Pazyryk burials|Pazyryk]] suggest early ceremonial practices by the [[Scythians]] occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, confirming previous historical reports by [[Herodotus]].
 +== Cultural use ==
 + 
 +Entheogens have been used in various ways, including as part of established religions, secularly for personal spiritual development as tools (or "plant teachers") to augment the mind, secularly as recreational drugs, and for medical and therapeutic use. The use of entheogens in human cultures is nearly ubiquitous throughout recorded history.
 + 
 +Naturally occurring entheogens such as [[psilocybin]] and [[dimethyltryptamine]], also known as '''''N,N''-dimethyltryptamine''', or simply DMT (in the preparation [[ayahuasca]]) were, for the most part, discovered and used by older cultures, as part of their spiritual and religious life, as plants and agents which were respected, or in some cases revered for generations and may be a tradition which predates all modern religions as a sort of proto-religious rite.
 + 
 +One of the most widely used entheogens is [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], which has been used in regions such as [[China]], [[Europe]], and [[India]]; in some cases, for thousands of years. It has also appeared as a part of religions and cultures such as [[Buddhism]], the [[Rastafari movement]], the [[Sadhus]] of [[Hinduism]], the [[Scythians]], [[Sufi]] [[Islam]], and others. For additional information, see [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]].
 + 
 +===== Africa =====
 + 
 +The best-known entheogen-using culture of [[Africa]] is the [[Bwiti]]sts, who used a preparation of the root bark of [[Iboga]] (''Tabernanthe iboga''). A famous entheogen of ancient [[Egypt]] is the [[Nymphaea caerulea|blue lotus]] (''Nymphaea caerulea''). There is evidence for the use of [[Psychedelic mushroom|entheogenic mushrooms]] in [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Samorini 1995). Numerous other plants used in shamanic ritual in Africa, such as ''[[Silene capensis]]'' sacred to the [[Xhosa]], are yet to be investigated by western science.
 + 
 +===== Americas =====
 +Entheogens have played a pivotal role in the spiritual practices of most American cultures for millennia. The first American entheogen to be subject to scientific analysis was the [[peyote]] cactus (''Lophophora williamsii''). For his part, one of the founders of modern ethno-botany, the late [[Richard Evans Schultes]] of [[Harvard University]] documented the ritual use of peyote cactus among the [[Kiowa]] who live in what became Oklahoma. Used traditionally by many cultures of what is now [[Mexico]], its use spread to throughout [[North America]] in the 19th century, replacing the [[toxic]] entheogen ''Sophora secundiflora'' ([[Mescalbean|mescal bean]]). Other well-known entheogens used by Mexican cultures include [[magic mushrooms|psilocybin mushrooms]] (known to indigenous [[Mexican]]s under the [[Náhuatl]] name ''teonanácatl''), the seeds of several [[morning glory|morning glories]] (Náhuatl: [[Ipomoea tricolor|tlitlíltzin]] and [[Rivea corymbosa|ololiúhqui]]) and ''[[Salvia divinorum]]'' ([[Mazateco]]: Ska Pastora; Náhuatl: pipiltzintzíntli).
 + 
 +Indigenous peoples of [[South America]] employ a wide variety of entheogens. Better-known examples include [[ayahuasca]] (''Banisteriopsis caapi'' plus admixtures) among indigenous peoples (such as the [[Urarina]]) of Peruvian [[Amazonia]]. Other well-known entheogens include: borrachero (''[[Brugmansia]]'' spp); [[San Pedro (cactus)|San Pedro]] (''Trichocereus'' spp); and various [[tryptamine]]-bearing snuffs, for example [[Virola|Epená]] (''Virola'' spp), [[Vilca]] and [[Yopo]] (''Anadananthera'' spp). The familiar [[tobacco]] plant, when used uncured in large doses in [[shamanic]] contexts, also serves as an entheogen in South America. Also, a tobacco that contains higher nicotine content, and therefore smaller doses required, called ''[[Nicotiana rustica]]'' was commonly used.
 + 
 +In addition to [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] use of entheogens in the Americas, one should also note their important role in contemporary religious movements, such as the [[Rastafari movement]] and the [[Church of the Universe]].
 + 
 +===== Asia =====
 + 
 +The indigenous peoples of [[Siberia]] (from whom the term ''shaman'' was appropriated) have used the [[fly agaric]] mushroom (''Amanita muscaria'') as an entheogen. The ancient inebriant [[Soma]], mentioned often in the [[Vedas]], appears to be consistent with the effects of an entheogen. (In his 1967 book, Wasson argues that Soma was fly agaric. The active ingredient of Soma is presumed by some to be [[ephedrine]], an alkaloid with stimulant and (somewhat debatable) entheogenic properties derived from the soma plant, identified as ''Ephedra pachyclada''.) However, there are also arguments to suggest that Soma could have also been [[Syrian Rue]], [[Cannabis]], [[Belladonna]] or some combination of any of the above plants.
 + 
 +===== Europe =====
 + 
 +An early entheogen in [[Aegean civilization]], predating the introduction of wine, which was the more familiar entheogen of the reborn [[Dionysus]] and the [[maenad]]s, was fermented honey, known in Northern Europe as [[mead]]; its cult uses in the Aegean world are bound up with the [[Bee (mythology)|mythology of the bee]].
 + 
 +The growth of Roman Christianity also saw the end of the two-thousand-year-old tradition of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], the initiation ceremony for the cult of [[Demeter]] and [[Persephone]] involving the use of a substance consistent with an entheogenic known as [[kykeon]] (the term 'Ambrosia' is used in Greek mythology in a way that is remarkably similar to the Soma of the Hindus as well). Similarly, there is some evidence that [[nitrous oxide]] or [[ethylene]] or some other psychoactive may have been in part responsible for the visions of the equally long-lived [[Delphic oracle]] (Hale et al., 2003).
 + 
 +In ancient [[Germanic culture]] [[cannabis]] was associated with the Germanic love goddess [[Freya]]. The harvesting of the plant was connected with an erotic [[religious festival|high festival]]. It was believed that Freya lived as a fertile force in the plant's feminine flowers and by ingesting them one became influenced by this divine force. Similarly, [[fly agaric]] was consecrated to [[Odin]], the god of ecstasy, while [[henbane]] stood under the dominion of the thunder god - [[Thor]] in Germanic mythology - and [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] among the [[Roman mythology|Romans]] (Rätsch 2003).
 + 
 +===== Middle East =====
 + 
 +It has been suggested that the ritual use of small amounts of [[Syrian Rue]] is an artifact of its ancient use in higher doses as an entheogen (possibly in conjunction with [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] containing acacia).{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}
 + 
 +Philologist [[John Marco Allegro]] has argued in his book ''[[The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross]]'' that early Jewish and Christian cultic practice was based on the use of ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'' which was later forgotten by its adherents, and this hypothesis is gaining momentum with the advent of The Internet. Allegro's hypothesis that Amanita use was forgotten after primitive Christianity seems contradicted by his own view that the chapel in Plaincourault shows evidence of Christian Amanita use in the 1200s.
 +===== Oceania =====
 + 
 +[[Indigenous Australians]] are generally thought not to have used entheogens, although there is a strong barrier of secrecy surrounding Aboriginal shamanism, which has likely limited what has been told to outsiders. There are no known uses of entheogens by the [[Māori]] of [[New Zealand]] aside from a variant species of Kava. Natives of [[Papua New Guinea]] are known to use several species of entheogenic mushrooms (''Psilocybe'' spp, ''Boletus manicus'').
 + 
 +[[Kava]] or ''Kava Kava'' (''Piper Methysticum'') has been cultivated for at least 3000 years by a number of Pacific island-dwelling peoples. Historically, most [[Polynesian culture|Polynesian]], many [[Melanesian]], and some [[Micronesian]] cultures have ingested the psychoactive pulverized root, typically taking it mixed with water. Much traditional usage of Kava, though somewhat suppressed by Christian missionaries in the 19th and 20th centuries, is thought to facilitate contact with the spirits of the dead, especially relatives and ancestors (Singh 2004).
 +== See also ==
 +* [[Sacred herbs]]
 +* [[Hallucinogenic fish]]
 +* [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis]]
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An entheogen ("generating the divine within") is a psychoactive substance used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context. Entheogens can supplement many diverse practices for healing, transcendence, and revelation, including: meditation, psychonautics, art projects, and psychedelic therapy.

Contents

Archaeological record

Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record

R. Gordon Wasson and Giorgio Samorini have proposed several examples of the cultural use of entheogens that are found in the archaeological record. Evidence for the first use of entheogens may come from Tassili, Algeria, with a cave painting of a mushroom-man, dating to 8000 BP. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.

Cultural use

Entheogens have been used in various ways, including as part of established religions, secularly for personal spiritual development as tools (or "plant teachers") to augment the mind, secularly as recreational drugs, and for medical and therapeutic use. The use of entheogens in human cultures is nearly ubiquitous throughout recorded history.

Naturally occurring entheogens such as psilocybin and dimethyltryptamine, also known as N,N-dimethyltryptamine, or simply DMT (in the preparation ayahuasca) were, for the most part, discovered and used by older cultures, as part of their spiritual and religious life, as plants and agents which were respected, or in some cases revered for generations and may be a tradition which predates all modern religions as a sort of proto-religious rite.

One of the most widely used entheogens is cannabis, which has been used in regions such as China, Europe, and India; in some cases, for thousands of years. It has also appeared as a part of religions and cultures such as Buddhism, the Rastafari movement, the Sadhus of Hinduism, the Scythians, Sufi Islam, and others. For additional information, see Religious and spiritual use of cannabis.

Africa

The best-known entheogen-using culture of Africa is the Bwitists, who used a preparation of the root bark of Iboga (Tabernanthe iboga). A famous entheogen of ancient Egypt is the blue lotus (Nymphaea caerulea). There is evidence for the use of entheogenic mushrooms in Côte d'Ivoire (Samorini 1995). Numerous other plants used in shamanic ritual in Africa, such as Silene capensis sacred to the Xhosa, are yet to be investigated by western science.

Americas

Entheogens have played a pivotal role in the spiritual practices of most American cultures for millennia. The first American entheogen to be subject to scientific analysis was the peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii). For his part, one of the founders of modern ethno-botany, the late Richard Evans Schultes of Harvard University documented the ritual use of peyote cactus among the Kiowa who live in what became Oklahoma. Used traditionally by many cultures of what is now Mexico, its use spread to throughout North America in the 19th century, replacing the toxic entheogen Sophora secundiflora (mescal bean). Other well-known entheogens used by Mexican cultures include psilocybin mushrooms (known to indigenous Mexicans under the Náhuatl name teonanácatl), the seeds of several morning glories (Náhuatl: tlitlíltzin and ololiúhqui) and Salvia divinorum (Mazateco: Ska Pastora; Náhuatl: pipiltzintzíntli).

Indigenous peoples of South America employ a wide variety of entheogens. Better-known examples include ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi plus admixtures) among indigenous peoples (such as the Urarina) of Peruvian Amazonia. Other well-known entheogens include: borrachero (Brugmansia spp); San Pedro (Trichocereus spp); and various tryptamine-bearing snuffs, for example Epená (Virola spp), Vilca and Yopo (Anadananthera spp). The familiar tobacco plant, when used uncured in large doses in shamanic contexts, also serves as an entheogen in South America. Also, a tobacco that contains higher nicotine content, and therefore smaller doses required, called Nicotiana rustica was commonly used.

In addition to indigenous use of entheogens in the Americas, one should also note their important role in contemporary religious movements, such as the Rastafari movement and the Church of the Universe.

Asia

The indigenous peoples of Siberia (from whom the term shaman was appropriated) have used the fly agaric mushroom (Amanita muscaria) as an entheogen. The ancient inebriant Soma, mentioned often in the Vedas, appears to be consistent with the effects of an entheogen. (In his 1967 book, Wasson argues that Soma was fly agaric. The active ingredient of Soma is presumed by some to be ephedrine, an alkaloid with stimulant and (somewhat debatable) entheogenic properties derived from the soma plant, identified as Ephedra pachyclada.) However, there are also arguments to suggest that Soma could have also been Syrian Rue, Cannabis, Belladonna or some combination of any of the above plants.

Europe

An early entheogen in Aegean civilization, predating the introduction of wine, which was the more familiar entheogen of the reborn Dionysus and the maenads, was fermented honey, known in Northern Europe as mead; its cult uses in the Aegean world are bound up with the mythology of the bee.

The growth of Roman Christianity also saw the end of the two-thousand-year-old tradition of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the initiation ceremony for the cult of Demeter and Persephone involving the use of a substance consistent with an entheogenic known as kykeon (the term 'Ambrosia' is used in Greek mythology in a way that is remarkably similar to the Soma of the Hindus as well). Similarly, there is some evidence that nitrous oxide or ethylene or some other psychoactive may have been in part responsible for the visions of the equally long-lived Delphic oracle (Hale et al., 2003).

In ancient Germanic culture cannabis was associated with the Germanic love goddess Freya. The harvesting of the plant was connected with an erotic high festival. It was believed that Freya lived as a fertile force in the plant's feminine flowers and by ingesting them one became influenced by this divine force. Similarly, fly agaric was consecrated to Odin, the god of ecstasy, while henbane stood under the dominion of the thunder god - Thor in Germanic mythology - and Jupiter among the Romans (Rätsch 2003).

Middle East

It has been suggested that the ritual use of small amounts of Syrian Rue is an artifact of its ancient use in higher doses as an entheogen (possibly in conjunction with DMT containing acacia).Template:Citation needed

Philologist John Marco Allegro has argued in his book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross that early Jewish and Christian cultic practice was based on the use of Amanita muscaria which was later forgotten by its adherents, and this hypothesis is gaining momentum with the advent of The Internet. Allegro's hypothesis that Amanita use was forgotten after primitive Christianity seems contradicted by his own view that the chapel in Plaincourault shows evidence of Christian Amanita use in the 1200s.

Oceania

Indigenous Australians are generally thought not to have used entheogens, although there is a strong barrier of secrecy surrounding Aboriginal shamanism, which has likely limited what has been told to outsiders. There are no known uses of entheogens by the Māori of New Zealand aside from a variant species of Kava. Natives of Papua New Guinea are known to use several species of entheogenic mushrooms (Psilocybe spp, Boletus manicus).

Kava or Kava Kava (Piper Methysticum) has been cultivated for at least 3000 years by a number of Pacific island-dwelling peoples. Historically, most Polynesian, many Melanesian, and some Micronesian cultures have ingested the psychoactive pulverized root, typically taking it mixed with water. Much traditional usage of Kava, though somewhat suppressed by Christian missionaries in the 19th and 20th centuries, is thought to facilitate contact with the spirits of the dead, especially relatives and ancestors (Singh 2004).

See also




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