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"[[We hold these truths to be self-evident]], that [[all men are created equal]], that they are endowed by their Creator with certain [[Natural and legal rights |unalienable]] Rights, that among these are [[Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness|Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness]]." --second paragraph of the ''[[United States Declaration of Independence]]'' by Thomas Jefferson "[[We hold these truths to be self-evident]], that [[all men are created equal]], that they are endowed by their Creator with certain [[Natural and legal rights |unalienable]] Rights, that among these are [[Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness|Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness]]." --second paragraph of the ''[[United States Declaration of Independence]]'' by Thomas Jefferson
<hr> <hr>
-"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of [[brotherhood]]." --Article 1 of the [[United Nations]] [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (UDHR)+"All human beings are born [[freedom|free]] and equal in [[dignity]] and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of [[brotherhood]]." --Article 1 of the [[United Nations]] [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (UDHR)
<hr> <hr>
-[[Liberté, égalité, fraternité]]+"[[Liberté, égalité, fraternité]]" -- motto of France and of the French Revolution
|} |}
{{Template}} {{Template}}
-'''Human rights''' are the basic [[rights]] and [[freedom]]s to which all human beings are entitled. Examples of rights and freedoms which are often thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such as the right to [[life]] and [[liberty]], [[freedom of expression]], and [[equality before the law]]; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in [[culture]], the [[right to work]], and the right to [[education]]. [[Image:Magna Carta.jpg|250px|thumb|right|''[[Magna Carta]]'' or "Great Charter" was one of the world's first documents containing commitments by a [[sovereign]] to his people to respect certain [[Law|legal]] rights]]+'''Human rights''' are the basic [[rights]] and [[freedom]]s to which all [[human being]]s are entitled. Examples of rights and freedoms which are often thought of as human rights include [[civil and political rights]], such as the [[right to life]] and [[liberty]], [[freedom of expression]], and [[equality before the law]]; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in [[culture]], the [[right to work]], and the right to [[education]].
 + 
== History == == History ==
-[[History of human rights]]+Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true forerunner of human-rights discourse was the concept of [[Natural and legal rights|natural rights]] which appeared as part of the medieval [[natural law]] tradition that became prominent during the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century.
-Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights.<ref name=Freeman15>{{Harvard citation no brackets |Freeman |2002 |pp=15–17 }}</ref> The true forerunner of human-rights discourse was the concept of [[Natural and legal rights|natural rights]] which appeared as part of the medieval [[natural law]] tradition that became prominent during the European [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets |Moyn |2010 |p=8 }}</ref>+
- +
-17th-century English philosopher [[John Locke]] discussed natural rights in his work, identifying them as being "life, liberty, and estate (property)", and argued that such fundamental rights could not be surrendered in the [[social contract]]. In Britain in 1689, the English [[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights]] and the Scottish [[Claim of Right Act 1689|Claim of Right]] each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Britain's unwritten constitution |url= http://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/britains-unwritten-constitution |publisher=British Library |accessdate=27 November 2015 |quote=The key landmark is the Bill of Rights (1689), which established the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown ... providing for the regular meeting of Parliament, free elections to the Commons, free speech in parliamentary debates, and some basic human rights, most famously freedom from 'cruel or unusual punishment.}}</ref> Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789), leading to the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] and the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] respectively, both of which articulated certain human rights. Additionally, the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]] of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental [[civil rights]] and civil freedoms.+
-{{quote|We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.|United States Declaration of Independence, 1776}}+17th-century English philosopher [[John Locke]] discussed natural rights in his work, identifying them as being "life, liberty, and estate (property)", and argued that such fundamental rights could not be surrendered in the [[social contract]]. In Britain in 1689, the English [[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights]] and the Scottish [[Claim of Right Act 1689|Claim of Right]] each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions. Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789), leading to the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] and the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] respectively, both of which articulated certain human rights. Additionally, the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]] of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental [[civil rights]] and civil freedoms.
 +:We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."
===1800 to World War I=== ===1800 to World War I===
-[[Image:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|left|thumb|''Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen'' approved by the National Assembly of France, 26 August 1789]]+Philosophers such as [[Thomas Paine]], [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Hegel]] expanded on the theme of [[Universality (philosophy)|universality]] during the 18th and [[19th century|19th]] centuries. In [[1831]] [[William Lloyd Garrison]] wrote in a newspaper called ''[[The Liberator (newspaper)|The Liberator]]'' that he was trying to enlist his readers in "the great cause of human rights" so the term ''human rights'' probably came into use sometime between Paine's ''The Rights of Man'' and Garrison's publication. In 1849 a contemporary, [[Henry David Thoreau]], wrote about human rights in his treatise ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|On the Duty of Civil Disobedience]]'' [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/statecraft/civ.dis.html] which was later influential on human rights and civil rights thinkers. United States [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|Supreme Court Justice David Davis]], in his 1867 opinion for [[Ex Parte Milligan]], wrote "By the protection of the law, human rights are secured; withdraw that protection and they are at the mercy of wicked rulers or the clamor of an excited people."
-Philosophers such as [[Thomas Paine]], [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Hegel]] expanded on the theme of [[Universality (philosophy)|universality]] during the 18th and [[19th century|19th]] centuries. In [[1831]] [[William Lloyd Garrison]] wrote in a newspaper called ''[[The Liberator (newspaper)|The Liberator]]'' that he was trying to enlist his readers in "the great cause of human rights"<ref>Mayer (2000) p. 110</ref> so the term ''human rights'' probably came into use sometime between Paine's ''The Rights of Man'' and Garrison's publication. In 1849 a contemporary, [[Henry David Thoreau]], wrote about human rights in his treatise ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|On the Duty of Civil Disobedience]]'' [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/statecraft/civ.dis.html] which was later influential on human rights and civil rights thinkers. United States [[David Davis (Supreme Court justice)|Supreme Court Justice David Davis]], in his 1867 opinion for [[Ex Parte Milligan]], wrote "By the protection of the law, human rights are secured; withdraw that protection and they are at the mercy of wicked rulers or the clamor of an excited people."<ref>{{cite web |title=''Ex Parte Milligan'', 71 U.S. 2, 119. (full text) |url= http://www.law.uchicago.edu/tribunals/docs/milligan.pdf |date=December 1866 |accessdate=28 December 2007}}</ref>+
Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the [[20th century]] in the name of human rights. In [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]], [[trade union|labour union]]s brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating [[child labor|child labour]]. The [[women's rights]] movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to [[vote]]. [[National liberation]] movements in many countries succeeded in driving out [[colony|colonial]] powers. One of the most influential was [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s movement to free his native [[India]] from [[United Kingdom|British]] rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the [[civil rights movement]], and more recent diverse [[identity politics]] movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States. Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the [[20th century]] in the name of human rights. In [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]], [[trade union|labour union]]s brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating [[child labor|child labour]]. The [[women's rights]] movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to [[vote]]. [[National liberation]] movements in many countries succeeded in driving out [[colony|colonial]] powers. One of the most influential was [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s movement to free his native [[India]] from [[United Kingdom|British]] rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the [[civil rights movement]], and more recent diverse [[identity politics]] movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States.
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Established as an agency of the League of Nations, and now part of [[United Nations]], the [[International Labour Organization]] also had a mandate to promote and safeguard certain of the rights later included in the UDHR: Established as an agency of the League of Nations, and now part of [[United Nations]], the [[International Labour Organization]] also had a mandate to promote and safeguard certain of the rights later included in the UDHR:
-{{quote|the primary goal of the ILO today is to promote opportunities for women and men to obtain decent and productive work, in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity.|Report by the Director General for the International Labour Conference 87th Session}}+:"the primary goal of the ILO today is to promote opportunities for women and men to obtain decent and productive work, in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity."
- +
===After World War II=== ===After World War II===
====Universal Declaration of Human Rights==== ====Universal Declaration of Human Rights====
-{{main|Universal Declaration of Human Rights}}+The '''Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)''' is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, partly in response to the barbarism of [[World War II]]. The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world". The declaration was the first international legal effort to limit the behavior of states and press upon them duties to their citizens following the model of the [[corelative|rights-duty duality]].
-[[Image:EleanorRooseveltHumanRights.gif|rightt|thumb|200px|"It is not a [[treaty]]...[In the future, it] may well become the international [[Magna Carta]]."<ref>[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/eleanorrooseveltdeclarationhumanrights.htm Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly] [[10 December]] [[1948]] in Paris, France</ref> [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] with the Spanish text of the Universal Declaration in 1949]]+:"...recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and [[inalienable rights]] of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world"
- +
-The '''Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)''' is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly<ref>(A/RES/217, 10 December 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris)</ref> in 1948, partly in response to the barbarism of [[World War II]]. The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world". The declaration was the first international legal effort to limit the behavior of states and press upon them duties to their citizens following the model of the [[corelative|rights-duty duality]].+
-{{quote|...recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and [[inalienable rights]] of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world|Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948}}+The UDHR was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] as Chair, who began to discuss an ''International Bill of Rights'' in 1947. The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights, and whether, or how, it should be enforced. The Commission proceeded to frame the UDHR and accompanying treaties, but the UDHR quickly became the priority. Canadian law professor John Humprey and French lawyer [[Rene Cassin]] were responsible for much of the cross-national research and the structure of the document respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble. The document was structured by Cassin to include the basic principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in the first two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to each other and to groups; spiritual, public and political rights; and economic, social and cultural rights. The final three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the context of limits, duties and the social and political order in which they are to be realized. Humphrey and Cassin intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable through some means, as is reflected in the third clause of the preamble:
-The UDHR was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] as Chair, who began to discuss an ''International Bill of Rights'' in 1947. The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights, and whether, or how, it should be enforced. The Commission proceeded to frame the UDHR and accompanying treaties, but the UDHR quickly became the priority.<ref name=Glendon>{{cite journal |title=The Rule of Law in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights |last=Glendon |first=Mary Ann |url= http://www.law.northwestern.edu/journals/jihr/v2/5/ |journal=Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights |date=July 2004 |volume=2 |number=5}}</ref> Canadian law professor John Humprey and French lawyer [[Rene Cassin]] were responsible for much of the cross-national research and the structure of the document respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble. The document was structured by Cassin to include the basic principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in the first two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to each other and to groups; spiritual, public and political rights; and economic, social and cultural rights. The final three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the context of limits, duties and the social and political order in which they are to be realized.<ref name=Glendon/> Humphrey and Cassin intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable through some means, as is reflected in the third clause of the preamble:<ref name=Glendon/>+:"Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law."
-{{quote|Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law.|Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948}}+Some of the UDHR was researched and written by a committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all major religions, and drawing on consultation with leaders such as [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. The inclusion of both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights was predicated on the assumption that basic human rights are indivisible and that the different types of rights listed are inextricably linked. Though this principle was not opposed by any member states at the time of adoption (the declaration was adopted unanimously, with the abstention of the [[Soviet bloc]], [[Apartheid]] [[South Africa]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]), this principle was later subject to significant challenges.
-Some of the UDHR was researched and written by a committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all major religions, and drawing on consultation with leaders such as [[Mahatma Gandhi]].<ref>Glendon (2001)</ref> The inclusion of both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights<ref name=Glendon/><ref name="Ball, Gready 2007 p.34">Ball, Gready (2007) p.34</ref> was predicated on the assumption that basic human rights are indivisible and that the different types of rights listed are inextricably linked. Though this principle was not opposed by any member states at the time of adoption (the declaration was adopted unanimously, with the abstention of the [[Soviet bloc]], [[Apartheid]] [[South Africa]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]), this principle was later subject to significant challenges.<ref name="Ball, Gready 2007 p.34"/>+The onset of the [[Cold War]] soon after the UDHR was conceived brought to the fore divisions over the inclusion of both econonic and social rights and civil and political rights in the declaration. Capitalist states tended to place strong emphasis on civil and political rights (such as freedom of association and expression), and were reluctant to include economic and social rights (such as the right to work and the right to join a union). Socialist states placed much greater importance on economic and social rights and argued strongly for their inclusion.
-The onset of the [[Cold War]] soon after the UDHR was conceived brought to the fore divisions over the inclusion of both econonic and social rights and civil and political rights in the declaration. Capitalist states tended to place strong emphasis on civil and political rights (such as freedom of association and expression), and were reluctant to include economic and social rights (such as the right to work and the right to join a union). Socialist states placed much greater importance on economic and social rights and argued strongly for their inclusion.<ref name="Ball, Gready 2007 p.35">Ball, Gready (2007) p.35</ref>+Because of the divisions over which rights to include, and because some states declined to ratify any treaties including certain specific interpretations of human rights, and despite the Soviet bloc and a number of developing countries arguing strongly for the inclusion of all rights in a so-called ''Unity Resolution'', the rights enshrined in the UDHR were split into two separate covenants, allowing states to adopt some rights and derogate others. Though this allowed the covenants to be created, it denied the proposed principle that all rights are linked which was central to some interpretations of the UDHR.
-Because of the divisions over which rights to include, and because some states declined to ratify any treaties including certain specific interpretations of human rights, and despite the Soviet bloc and a number of developing countries arguing strongly for the inclusion of all rights in a so-called ''Unity Resolution'', the rights enshrined in the UDHR were split into two separate covenants, allowing states to adopt some rights and derogate others. Though this allowed the covenants to be created, it denied the proposed principle that all rights are linked which was central to some interpretations of the UDHR.<ref name="Ball, Gready 2007 p.35"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Human Rights and Human Wrongs |author=Littman, David G. |date=19 January 2003 |quote=The principal aim of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was to create a framework for a universal code based on mutual consent. The early years of the United Nations were overshadowed by the division between the Western and Communist conceptions of human rights, although neither side called into question the concept of universality. The debate centered on which "rights" – political, economic, and social – were to be included among the Universal Instruments|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-littman011903.asp}}</ref>+Although the UDHR is a non-binding resolution, it is now considered to be a central component of international [[customary law]] which may be invoked under appropriate circumstances by national and other judiciaries.
- +
-Although the UDHR is a non-binding resolution, it is now considered to be a central component of international [[customary law]] which may be invoked under appropriate circumstances by national and other judiciaries.<ref>Ball, Gready</ref>+
====Human Rights Treaties==== ====Human Rights Treaties====
-In 1966, the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] ('''ICCPR''') and the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] ('''ICESCR''') were adopted by the United Nations, between them making the rights contained in the UDHR binding on all states.<ref>This does not include the Vatican, which although recognised as an independent state, is not a member of the UN.</ref> However, they came into force only in 1976, when they were ratified by a sufficient number of countries (despite achieving the ICCPR, a covenant including no economic or social rights, the US only ratified the ICCPR in 1992).<ref>Ball, Gready (2007) p.37</ref> The ICESCR commits 155 state parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to individuals. +In 1966, the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] ('''ICCPR''') and the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] ('''ICESCR''') were adopted by the United Nations, between them making the rights contained in the UDHR binding on all states. However, they came into force only in 1976, when they were ratified by a sufficient number of countries (despite achieving the ICCPR, a covenant including no economic or social rights, the US only ratified the ICCPR in 1992). The ICESCR commits 155 state parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to individuals.
-{{clr}}+
Since then numerous other treaties ([[International human rights instruments|pieces of legislation]]) have been offered at the international level. They are generally known as ''human rights instruments''. Some of the most significant are: Since then numerous other treaties ([[International human rights instruments|pieces of legislation]]) have been offered at the international level. They are generally known as ''human rights instruments''. Some of the most significant are:
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* [[Freedom (political)]] * [[Freedom (political)]]
* [[Discrimination]] * [[Discrimination]]
- +* [[Negative and positive rights]]
{{GFDL}} {{GFDL}}

Revision as of 18:18, 6 February 2019

"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." --second paragraph of the United States Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson


"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood." --Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)


"Liberté, égalité, fraternité" -- motto of France and of the French Revolution

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Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms to which all human beings are entitled. Examples of rights and freedoms which are often thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in culture, the right to work, and the right to education.

Contents

History

Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true forerunner of human-rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the European Enlightenment. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century.

17th-century English philosopher John Locke discussed natural rights in his work, identifying them as being "life, liberty, and estate (property)", and argued that such fundamental rights could not be surrendered in the social contract. In Britain in 1689, the English Bill of Rights and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions. Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789), leading to the United States Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen respectively, both of which articulated certain human rights. Additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

1800 to World War I

Philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and Hegel expanded on the theme of universality during the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison wrote in a newspaper called The Liberator that he was trying to enlist his readers in "the great cause of human rights" so the term human rights probably came into use sometime between Paine's The Rights of Man and Garrison's publication. In 1849 a contemporary, Henry David Thoreau, wrote about human rights in his treatise On the Duty of Civil Disobedience [1] which was later influential on human rights and civil rights thinkers. United States Supreme Court Justice David Davis, in his 1867 opinion for Ex Parte Milligan, wrote "By the protection of the law, human rights are secured; withdraw that protection and they are at the mercy of wicked rulers or the clamor of an excited people."

Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the 20th century in the name of human rights. In Western Europe and North America, labour unions brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating child labour. The women's rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. One of the most influential was Mahatma Gandhi's movement to free his native India from British rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the civil rights movement, and more recent diverse identity politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States.

The foundation of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the first of the Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of International humanitarian law, to be further developed following the two World Wars.

Between World War I and World War II

The League of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end of World War I. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare. Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights which were later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The League of Nations had mandates to support many of the former colonies of the Western European colonial powers during their transition from colony to independent state.

Established as an agency of the League of Nations, and now part of United Nations, the International Labour Organization also had a mandate to promote and safeguard certain of the rights later included in the UDHR:

"the primary goal of the ILO today is to promote opportunities for women and men to obtain decent and productive work, in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity."

After World War II

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, partly in response to the barbarism of World War II. The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world". The declaration was the first international legal effort to limit the behavior of states and press upon them duties to their citizens following the model of the rights-duty duality.

"...recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world"

The UDHR was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with Eleanor Roosevelt as Chair, who began to discuss an International Bill of Rights in 1947. The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights, and whether, or how, it should be enforced. The Commission proceeded to frame the UDHR and accompanying treaties, but the UDHR quickly became the priority. Canadian law professor John Humprey and French lawyer Rene Cassin were responsible for much of the cross-national research and the structure of the document respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble. The document was structured by Cassin to include the basic principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in the first two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to each other and to groups; spiritual, public and political rights; and economic, social and cultural rights. The final three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the context of limits, duties and the social and political order in which they are to be realized. Humphrey and Cassin intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable through some means, as is reflected in the third clause of the preamble:

"Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law."

Some of the UDHR was researched and written by a committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all major religions, and drawing on consultation with leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi. The inclusion of both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights was predicated on the assumption that basic human rights are indivisible and that the different types of rights listed are inextricably linked. Though this principle was not opposed by any member states at the time of adoption (the declaration was adopted unanimously, with the abstention of the Soviet bloc, Apartheid South Africa and Saudi Arabia), this principle was later subject to significant challenges.

The onset of the Cold War soon after the UDHR was conceived brought to the fore divisions over the inclusion of both econonic and social rights and civil and political rights in the declaration. Capitalist states tended to place strong emphasis on civil and political rights (such as freedom of association and expression), and were reluctant to include economic and social rights (such as the right to work and the right to join a union). Socialist states placed much greater importance on economic and social rights and argued strongly for their inclusion.

Because of the divisions over which rights to include, and because some states declined to ratify any treaties including certain specific interpretations of human rights, and despite the Soviet bloc and a number of developing countries arguing strongly for the inclusion of all rights in a so-called Unity Resolution, the rights enshrined in the UDHR were split into two separate covenants, allowing states to adopt some rights and derogate others. Though this allowed the covenants to be created, it denied the proposed principle that all rights are linked which was central to some interpretations of the UDHR.

Although the UDHR is a non-binding resolution, it is now considered to be a central component of international customary law which may be invoked under appropriate circumstances by national and other judiciaries.

Human Rights Treaties

In 1966, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) were adopted by the United Nations, between them making the rights contained in the UDHR binding on all states. However, they came into force only in 1976, when they were ratified by a sufficient number of countries (despite achieving the ICCPR, a covenant including no economic or social rights, the US only ratified the ICCPR in 1992). The ICESCR commits 155 state parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to individuals.

Since then numerous other treaties (pieces of legislation) have been offered at the international level. They are generally known as human rights instruments. Some of the most significant are:


See also




Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "Human rights" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.

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