Social desirability bias
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| - | A '''self-report inventory''' is a type of [[psychological test]] in which a person fills out a survey or [[questionnaire]] with or without the help of an investigator. Self-report inventories often ask direct questions about [[symptoms]], [[behaviors]], and personality traits associated with one or many [[mental disorders]] or [[personality types]] in order to easily gain insight into a patient's personality or illness. Most self-report inventories can be taken or administered within five to 15 minutes, although some, like the [[MMPI]], can take up to three hours to fully complete. There are three major approaches to developing self-report inventories: theory-guided, [[factor analysis]], and criterion-key. Theory-guided inventories are constructed around a theory of personality. Criterion-keyed inventories are based around questions that have been shown to statistically discriminate between a control group and a criterion group. Questionnaires typically use one of three formats: a [[Likert scale]], true-false, or forced choice. True-false involves questions that the individual denotes as either being true or false about themselves. Forced-choice is a pair of statements that require the individual to choose one as being most representative of themselves. | + | In [[Social research|social science research]], '''social desirability bias''' is a type of [[response bias]] that is the tendency of [[survey methodology|survey]] respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. It can take the form of over-reporting "good behavior" or under-reporting "bad", or undesirable behavior. The tendency poses a serious problem with conducting research with [[Self-report study|self-reports]], especially questionnaires. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences. |
| - | Self-report inventories can have validity problems. Patients may exaggerate symptoms in order to make their situation seem worse, or they may under-report the severity or frequency of symptoms in order to minimize their problems. Another issue is the [[social desirability bias]]. | + | Topics where socially desirable responding (SDR) is of special concern are self-reports of abilities, personality, sexual behavior, and drug use. When confronted with the question "How often do you [[Masturbation|masturbate]]?", for example, respondents may be pressured by the societal [[taboo]] against masturbation, and either under-report the frequency or avoid answering the question. Therefore, the mean rates of masturbation derived from self-report surveys are likely to be severe underestimates. |
| - | ==Problems with Self-report inventories== | + | When confronted with the question, "Do you use drugs/illicit substances?" the respondent may be influenced by the fact that [[controlled substance]]s, including the more commonly used [[marijuana]], are generally illegal. Respondents may feel pressured to deny any drug use or [[Rationalization (psychology)|rationalize]] it, e.g. "I only smoke marijuana when my friends are around." The bias can also influence reports of number of sexual partners. In fact, the bias may operate in opposite directions for different subgroups: Whereas men tend to inflate the numbers, women tend to underestimate theirs. In either case, the mean reports from both groups are likely to be distorted by social desirability bias. |
| - | The biggest problem with self-report inventories is that patients may exaggerate symptoms in order to make their situation seem worse, or they may under-report the severity or frequency of symptoms in order to minimize their problems. For this reason, self-report inventories should be used only for measuring for symptom change and severity and should never be solely used to diagnose a mental disorder. Clinical discretion is advised for all self-report inventories. | + | |
| - | Many personality tests, such as the [[MMPI]] or the [[MBTI]] add questions that are designed to make it very difficult for a person to exaggerate traits and symptoms. However, these tests suffer from the inherent problems associated with personality theory and testing, in that ''personality'' is a fluid concept that can be difficult to define. | + | Other topics that are sensitive to social desirability bias: |
| - | ==Popular Self-Report Inventories== | + | *Personal [[income]] and earnings, often inflated when low and deflated when high |
| - | * [[16 PF]] | + | *Feelings of low [[self-esteem|self-worth]] and/or powerlessness, often denied |
| - | * [[Beck Anxiety Inventory]] | + | *[[Excretory system|Excretory]] functions, often approached uncomfortably, if discussed at all |
| - | * [[Beck Depression Inventory]] | + | *Compliance with medicinal dosing schedules, often inflated |
| - | * [[Beck Hopelessness Scale]] | + | *[[Religion]], often either avoided or uncomfortably approached |
| - | * [[California Psychological Inventory]] | + | *[[Patriotism]], either inflated or, if denied, done so with a fear of other party's judgment |
| - | * [[Eysenck Personality Questionnaire]] | + | *[[Bigotry]] and [[Toleration|intolerance]], often denied, even if it exists within the responder |
| - | * [[Geriatric Depression Scale]] | + | *Intellectual achievements, often inflated |
| - | * Hirschfeld Mood Disorder Questionnaire | + | *Physical appearance, either inflated or deflated |
| - | * [[Kuder Occupational Interest Survey]] | + | *Acts of real or imagined physical [[violence]], often denied |
| - | * [[Major Depression Inventory]] | + | *Indicators of charity or "benevolence", often inflated |
| - | * [[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]] | + | *Illegal acts, often denied |
| - | * [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]] | + | |
| - | * Personality Inventory for Children-2 | + | == Individual differences == |
| - | * [[Revised NEO Personality Inventory]] | + | The fact that people differ in their tendency to engage in socially desirable responding (SDR) is a special concern to those measuring individual differences with self-reports. Individual differences in SDR make it difficult to distinguish those people with good traits who are responding factually from those distorting their answers in a positive direction. |
| - | * [[State-Trait Anxiety Inventory]] | + | |
| + | When SDR cannot be eliminated, researchers may resort to evaluating the tendency and then control for it. A separate SDR measure must be administered together with the primary measure (test or interview) aimed at the subject matter of the research/investigation.The key assumption is that respondents who answer in a socially desirable manner on that scale are also responding desirably to all self-reports throughout the study. | ||
| + | |||
| + | In some cases the entire questionnaire package from high scoring respondents may simply be discarded. Alternatively, respondents' answers on the primary questionnaires may be statistically adjusted commensurate with their SDR tendencies. For example, this adjustment is performed automatically in the standard scoring of MMPI scales. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The major concern with SDR scales is that they confound style with content. After all, people actually differ in the degree to which they possess desirable traits (e.g. nuns versus criminals). Consequently, measures of social desirability confound true differences with social-desirability bias. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Standard measures == | ||
| + | Until the 1990s, the most commonly used measure of socially desirable responding was the [[Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale]]. The original version comprised 33 True-False items. A shortened version, the Strahan–Gerbasi only comprises ten items, but some have raised questions regarding the reliability of this measure. | ||
| + | |||
| + | In 1991, [[Delroy L. Paulhus]] published the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR): a questionnaire designed to measure two forms of SDR. This forty-item instrument provides separate subscales for "[[impression management]]", the tendency to give inflated self-descriptions to an audience; and ''self-deceptive enhancement'', the tendency to give honest but inflated self-descriptions. The commercial version of the BIDR called "Paulhus Deception Scales (PDS)". | ||
| + | |||
| + | == Non-English measures == | ||
| + | Scales designed to tap response styles are available in all major languages, including Italian and German. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Another measure has been used in surveys or opinion polls carried out by [[interviewing]] people [[Face-to-face (philosophy)|face-to-face]] or through the [[Field work|telephone]]. | ||
| + | |||
| + | == Other response styles == | ||
| + | "Extreme response style" (ERS) takes the form of exaggerated extremity preference, e.g. for '1' or '7' on 7-point scales. Its converse, 'moderacy bias' entails a preference for middle range (or midpoint) responses (e.g. 3–5 on 7-point scales). | ||
| + | |||
| + | "Acquiescence" is the tendency to prefer the higher ratings over lower ratings, whatever the content of the question. | ||
| + | |||
| + | These kinds of response styles differ from social desirability bias in that they are unrelated to the question's content and may be present in both socially neutral and in socially favorable or unfavorable contexts, whereas SDR is, by definition, tied to the latter. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Anonymity and confidentiality== | ||
| + | When the subjects' details are not required, as in sample investigations and [[Sampling (statistics)|screening]]s, anonymous administration is preferably used as the person does not feel directly and personally involved in the answers he or she is going to give. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Anonymous self-administration provides neutrality, detachment and reassurance. An even better result is obtained by returning the questionnaires by mail or ballot boxes so as to further guarantee anonymity and the impossibility to identify the subjects who filled in the questionnaires. | ||
| + | |||
| + | A further method to assess the prevalence of socially sensitive issues is the so-called [[Randomized response|randomized response technique]]. Therein, for example, respondents secretly throw a coin and respond “yes” if it comes up heads, and are instructed to respond truthfully (e.g. drug abuse) if it comes up tails. This enables the researcher to estimate the actual prevalence of the given behavior without needing to know the true state of an individual respondent. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Neutralized administration== | ||
| + | SDR tends to be reduced by wording questions in a neutral fashion. Another is to use forced-choice questions where the two options have been equated for their desirability. | ||
| + | |||
| + | One approach is to administer tests through a [[computer]] (self-administration software). A computer, even compared to the most competent interviewer, provides a higher sense of neutrality as it does not appear judgmental. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Behavioral measurement== | ||
| + | The most recent approach—[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1e52/331cc415d8573573b7358b74a9e122931be3.pdf the over-claiming technique]—assesses the tendency to claim knowledge about non-existent items. More complex methods to promote honest answers include the [[randomized response]] and [[unmatched count]] techniques, as well as the [[bogus pipeline]] technique. | ||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| + | *[[Bradley effect]] | ||
| + | *[[Reactivity (psychology)]] | ||
| *[[Self-report study]] | *[[Self-report study]] | ||
| + | *[[Silent majority]] | ||
| + | *[[Social research]] | ||
| + | *[[Virtue signalling]] | ||
| + | |||
| {{GFDL}} | {{GFDL}} | ||
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In social science research, social desirability bias is a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. It can take the form of over-reporting "good behavior" or under-reporting "bad", or undesirable behavior. The tendency poses a serious problem with conducting research with self-reports, especially questionnaires. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences.
Topics where socially desirable responding (SDR) is of special concern are self-reports of abilities, personality, sexual behavior, and drug use. When confronted with the question "How often do you masturbate?", for example, respondents may be pressured by the societal taboo against masturbation, and either under-report the frequency or avoid answering the question. Therefore, the mean rates of masturbation derived from self-report surveys are likely to be severe underestimates.
When confronted with the question, "Do you use drugs/illicit substances?" the respondent may be influenced by the fact that controlled substances, including the more commonly used marijuana, are generally illegal. Respondents may feel pressured to deny any drug use or rationalize it, e.g. "I only smoke marijuana when my friends are around." The bias can also influence reports of number of sexual partners. In fact, the bias may operate in opposite directions for different subgroups: Whereas men tend to inflate the numbers, women tend to underestimate theirs. In either case, the mean reports from both groups are likely to be distorted by social desirability bias.
Other topics that are sensitive to social desirability bias:
- Personal income and earnings, often inflated when low and deflated when high
- Feelings of low self-worth and/or powerlessness, often denied
- Excretory functions, often approached uncomfortably, if discussed at all
- Compliance with medicinal dosing schedules, often inflated
- Religion, often either avoided or uncomfortably approached
- Patriotism, either inflated or, if denied, done so with a fear of other party's judgment
- Bigotry and intolerance, often denied, even if it exists within the responder
- Intellectual achievements, often inflated
- Physical appearance, either inflated or deflated
- Acts of real or imagined physical violence, often denied
- Indicators of charity or "benevolence", often inflated
- Illegal acts, often denied
Contents |
Individual differences
The fact that people differ in their tendency to engage in socially desirable responding (SDR) is a special concern to those measuring individual differences with self-reports. Individual differences in SDR make it difficult to distinguish those people with good traits who are responding factually from those distorting their answers in a positive direction.
When SDR cannot be eliminated, researchers may resort to evaluating the tendency and then control for it. A separate SDR measure must be administered together with the primary measure (test or interview) aimed at the subject matter of the research/investigation.The key assumption is that respondents who answer in a socially desirable manner on that scale are also responding desirably to all self-reports throughout the study.
In some cases the entire questionnaire package from high scoring respondents may simply be discarded. Alternatively, respondents' answers on the primary questionnaires may be statistically adjusted commensurate with their SDR tendencies. For example, this adjustment is performed automatically in the standard scoring of MMPI scales.
The major concern with SDR scales is that they confound style with content. After all, people actually differ in the degree to which they possess desirable traits (e.g. nuns versus criminals). Consequently, measures of social desirability confound true differences with social-desirability bias.
Standard measures
Until the 1990s, the most commonly used measure of socially desirable responding was the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale. The original version comprised 33 True-False items. A shortened version, the Strahan–Gerbasi only comprises ten items, but some have raised questions regarding the reliability of this measure.
In 1991, Delroy L. Paulhus published the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR): a questionnaire designed to measure two forms of SDR. This forty-item instrument provides separate subscales for "impression management", the tendency to give inflated self-descriptions to an audience; and self-deceptive enhancement, the tendency to give honest but inflated self-descriptions. The commercial version of the BIDR called "Paulhus Deception Scales (PDS)".
Non-English measures
Scales designed to tap response styles are available in all major languages, including Italian and German.
Another measure has been used in surveys or opinion polls carried out by interviewing people face-to-face or through the telephone.
Other response styles
"Extreme response style" (ERS) takes the form of exaggerated extremity preference, e.g. for '1' or '7' on 7-point scales. Its converse, 'moderacy bias' entails a preference for middle range (or midpoint) responses (e.g. 3–5 on 7-point scales).
"Acquiescence" is the tendency to prefer the higher ratings over lower ratings, whatever the content of the question.
These kinds of response styles differ from social desirability bias in that they are unrelated to the question's content and may be present in both socially neutral and in socially favorable or unfavorable contexts, whereas SDR is, by definition, tied to the latter.
Anonymity and confidentiality
When the subjects' details are not required, as in sample investigations and screenings, anonymous administration is preferably used as the person does not feel directly and personally involved in the answers he or she is going to give.
Anonymous self-administration provides neutrality, detachment and reassurance. An even better result is obtained by returning the questionnaires by mail or ballot boxes so as to further guarantee anonymity and the impossibility to identify the subjects who filled in the questionnaires.
A further method to assess the prevalence of socially sensitive issues is the so-called randomized response technique. Therein, for example, respondents secretly throw a coin and respond “yes” if it comes up heads, and are instructed to respond truthfully (e.g. drug abuse) if it comes up tails. This enables the researcher to estimate the actual prevalence of the given behavior without needing to know the true state of an individual respondent.
Neutralized administration
SDR tends to be reduced by wording questions in a neutral fashion. Another is to use forced-choice questions where the two options have been equated for their desirability.
One approach is to administer tests through a computer (self-administration software). A computer, even compared to the most competent interviewer, provides a higher sense of neutrality as it does not appear judgmental.
Behavioral measurement
The most recent approach—the over-claiming technique—assesses the tendency to claim knowledge about non-existent items. More complex methods to promote honest answers include the randomized response and unmatched count techniques, as well as the bogus pipeline technique.
See also
- Bradley effect
- Reactivity (psychology)
- Self-report study
- Silent majority
- Social research
- Virtue signalling
