An Elementary History of Art  

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"BAROQUE (quaint) style, 1600-1800. The simple beauty which distinguished the works of art of the fifteenth century , and the richness and dignity which they displayed in the sixteenth, were succeeded in the seventeenth by a style in which were exaggerated all the defects of the Renaissance, and from which almost all its merits were left out, and which reflected the unbridled licence and effeminate luxury of the age. It was neither classical nor gothic. Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598—1680) was the chief master of this style, and the extent to which: unmeaning and capricious decoration was indulged in is seen in his bronze Baldacchino (i.e. canopy) covering the high altar of St, Peter's. His greatest architectural work is the colossal colonnade in front of St. Peter's (Fig. 50). Bernini was also famous as a sculptor. One of his best works is a group of Apollo and Daphne, finished in his eighteenth year. His rival, Francesco Borromini (1599— 1667), endeavoured to outdo him by even greater exaggeration of ornament. From his buildings rectilinear forms disappear almost entirely,—even the gables of the windows, the cornices, and the entablatures are broken and contorted, so that all regularity of design is last, and an effect produced of painful confusion and instability."--An Elementary History of Art (1874) by Nancy Bell

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An Elementary History of Art (1874) is a book by Nancy Bell. It seems to have freely burroughed from Les Merveilles de la peinture (1868-1869) by Viardot.


Contents

Full text[1]

An elementary history ofart N. D'Anvers ) R Bell 3MAD 1

1 1 ۱۰ این با i's ASTOR , LINOX دمام 18 EDU Uhurimi SCULPTURE IN THE CHANCEL AISLE - CHARTRES CATHEDRAL Fifteenth Century. This ade naine 5.24 os AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART ARCHITECTURE - SCULPTURE - PAINTING MUSIC 72 BY N. D'ANVERS pseud . AUTHOR OF “ LIFE OF RAPHAEL D'URBINO," ETC. Bell Nanoy R E. (Meudens) SECOND EDITION WITH INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR ROGER SMITH NEW YORK SCRIBNER AND WELFORD LONDON SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIPINGTON 1884 TILL P1 L R -۔ WYKK رہی 4 ( All rights reserved. ) LONDON : R. CLAY, Sons, AND TAYLOR, BREAD STREET HILL, E.C. TO MY DEAR FATHER I DEDICATE THIS THE SECOND EDITION OF MY FIRST BOOK, N. D'ANVERS. Belsize Park Gardens, Hampstead, December, 1881 . 2S YT -

PREFACE.

THE'HE framework and many of the illustrations of this book have been borrowed, with the per mission of the publishers, from a small ' Guide to the History of Art ' which has long been in use in German schools ; but this framework has been filled in by reference to standard English, German , and French authorities, and each division of the book has been supplemented by a chapter on Art in England. If the ' Elementary History ' awake an interest in Art, and teach students to recognise and appreciate beauty under whatever form it is presented to the senses, the aim of the writer will have been fulfilled. N. D'ANVERS.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

PREVENTED by. illness from any personal super intendence of this second edition, I have only to thank the Editor for his careful revision of my original text, and his many additions to the history of the Schools of Painting, especially those of France and Spain. To the publishers I am indebted for the very valuable assistance of no less than 76 new engravings which tend so much to illustrate the distinctive peculiarities of the various epochs in the history of art. N. D’ANVERS. EHA 6

INTRODUCTION.

THHE fine arts once played a very important part in the refined and intellectual life of this country ; but since the close of the middle ages they have been undervalued and neglected among us. Happily at the present day many signs of a revival are presenting them selves, and art is now in much greater danger of being misunderstood than forgotten. Classical languages are no longer the only instruments of culture, and literary attain ments have now ceased to be considered — as they for long were — the sole objects of a cultivated man's ambition ; for causes of an almost opposite nature have largely directed attention to science and to the arts. The marvellous advances, brilliant discoveries, and splendid attainments of our foremost natural philosophers have been among the most powerful of the influences which have secured for scientific research so large a share of public attention . In other words, we have cared for science because it is living and growing under our eyes. With art the case is different. It is a revival and not a fresh growth which we are witnessing. Without INTRODUCTION, xi disparaging the artists of the present century, it is indisputable that, with the exception to some extent of landscape, they have in no case carried the arts so far as they had already advanced at earlier periods of their history. The arts have revived because a time of prolonged peace and the accumulation of great wealth have given to many of the rich the leisure and means to surround themselves with objects of refinement and luxury ; while the marvellous spread of illustrated publications and the increased facilities for travelling and observing the buildings and pictures with which the older countries of Europe teem , have tended to rouse among all ranks of the community an interest in works of art. The present movement is essentially a popular one. It is not headed, like the scientific movement, by the foremost men of the day with all their acuteness and knowledge stimu lated to the full . It has rather taken its rise among those who, with certain brilliant exceptions, are but ill informed on artistic subjects, and therefore stand peculiarly in need of guidance and instruction. Nothing could con sequently be more appropriate to the wants of the day than the publication of works on the fine arts calculated to give sound information in a popular form . The present sketch of the History of Art, elementary as it is, may, therefore, be held to be an attempt in the right direction. It is not within the power of this or of any book to give an intimate knowledge and keen appreciation of art.. That can only be attained by the zealous study of works of art themselves ; and it is difficult to gain a sufficiently intimate acquaintance with such works for xii INTRODUCTION. this purpose, except after going through some portion at least of the training of a practical artist. Few, if any, can thoroughly appreciate an artistic rendering of outline, of colour, or of form , without some skill in drawing, colour ing, or modelling. A great deal, however, remains to be known about works of art which can be learned from books, which those who cannot draw a line maý most usefully learn , and of which even those who practise some branch of the fine arts with great success are often ignorant. It is the object of this little volume to convey an outline of so much of this knowledge as can be com prised under the form of a History. Perhaps the best starting - point for the study of all, or any of the fine arts, is their history. In the case of each country where art has been cultivated, we have a simple commencement, a gradual growth, a culminating point, and a decline; and it is while endeavouring to understand the course which was run by any one art, or any one school of artists, that we can best acquire a knowledge of the principles as well as the practice of the art or school in question. Such a knowledge also enables the student to appreciate at their due value the works of any individual artist which may meet, and to assign to them their true position. At a time, then, when some knowledge of pictures and architecture, of statues and of music, is becoming indispensable to those who desire to share in the culture of the day — when the architecture of public and private buildings is constantly attracting attention — when the galleries of this country are being thrown open to the public — and when many thousands of our countrymen 1 INTRODUCTION. xiii and countrywomen visit the Continent each year— the History of Art has a great claim to be studied. It is quite true, as has been pointed out, that a knowledge of the history does not necessarily convey the power to per ceive the beauty of works of art. It is also true that this knowledge may exist without a keen perception of the theoretical principles of art, or of the critical rules by which the productions of artists should be judged . It however lies at the root of both these acquirements, and the best way of cultivating an appreciation of works of art, and of training the judgment to form sound opinions of their merits and defects, will be to begin by becoming familiar with their history through all time, and then to seek an intimate acquaintance with such of the best examples of each art as may be accessible. For students who desire thus to train their own minds, for those who wish to prepare themselves for Continental travel, and above all, for pupils in schools of a high class, no handbook of Art History could well be more suitable than the little volume now published. Its arrangement adheres pretty closely to that of the well- known German manual on which it is based ; but having had an oppor tunity of comparing the two closely, I find this work to be so much varied and enlarged as to be virtually a new book . As far as regards architecture, the only art upon which I can venture to speak with the confidence which grows out of some degree of personal experience, I have no hesitation in saying that though the notices of the styles of various countries are necessarily so very brief as to xiv INTRODUCTION. omit much which in a larger volume ought to find a place, the ' Elementary History ' contains sufficient in formation to be of real service to the art - student or the traveller. The history of architecture is so intimately allied to the theory and the artistic motives of the archi tect, that it is hopeless to attempt to appreciate any important building or group of buildings without some knowledge of their place in the development or decadence of the art. What is true of architecture in this respect is also true of the sister arts ; and the information which this volume contains will suffice, if thoroughly understood and borne in mind, to act as a key to much which without it must remain closed, even to persons naturally possessing artistic instincts and gifted with artistic skill. T. ROGER SMITH.

CONTENTS .

PART I. ARCHITECTURE , PAGE INTRODUCTION : Definition of Architecture ; Materials and Methods of Building . 1 СВАР. . . 5 10 17 20 . • . 23 26 I. INDIAN ARCHITECTURE II. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE III, ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE : BABYLON AND NINEVEH . IV. MEDO - PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE V. ARCHITECTURE OF Asia MINOR . VI. EARLY AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE VII. GREEK ARCHITECTURE : Doric ; Ionic ; Corinthian VIII . ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE IX . ROMAN ARCHITECTURE X. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE XI. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE . XII. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE XIII. MOORISH ARCHITECTURE XIV. GOTHIO ARCHITECTURE XV. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE : Early Renaissance ; Advanced Renaissance ; Baroque Style XVI. ARCHITECTURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY . . . 30 45 47 57 62 67 81 86 . . . . 98 . . 110 xvi CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE XVII. ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN : 1. Anglo- Saxon Architecture ; 2. Norman Style ; 3. Gothic Architecture in England : ( a ) Early English Architecture— (6 ) The Decorated Style- (c) The Perpen dicular Style ; 4. The Transitional Style ; 5. Architec ture in Great Britain in the eighteenth century ; 6. Archi tecture in Great Britain in the nineteenth century · 116 PART II. SCULPTURE. INTRODUCTION : Materials used in Sculpture ; Processes used in Sculpture 162 I. ORIENTAL SCULPTURE : 1. India and the Neighbouring Countries ; 2. Egypt ; 3. Babylon and Nineveh ; 4. Persia ; 5. Asia Minor and Syria ; 6. China and Japan ; 7. Peru and Mexico 169 II . GREEK SCULPTURE : 1. First Period ; 2. Second Period ; 3. Third Period ; 4. Fourth Period . 184 III. ETRUSCAN SCULPTURE 205 IV. Roman SCULPTURE : 1. First Period ; 2. Second Period ; 3. Third Period 208 V. EARLY CHRISTIAN SCULPTURE. FIRST TO Tenth CENTURY 220 VI. SCULPTURE OF THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD : 1. Tenth and eleventh centuries ; 2. From 1100 to 1400 A.D. 225 VII. SCULPTURE IN THE Gothic Period ( from 1225 to 1400 A.D.) 234 VIII. SCULPTURE IN THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD : 1. Sculpture in Italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ; 2. Sculpture of the Renaissance Period in France and the rest of Europe 243 IX. SCULPTURE IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CEN 267 X. SCULPTURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 273 XI. British SCULPTURE . 281 XII. AMERICAN SCULPTURE 294 . . TURIES . CONTENTS. xvii PART III. PAINTING . PAGE INTRODUCTION : Means and Methods of Painting : 1. Form ; 2. Colour ; 3. Composition ; 4. Materials ; 5. Subjects . 299 сHAP. I. PAINTING IN THE CLASSIO PERIOD : 1. Egyptian Painting ; 2. Greek Painting ; 3. Etruscan Painting ; 4. Roman Painting 314 II. PAINTING IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN, BYZANTINE, AND MIDDLE AGES : 1. Early Christian Painting, or the Late Roman School ; 2. The Byzantine School ; 3. Painting in the Middle Ages-( a) In Italy_ (6 ) In France and Germany , ( C) Decorative ing 328 III. RENAISSANCE PAINTING IN ITALY : 1. Painting in Italy in the fifteenth century- ( a ) The Florentine School— ( 6) The Paduan School- ( c) The Venetian School— ( d ) Other Schools of Upper Italy , ( e ) The Umbrian School- ( f ) The later Florentine School. 2. Painting in Italy in the sixteenth century-la; Leonardo da Vinci and his School— ( 6) Michelangelo and his School- ( c) The Florentine School of the sixteenth century- (d ) Raphael and his School- (e) The Ferrarese School - ( $ ) The Lombardic School— ( 9) The Venetian School . 349 IV. RENAISSANCE PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS AND GERMANY : 1. The Early Flemish and Dutch Schools - ( a ) The School of Bruges— (6 ) The Early Dutch School- ( c) The Antwerp School- ( d ) The Italianized Flemings—( e) The Dutch School of the late sixteenth century. 2. The German School - ( a) The Swabian School ( 6) The Augsburg School- (c) The Franconian School ( d ) The School of Saxony- (e) Decline ofart in Germany 421 V. PAINTING IN ITALY IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES : 1. The Eclectic School of Bologna ; 2. The Naturalistic School ; 3. The Later Venetian School . 457 xviii CONTENTS. PAGE CHAP . . . 465 VI. PAINTING IN SPAIN : 1. The Valencian School ; 2. The Andalucian School ; 3. The Castilian School ; 4. The Italian- Spanish Painters of Madrid ; 5. Velazquez and his followers VII. PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES : 1. The Antwerp School-( a) Rubens and his Cotem poraries— ( 6) The Pupils of Rubens- (c) The later Ant werp School- (d ) Franco - Flemish Painters- ( e) The Modern Belgian School. 2. The Dutch School—( a) Rembrandt and his pupils— (6) The later Dutch Painters of domestic life- ( e) Dutch Painters of Landscapes and Battle Scenes— d) Dutch Marine Painters- ( e) Dutch Painters of Architecture, Poultry, Still - life, and Flowers 498 1550 560 VIII. PAINTING IN GERMANY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY : 1. Overbeck and his School ; 2. The School of Munich ; 3. Genre Painters in Germany IX . PAINTING IN FRANCE : 1. In the fifteenth , sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries; 2. In the eighteenth century ; 3. In the nineteenth century . X. PAINTING IN ENGLAND : 1. Foreign Artists in England ; 2. The first English Artists : other Foreigners ; 3. English Painters of the eighteenth century ; 4. Early English Water- Colour Painters ; 5. English Painters of the nineteenth century ; 6. Later English Water- colour Painters XI. PAINTING IN AMERICA 596 647 LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL GODS AND GODDESSES OF GREECE AND ROME 661 INDEX . 662

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

ARCHITECTURE. PIG. PAGE . . . . Chartres Cathedral. Interior of Choir ( Frontispiece ). Miserere Seat. From Wells Cathedral (on title - page). 1. Tope of Ceylon . 6 2. Cave of Elephanta 7 3. Pillar in Hindu Temple 8 4. Hindu Temple. Gopura, or Gate Pyramid 5. Pylon (Entrance -gate) of an Egyptian Temple 12 6. Egyptian Columns . 13 7. Capital of an Egyptian Column Palm Ornament 13 8. Egyptian Pillar and Beam . 14 9. Rock - cut Temple at Ipsambul, on the Nile 15 9a. Egyptian Sphinx 16 10. Winged Bulls of the gateway at Khorsabad 18 11. Pavement Slab from the Palace of Koyunjik 19 12. Part of the Rock- cut Façade of the Tomb of Darius 21 13. Column with Spiral Ornament . 22 14. Rock- cut front of a grave at Doganlu. The so - called Grave of Midas . 23 15. Rock - cut Tomb at Myra in Lycia 25 16. Palace of Zayi . 27 17. Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal 28 17a. Ground- plan of the Temple of Neptune at Pæstum 30 18. Doric Order ; from the Temple of Theseus at Athens . 34 19. Ionic Order ; from the Temple of Athena at Priene 36 20. Corinthian Order ; from the Monument of Lysicrates at Athens . 38 21. The Temple of Theseus at Athens 40 22. Acropolis at Athens, Propylæa and Parthenon ( restored) 41 . XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PIG . PAGE 23. Caryatid Porch of the Erechtheum . 43 23a . Façade of Tomb at Castellaccio 46 24. Roman - Corinthian Capital 49 25. Composite Capital . 49 26. Section of the Pantheon . 50 27. The Arch of Constantine . 52 28. Trajan's Column 54 29. Interior of a Pompeian Basilica ( restored ) . 56 30. Ground- plan of the old Basilica of S. Peter's, Rome . 58 31. Interior of the Basilica of S. Paul, Rome . 60 32. Ground -plan of S. Sophia at Constantinople 63 33. S. Mark's, Venice. Part of the Front 65 34. Ground- plan of a Romanesque Basilica . S. Godehard at Hil desheim 68 35. Basket - capital, from the Cathedral of Gurk 69 36. Romanesque Arcaded Cornice. From a church at Vienna 70 37. Gateway of the Transition Period . Church of S. Ják, Hungary . 71 38. Church of Swartz Rheindorf on the Rhine 75 39. Exterior of S. Stephen's, Caen ( Abbaye aux Hommes) 77 40. Romanesque Arches 79 40a. Doorway in the Alhambra 80 41. Arabian Gateway at Iconium 82 41a. Moorish Pavilion near Granada 84 42. Interior of a Gothic Cathedral. Beauvais 87 43. Plan of a Gothic Cathedral. Ameins 88 44. West Front of Rheims Cathedral 90 45. The Church of S. Catherine at Oppenheim 94 46. The Cà d'Oro, Venice 97 47. The Cathedral at Florence, with Giotto's Campanile 99 48. Palazzo Vendramin Calergi, Venice . 101 49. Court of the Cancellaria Palace at Rome 102 50. S. Peter's, Rome 103 51. Château of Chenonceaux, on the Loire 107 52. Tower of Earl's Barton Church, Northamptonshire '. 119 53. Doorway of Barfreston Church , Kent 120 54. Late Norman Shafts, Capitals, and Arches 55. Ground- plan of Peterborough Cathedral 125 56. Nave of Peterborough Cathedral 125 57. Norwich Castle ; the Keep 128 58. Clustered Pillar in the Nave of Wells Cathedral 130 a . 122 . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xx FIG. PAGE . . . 59. Ground- plan of Salisbury Cathedral ; East End and Transept . 133 60. From the Nave of Wells Cathedral . 135 61. From the Choir of Worcester Cathedral 135 62. York Minster ; West Front 139 63. Part of Roof of Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster 143 64. Wolsey's Great Hall, Hampton Court 145 65. Banqueting Hall, Whitehall 148 66. St. Paul's Cathedral, London 149 67. Bridgewater House . 155 . . . SCULPTURE. . . . 70. Egyptian Statue in Black Granite 171 71. Egyptian Bas - relief. Rameses III . between Thoth and Horus . 173 72. Assyrian Bas- relief on a Wall . 176 73. Assyrian Bas- relief. Part of a Lion- hunt, from Nimrud .. 177 74. Statue of a Priest 178 75. Persian Bas-relief, from Persepolis 179 76. Sculpture on the Lion Gate at Mycenæ 186 77. From the Harpy Tomb in the British Museum . 189 78. Discobolus, after Myron . 191 79. Head of Juno, after Polycletus 194 80. Group from the Eastern Frieze of the Parthenon 195 81. Bas - relief from the Parthenon Frieze 196 82. One of the Metopes of the Parthenon 198 83. Statue of Sophocles . 201 84. The Laocoon 203 85. The Dying Gladiator 204 86. Relief from an Etruscan Tomb 206 87. The Apollo Belvedere. In the Vatican 208 88. Diana with the Stag 209 89, Venus de' Medici 210 90. Marble Statue of Augustus. In the Vatican 212 91. The Nile. From the colossal marble in the Vatican 215 92. Relief from the Trajan Column . 216 93. Terra - cotta Vase 219 94. Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus. In St. Peter's, Rome 223 95. Diptych of Otto II . Hotel de Cluny, Paris 226 96. Abel offering his Lamb. From the Pulpit of Wechselburg 229 . . . xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG . PAGE 231 . . . 241 . . 97. Angel Gabriel and the Virgin. Amiens Cathedral 98. Figure of Christ. From the Cathedral of Amiens 235 99. Virtues and Vices. From the Cathedral of Strasburg 237 100. Adoration of the Kings, from the pulpit in the Baptistery of Pisa . 239 101. The Salutation. By Andrea Pisano 102. Relief from the Baptistery at Florence. By Lorenzo Ghiberti . 245 103. The Madonna adoring the Infant Saviour. By Luca della Robbia 247 104. Statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni. By Andrea Verrocchio 248 105. The Baptism of Christ. By Andrea Sansovino 251 106. Statue of Moses. By Michelangelo 253 107. The Entombment of Christ. By Jacopo Tatti . 255 108. Perseus with the Head of Medusa 257 109. Monument of Admiral Chabot . 261 110. Relief. By Adam Krafft . 265 111. Bronze Shrine of St. Sebald , Nuremberg. By Peter Vischer 266 112. Theseus and the Centaur. By Canova 270 113. Equestrian Statue of the Elector of Saxony. By Schlüter 272 114. The Marseillaise. By François Rude 278 . . PAINTING. . . 115. The Sons of Rameses II. Temple of Ipsambul 315 116. Hunters bringing home Game. Egyptian 316 117. From a Greek Vase in the Museum at Naples 317 118. Painting of Still Life. Pompeii 321 119. The Parting of Achilles and Briseis . 325 120. Battle of Issus 327 121. Fresco from the Catacombs of S. Calixtus 329 122. Christ Adored by Justinian. S. Sophia, Constantinople . 333 123. Obedience. By Giotto 338 124. Fragment of the Fresco formerly attributed to Simone Memmi. 342 125. The Imhoff Altar- piece at Nuremberg 346 126. The Expulsion from Paradise. By Masaccio 351 127. S. Lawrence giving Alms. By Fra Angelico 354 128. S. John taking leave of his Parents. By Fra Filippo Lippi 356 129. Zacharias writing the name of John. By Ghirlandajo 359 130. Judith with the Head of Holofernes . By Mantegna 362 . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxiii FIG. . . 372 . . . . . . . . . . PAGE 131. Pietà . By Perugino 367 132. Madonna and Child with a Bird. By Francia . 369 133. Salvator Mundi. By Fra Bartolommeo 134. The Last Supper. By Leonardo da Vinci 377 135. The Prophet Isaiah . By Michelangelo 383 136. The Holy Family. By Michelangelo 384 137. The Marriage of the Virgin. By Raphael 391 138. Elymas struck with Blindness. From Raphael's Cartoon . 394 139. La Belle Jardinière. By Raphael 397 110. Madonna della Sedia. By Raphael 399 141. Amorini. By Correggio . 403 142. Madonna della Scodella. By Correggio 405 143. S. Peter Martyr. By Titian 411 144. La Donna ( Duchess of Urbino ?) . By Titian 413 145. Doge Pascale Ciconia. From an etching by Tintoretto 416 146. Decoration of the Farnesina Palace. After Raphael's Design 419 147. Pilgrims. By Jan van Eyck 425 148. Group from the Reliquary of S. Ursula 428 149. Portrait of Abraham Grapheus. By Cornelis de Vos 433 150. River Scene. By Jan Brueghel 434 151. The Crucifixion. By Martin Schongauer 438 152. Hubert Morett. By Holbein . 440 153. The Pedlar. By Holbein 441 154. The Meyer Madonna. By Hans Holbein. 443 155. Christ taking leave of His Mother. By Direr 447 156. The Knight, Death , and the Devil. By Dürer 449 157. Joseph sold by his Brethren . By Georg Pencz 451 158. Princess Sibylla of Saxony. By Cranach 453 159. The Three Maries. By Annibale Carracci 458 160. The Magdalen. Ry Guido Reni 460 161. The Deposition from the Cross. By Ribera 469 162. S. John the Baptist. By Murillo 480 163. The Surrender of Breda. By Velazquez 493 164. Archbishop Ambrose and the Emperor Theodosius. By Rubens 502 165. Children of Charles I. By Van Dyck 506 166. The Knife-Grinder. By Teniers . 513 167. Oliver Cromwell. By Lely 515 168. Raising of Lazarus. By Rembrandt 526 169. The Lute -Player. By Terborch 530 170. Christ blessing little Children , By Overbeck . 552 . . . . . . . . xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . FIG . 171. Shepherds of Arcadia . By Poussin 172. Crossing the Brook . By Claude 173. Manhood. By Lancret 174. Sleeping Girl. By Greuze 175. The Sabine Women . By David 176. Divine Justice. By Prud'hon 177. Raft of the Medusa . By Géricault 178. Stratonice. By Ingres . 179. Marriage à la Mode. By Hogarth 180. Age of Innocence . By Reynolds 181. The Brook. By Gainsborough 182. Lake Avernus. By Turner 183. Village Politicians . By Wilkie PAGE 566 568 576 580 582 585 586 588 606 612 615 626 634 ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART .

PART I. ARCHITECTURE.

ARCHITECTURE takes rank among the fine arts only when it combines beauty and grace with utility. Hence it is not until something more has been done than the carrying out of the mechanical principles of construction, that a building can be called a work of art. Although it is principally in temples, monuments, and other public buildings that we see both the artistic and scientific principles of architecture applied, a private residence, even a cottage, may be raised to this dignity by judicious treatment of materials, and a careful attention to the laws of beauty, A building may be said to have character when its form and propor tions express the purpose for which it is intended ; the effect may be improved by well- designed ornamentation. Its form and style depend in a great measure upon the mode of spanning openings, such as doors and windows, and the formation of roofs ; and the building is of course much affected by the nature of the material which is chosen . When an important building is to be erected, the first course is to define its form by walls, or sometimes by pillars, which last may consist HHA B 2 ARCHITECTURE. either of a succession of stones of similar size, or of a monolith. * The spaces between the pillars, the doorways, and the other openings in the walls are then spanned by horizontal stones (lintels ). This was the plan adopted by the Egyptians and Greeks. Wooden lintels were sometimes employed instead of stone. The nature of the material necessarily restricts, within certain limits, the dimensions of the openings or spaces which are to be covered with lintels. Wider openings can be covered if the stone lintel is replaced by the arch, which is formed of stones cut wedge-shaped (voussoirs) and cemented together with mortar. The arch , of whatever kind - semi circular, pointed, or horseshoe - supplanted stone lintels, and the vault took the place of the flat roof. These were the methods of roofing adopted by the Romans, and by different nations in the early Christian and middle ages, and at the time of the Renaissance. From the artistic working out of these various systems of construc tion , the different styles of architecture have been developed. MATERIALS AND METHODS OF BUILDING . The materials used for a building are of the greatest importance in determining the nature of the whole structure. The following are employed : 1. Natural Stone — such as granite, sandstone, or limestone — is the best substance that can be used : it is generally hewn and dressed in regular blocks. In very early times, for building massive piles with out any elaboration of plan - such as still remain in India - large, undressed stones were used in the irregular forms in which they came from the quarry. The interstices between these large polygonal masses were filled up with rubble , or stone broken into small pieces. This mode of building, which was chiefly prevalent in the earliest ages in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, is known as the Cyclopean style, a term which originated in Greece, from the tradition that such structures were the work of the Cyclopes, a Thracian tribe of giants. Of all the ancient buildings constructed of hewn stone, the Greek temples, mostly built of white marble, were the finest. To increase

  • See before - Glossary of terms used in architecture.

INTRODUCTION. 3 the appearance of solidity, the surface of the stone was sometimes left rough, as is the case in certain varieties of masonry called rustic, the name given to the kind of work in which the joints of the stones are marked by grooves or channels. 2. Brick structures mark a decided step in the development of the building art, as it is necessary in the first place to form the material for them of the soft earth or clay provided by nature ; moreover, other artificial substances are often required in addition to the actual bricks, --such as terra- cotta and plaster. Bricks were employed in the erection of simple, massive structures in the earliest times, in Persia, Babylon, and Assyria. In our own day plain brick building, without stucco, has been brought to great perfection. Concrete, a mixture of mortar with gravel, is also used where great strength is required. 3. Wood . Timber was employed in the erection of log -huts in the earliest times, strong beams being usually piled up horizontally, and ingeniously joined at the corners. In the middle ages a half-timbered architecture prevailed, having a framing of timbers, and the spaces between them filled in with stone, clay, or bricks. The beams and posts were often elaborately carved , as we see in many buildings which have been preserved from that time. This style has been often imitated more recently. The wooden architecture of Russia is rough , consisting merely of trunks of trees piled up horizontally, but often ornamented with carved barge- boards and window dressings and pierced panels. The well-known chalet of Switzerland is characteristic and pleasing. An extremely artistic style of wooden architecture prevailed in Norway in the early part of the middle ages. Many churches of that style are still extant ; the largest is that of Hitterdal (See Eng. 82) the appear ance of which is very remarkable. 4. Iron is a material employed chiefly as an important auxiliary, either for the making of ties and beams, or, in combination with glass, for the construction of large roofs, such as we see in railway stations, markets, and exhibition buildings, and notably in the Crystal Palace. In America, at the present day, buildings are frequently constructed entirely of iron, in imitation of stone. B 2 28 89 36 48 PONTUS EUXINUS BLACK SEA COLCHIS BYZANTIUNE Heradea OPON TESC CASPIAN PAPHIА во BITHYNIĄ MYSIA SARMENIAD Penge LYDIA Smyrna man d.Ararat I ADOLIA Buku DGALATIA . SEA kube R ARIA PISPDM HYCAONIA Fical 36 Xanthos fli Rhodes ME SOPOTAMIA Sdinus , Mosula antioch CYPRUSS MEDITERRANEAN SEA PAGE NICIA YER Palmyta RRIA PERS I A pamascus Woud Sidong Tyre Nazar tigris Hillar LON PALBESTINE lDead Sea Mouths of the De Jerusalan Dąu of the NZE ramidaHelioppis Memphis LIBYAN Sinai SYRIAN DESERT N ? Hor GULF PERSLAN DESERT Vile R R Denderano THEBES Karnak Lucor Е В Edrou Dumbo

Cataract Syene Medina B Ipsumbouby NUBId od Cataract SE A •Nile DESERT y Mecca 28 32 36 E. of Gr. 48 English 50 100 Miles G. Plalip & Son , 32 Fleet Street Lon 150 900 250 Sud 1.-Sketch- map of some of the principal cities and great temples of the Ancient World , For facility of reference it is suggested that the student should colour the seas and gulfs in this map and in that on p . 32 with a light wash of blue. Egypt. It is on the banks of the Nile that we meet with the most ancient examples of architecture that have come down to us, though the Tois 2.–The Pyramid of Cheops, and the Great Sphinx, perfection of their workmanship tends to point to still earlier build ings of which no record now remains. The history of Ancient Egypt may be divided into four great periods ; the first, that of the OLD EMPIRE, from the first to the end of the sixth dynasty of kings [about 3000 B.c. to 2000 B.c. ). The MIDDLE EMPIRE, from the seventh to the seventeenth dynasty, during which time (about 6 ARCHITECTURE. upon the fourteenth dynasty) the country was invaded by the Shepherd Kings [ 2000 B.C. to 1600 B.c.). The New Empire, from the eighteenth to the twentieth dynasty, when the great temples were built [ 1600 B.C. to 1110 B.c. ]. The Later New Empire, from the twenty- first to the thirty- first dynasty, that is , from the death of the last Rameses to the conquest of Egypt by Alexander [1100 B.c. to 332 B.C. ]. It then became a Greek kingdom under the Ptolemies till the death of Cleopatra, B.C. 30 ; and afterwards a Roman province till the Moham medan invasion, A.D. 640. The Pyramids are the oldest monuments of the world. They were erected as burial- places of the kings, and their size often depended the length of the reign . They consist of masses of stone and bricks raised up around the chamber which contained the sarcophagus of the monarch, and this mass was increised year by year until the king died. The Great Pyramid at Ghizeh near Cairo ( Eng. 2 ) was built by King Khufu (called by the Greeks, Cheops ), who employed, it is said, seven million men in forced labour ( corvée) in its erection. The height was 480 feet on a base of 764 feet an area of more than twice the dimensions of any other building in the world . The second Pyramid built by Shafra (Kephren ) was 454 feet high on a base of 707 feet ; and the third erected by Menkaura (Mycerinus) was but 218 feet high on a base of 354 feet. These were all kings of the fourth dynasty. The workmanship of the masonry in the Great Pyramid, and the great skill with which the chambers and galleries that it contains were constructed, have excited the admiration of all skilled observers. Extensive private sepulchres, more or less deeply excavated in the rock , are connected with the Pyramids. These are in stone, but are in imitation of timber construction. The walls are often adorned with paintings of scenes from the life of the person whose body is entombed . The fine Obelisk at Heliopolis, erected by Osortasen , the great king of the twelfth dynasty, is a monument of the Middle Empire, which commenced about two thousand years before the Christian era . It is a simple memorial column, cut with geometrical precision from a single stone, with a square base, gradually tapering sides, and a pyramidal or pointed top. To the same period is also ascribed the formation of the rock -cut Tombs at Beni-hassan, in Middle Egypt, remarkable for their EGYPTIAN . 77 It was pillars, which resemble Greek Doric columns (Eng. 3) , of which they are doubtless the prototype : they are the earliest known examples of the column, and are 1400 years anterior to the earliest Greek. When the country was invaded by the Asiatic tribes called the Hyk -shos, or Shepherd- Kings, they drove the rulers of the land into Lower Egypt, and reduced the people to subjection. It was not until 1600 B.C. that these intruders were expelled, after which com menced the era of the New Empire, with Thebes for its capital. It was in this period, included between 1600 B.C. and 1110 B.C. , that Egypt reached the zenith of her greatness, and Egyptian architecture its fullest development. the golden age of art, the age 3. - Rock - cut Façade of Tomb at Beni- hassan . of the construction of the great temples. These usually consisted of a cluster of different parts enclosing a small sacred centre or shrine. Towering pyramidal façades called pylons, with their mighty cornices ( Eng. 4 ) , gave an imposing appearance to the entrance ; but with this exception the temples were designed almost entirely for internal effect. They were shut in by enclosing walls, and the severe and heavy architecture can have been seen only by those admitted within the sacred precinct. Here no window-openings, no fanciful grouping of columns, break the monotony of the desolate courts, which are covered, as with a tapestry, with mystic many-coloured hieroglyphics and representations of gods and rulers. A double row of sphinxes, or of ram -headed colossi, often leads up to the entrance, in front of which usually stood two obelisks. * The doorway leads into a square vestibule open to the sky, with porticoes on two, sometimes on three, sides. The vestibule gives access to a large inner court, with a massive roof supported on columns. Beyond this are several smaller apartments of varying size , enclosing

  • Invariably monoliths. Several have been carried away. There are twelve in Rome, one ( Cleopatra's Needle ) in London, and one ( the Obelisk of Luxor) in Paris.

. 8 ARCHITECTURE. within them the kernel of the whole — the low, narrow , mysterious, dimly - lighted cella — the shrine in which is enthroned in mystic gloom the image of the god. In several instances it is clear that these great temples have been extended by the addition of a court- yard and an entrance in front of the original one, and in some cases this seems to have been done more than once. In almost every instance the internal walls, the ceilings, the pillars, as well as the outside of the building, SOL 1 : 1 DATA ht TRANS 4. –Pylon ( Entrance-gate) of an Egyptian Temple. are all profusely decorated with coloured symbolic carvings, which add greatly to the majestic appearance of the structure. Almost the only sculptured ornaments on the exterior of buildings were the astragal or bead at the angles, and the cornice, while over the doorways was added an ornament- -a circular boss with a wing at each side of it, The ruins of Thebes, the “ City of a Hundred Gates, ” grand and imposing even in its decay, are the most extensive in Egypt, and are scattered on both sides of the Nile, which thus runs through the ancient town. Those of the Temple of Karnak (Eng. 5) are the largest and EGYPTIAN , 9 > most remarkable : “ perhaps the noblest effort of architectural mag nificence ever produced by the hand of man . ” — Fergusson , The Sanctuary of Karnak was built by Osortasen I. , and the rest of the building was added by later monarchs. It is 1200 feet in length, by about 360 in width : its great hypostyle hall covers more than 88,000 square feet, and contains a central avenue of twelve columns, 60 feet high and 12 feet in diameter, and 122 of lesser dimensions. 但 有一名 !! 350 5.–Forecourt of the Temple at Karnak. The Temple of Luxor, built by Rameses the Great, on the same side of the Nile, was connected with the Temple of Karnak by an avenue of sphinxes. In front of it stand two colossal statues of Rameses ; once there were two obelisks, one of which is now in Paris. The ruins of another temple, likewise built by Rameses the Great (about 1500 B.C. ) , called The Rhamession, are on the other bank of the river ; the pylons are still standing. At Tel- Basta ( the Bubastis of the Greeks) , between Cairo and Ismaila, M. Naville has recently discovered remains of one of the 10 ARCHITECTURE. finest of Egyptian edifices, described by Herodotus as the most beautiful of them all . Mariette explored for it in vain, and it was thought to have been utterly destroyed. The remains comprise blocks of stone carved with the names and titles of King Pepi-Merira of the sixth dynasty ; Osortasen II. of the twelfth dynasty and other monarchs ; columns with lotus-bud capitals, bearing the cartouche of Rameses II. of the nineteenth dynasty ; fragments of colossal statues of Rameses II. and one of his sons. Carvings on the blocks of red granite in Osortasen's hall represent a great festival, perhaps a coronation , with 6. - Ground -plan of the south part of the Temple at Karnak. the figure of the King frequently repeated , accompanied by the cat headed goddess Bast, to whom this temple was dedicated. It is believed to have been 450 feet in length , and about 150 feet in width. Columns are largely employed in the architecture of Egyptian temples. They are of various forms. The oldest is seen in Eng. 7 , and a form more usually employed is given in Eng. 8. The shaft, supported on a round base, somewhat resembles a bundle of reed-stems, and at the bottom of the shaft is often seen an imitation of the sheath of leaves, and its capital, springing from the necking of the shaft and banded together with it, is supposed to resemble a lotus bud, and in others the opened lotus flower ; above the capital is laid the abacus, which supported the entablature. Many columns have capitals representing palm leaves ( Eng. 10 ), and in later temples (as at Denderah) we meet with pillars in which heads of the goddess Isis EGYPTIAN. 11 and other deities are used as the ornaments of capitals. Egyptian columns are usually massive in character, but the proportion of their height to their diameter varies considerably. There is no reason for supposing that the very fanciful columns represented in the wall paintings were ever actually executed in stone. We must not close this notice of Egyptian pillars without a word on the so - called caryatid columns, which are square piers with colossi placed in front of them. Although not strictly architectural objects, as they do not support the en SIA بوتيكات الكابالا w VIMEO $ UU OOOL 7. Egyptian Columns. 8. 9.-Pillar and Beam . tablature, they greatly add to the architectural effect of Egyptian temples. The remains of the Temple of Kom Ombo, on a sandy hill near the first cataract, are remarkable for the beauty of the columns, of which thirteen are still standing. The capitals, as may be seen in the engraving ( See Frontispiece), are of excellent design , In addition to the great temples, there are several smaller ones called Typhonia or Mammisi, the ground - plans of which bear a striking resemblance to those of some of the Greek temples. 12 ARCHITECTURE. The royal Theban tombs of the eighteenth and following dynasties, excavated from the living rock in the western plain of the Nile, are no less worthy of study than the temples. A labyrinth of winding passages, alternating with halls, of which the roof is supported by pillars left in the live rock, leads from a vestibule to the sarcophagus chamber itself. The walls of these tombs are covered with paint ings relating to the life of the ruler, and it is chiefly from these paintings that the history of the kings is written . There are many distinct groups of tombs in the plain of the Nile, of which the most re markable are the Tombs of the Queens, the Tombs of the Kings, and the C'emeteries of the Sacred Apis. Other important Egyptian monuments are met with elsewhere, especially in Nubia - such as the temple on the small island of Elephantine, and the two Rock - cut Caves at Ipsambul ( Eng. 11 ) , the larger of which, consisting 10. — Capital of a Column. Palm - leaf. of two extensive courts with smaller chambers beyond, has an external façade 100 feet in height, adorned with four statues, one 65 feet high, of Rameses the Great ( the Sesostris of the Greeks) . These are near the second cataract. a - About the third century B.C. Egypt had sunk into a long period of decay, which lasted till the more enlightened policy of the Ptolomies came to its relief. “ Under them she enjoyed as great prosperity as under the Pharaohs ; her architecture and her arts revived, not, it is true, with the greatness or the purity of the great national era , but still with much richness and material splendour.” - Fergusson . It was during this period that the Temple of Edfou was built , one of the most perfect of all the buildings that remain to us. The two huge pylons still exist, though they have lost their cornices, and there are the colonnades of a vast inner court. This temple was of about the size of Cologne Cathedral. Not far from this is the celebrated Temple of Denderah, with its EGYPTIAN . 13 façade of Isis -headed columns, which are different in character to those of any other in the country. It is smaller than the temple at Edfou, but its situation is more imposing .. The small Temple of Philæ , picturesquely situated on an island of the AMUT AEROS 2992® 2011 KENAL SCC ) ZERT 11.-Rock- cut Temple at Ipsambul, on the Nile. Nile, likewise belongs to this period. There is no building out of Thebes that gives the traveller so favourable an opinion of Egyptian architecture as this beautiful little temple. Calen مرا ) 12. - Egyptian Sphinx. Babylonian, Assyrian, and Persian. The inhabitants of the great region watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, extending from the Armenian mountains to the Persian Gulf, attained at a very remote age to a high degree of civilisation. The architectural styles of the various peoples who ruled over this region from 2200 B.C. down to 330 B.C. , are, as well as their history , so in terwoven that it will be more convenient to treat the several styles, BABYLONIAN or CHALDEAN, ASSYRIAN, PERSIAN , as developments of one type. The Temple of Baal, or Belus, at Babylon, of eight stories, or terraces, each less than the one below it, as described by Greek writers, must have rivalled the pyramids of Egypt. Not less famous are the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis, which were connected with the palaces of the As syrian rulers. Of all these works nothing now remains but the mounds near the town of Hillah , built on the ruins of the ancient Babylon, and beneath which the old temple of Belus, * and the palace of Nebuchadnezzar ( 600 B.c. ), are by some supposed to have been recognised. Many of these buildings were evidently destroyed by fire , the 13. - Winged Eagle ruins consisting in a great measure of vitrified headed Figure from masses ; but in some cases their rapid decay was Nimrud. the result of their having been built of sun -burnt bricks, which gradually crumbled away by exposure to the atmosphere. No sufficient remains of the early Chaldean buildings exist to enable

  • The distinction of being the ruins of the Tower of Babel is claimed for no less than three different masses : Nimrud's Tower at Akkerkuf ; the Mujellibe, east of the Euphrates and five miles from Hillah ; and the Birs Nimrud, west of the Euphrates and six iniles north - west of Hillah ; but there is no sufficient evidence

for identification , BABYLONIAN, ASSYRIAN, AND PERSIAN. 15 any certain idea to be gathered of their character ; but they were probably not unlike the Birs Nimrud, a pyramidal erection of six stories crowned by a tower enclosing the shrine. Important discoveries of ruins, extending over some ten miles, have been made at Mosul, on the right bank of the Tigris. The palaces and buildings brought to light have been named after the villages of Nimrud, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, near which they were found, and are most probably the ruins of ancient Nineveh. Of these the most important is the Palace of Khorsabad : it was erected on a mound with terraces of brick, faced by walls of great thickness, and consisted of a number of narrow apartments and long galleries, grouped about a UM Kuu . M boste BAN 14. – Winged Bulls of the gateway at Khorsabad . series of open courts. They were raised, it is supposed, partly for the purpose of defence, and partly for the sake of the purer air to be obtained at a higher level. No very distinctive architectural forms have as yet been discovered—such as columns of a characteristic style ; but this is in a great measure atoned for by the richness of the decorative details, and in the sculptures we see the design of a column which foreshadows the Ionic style. The bas-reliefs, sculptured on tablets or alabaster slabs, which cover the lower part of the walls, are very beautifully carved. They commemorated the chief events in the lives of the Assyrian rulers. Many of them have been removed to the British Museum ; of these the Lion Hunt, from the palace of Nimrud, . 16 ARCHITECTURE. the Siege of a Town , and the Erection of a Colossa ! Bull, are among the most remarkable. The ornaments of the variegated glazed slabs of the pavements and the upper parts of the walls are in many cases excellent. The beauty of the drawing and the frequent use of the honeysuckle and allied types of decoration remind us of Greek suunny Restoration . 15.–An Assyrian Palace . workmanship. The interiors of the rooms were always rich in colour, either in plaster or mosaic. The entrance gateways of these singular palaces were generally flanked by pairs of colossal winged bulls, with human faces and elabor ately curled hair and beards, wearing a high tiara surmounted by feathers ( Eng. 14) . Arched gateways faced with glazed bricks of various colours have also been dug out. And these, with the vaulted drains of the palace, prove that Assyrian architects were acquainted with the arch. Galleries, raised on columns, forming a kind of upper BABYLONIAN, ASSYRIAN, AND PERSIAN. 17 story to the building, probably admitted air and light freely ; but there is great divergence of opinion as to the means employed throughout the buildings for the admission of light. All the Assyrian buildings were erected on terraces, to which flights of steps gave access, and it is pro bable that they were several stories high ( Eng. 15 ) . The corners of the palace at Khorsabad face the four quarters of the compass. One of the pavement slabs of the ruins at Esarhaddon , supposed to have been the palace of Sennacherib, at Koyunjik, is represented in Eng. 16. so 1000 TA RUA (是总是感受 是 忘 。 16. — Pavement slab from the palace of Koyunjik. Under the rule of Cyrus the Great (559–529 B.c. ) the Persians obtained ascendancy over the Medes, and extended their dominions on all sides. For upwards of two centuries they were a great nation, and many important remains of their architecture may be seen to this day. The architecture of these nations is a late offshoot of that of Assyria . The Medes and Persians adopted the terraced platforms and the brick walls faced with costly materials, characteristic of the ruirs of Babylon and Nineveh. This style of ornamenting walls, which was common throughout the whole of Central Asia and in ancient Egypt, may HHA с it 18 ARCHITECTURE . perhaps have sprung from the designs of the exquisite textile fabrics, in the manufacture of which the people of the East excelled in very early times. The royal Palace of Echutana, the capital of Media , was seven stories bigh, built in the terraced style, with coloured walls in some parts glowing with gold and silver. These walls bear a striking affinity to those faced with coloured glazed bricks, which were used in the palaces of Nineveh. The columns and ceiling -beams of the halls were of cedar and cypress wood, and covered with gold and silver plates. Intercourse with the Greeks of Asia Minor greatly influenced Persian architecture, and led to the extensive employment of marble, and the adoption of many Greek ornaments . On the site of the ancient Passargada , near the modern Murghab, the ruins of a large structure have been discovered, which are supposed to have been the Tomb of Cyrus. It consists of a small temple like chamber with a gable roof, its form betraying Greek influence, erected on a pyramid of seven steps. It was constructed entirely of white marble, and was formerly surrounded by a kind of cloister of marble columns at some little dis tance from it. The famous Palace of Persepolis was erected 17.-- Column with under Kings Darius and Xerxes, celebrated for spiral ornament from Persepolis. their fruitless struggles with the Greeks. The ruins of this fine building are to be seen on the plain of Nurdusht, standing on a flat surface cut from the solid rock, about 1582 feet by 938 feet. Massive double flights of steps lead to this platform , now strewn with ruins, from which still tower some forty colossal marble pillars. These steps, together with the artificial terraces so favourable to their introduction, are a principal feature of all the ancient palaces of this neighbourhood. The ruins of the immense hexastyle Hall of Xerxes, the Chekil BABYLONIAN, ASSYRIAN, AND PERSIAN. 19 Minar, show that it must have been one of the largest buildings in this part of the world. The bases of no less than seventy-two columns still remain to mark the enormous size of this grand temple, which must have occupied more ground than most of the cathedrals of modern times : it was of considerable height. Here also occur the tombs of the Persian monarchs, excavated from the rock and adorned with high sculptured façades also cut from More illim 111-1 ir STATISTIK मा WW !!! VERSOS TUL CORO Mill + ๖ า Pilt in 18. — Part of the Rock - cut façade of the Tomb of Darius. the rock. The Tomb of Darius at Naksh-i-Rustam ( Eng. 18) is re markable for having on the façade beneath the sarcophagus a repre sentation of the Palace of Persepolis as it was in the days of the Great King, by means of which the parts missing in the ruins can be supplied. In all these façades we recognise an imitation of the Persian columns, which are remarkable for the carved bulls' and unicorns' heads which form the capitals, and for the spiral ornament which reappeared at a later date as the characteristic feature of Greek Ionic architecture ( Eng. 17 ). C2 Lycian, Phrygian, and Lydian. The most important of the native races who inhabited that part of Asia which lies between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean were the Lycians, the Phrygians, and the Lydians. Of these the Lydians were probably, in the reign of their king Gyges (about 700 B.c.), the 19. - Rock - cut Tomb at Myra in Lycia. most valiant. But about 550 B.C. Cyrus conquered their king Cræsus, took their splendid city Sardis, and joined their country to the great Persian Empire. The Lycian monuments are of a form totally distinct from those of Lydia and Phrygia. The inhabitants of the romantic mountain districts of Asia Minor adopted two different descriptions of sepulchre,—one being structural or detached, the other cut in the rock ; but both were imitations of the wooden houses everywhere common amongst moun LYCIAN, PHRYGIAN, AND LYDIAN. 21 taineers, with sometimes the addition of some features which recall the construction of a ship. The detached tombs are perfectly con structed monoliths, consisting of a double pedestal supporting a sar copbagus, which is surmounted by a curvilinear roof, evidently borrowed from a wooden object, apparently that of a boat turned upside down. The second class—those cut in the rock-have either sculptured KETAFASADI سرزم NAFABAIMA SATTE NANOTFELAN ? " pe HEMAN IACFE rodil :SOFAVOTILIKPU lin lam 20. - Rock -cut front of the Grave of Midas at Doganlu, in Phrygia. façades, or a kind of framing standing out from the rock ( Eng. 19 ) , closely resembling the fronts of primitive log huts, especially to be seen in the Necropolis at Myra. At a later date, imitations of porticoes on columns, betraying the influence of the Greeks, supplanted these carpentry forms. Near these tombs stood monuments, monoliths with a cornice of projecting slates , typical of Lycia, containing a small 22 ARCHITECTURE . burial chamber. The most famous of these is the so - called Tomb of the Harpies, now in the British Museum . The sepulchral monuments of Phrygia are of a different character. It was customary with some ancient peoples to raise mounds over the resting-places of their leaders, but with others to use the natural rock for the structure of a tomb. The Phrygians followed the latter custom ; they excavated their tombs in the living rock, and adorned them with skilfully sculptured façades. These façades were entirely covered with linear patterns painted in various colours, and imitating the tents, the dwelling- place in life of the nomadic Phrygian, and preserving the peculiar style probably suggested by the Eastern textile fabrics, to which we have already alluded. The so-called Grave of Midas * at Doganlu ( Eng. 20) is a remarkable specimen of this class. It is 40 feet high, cut from the living rock, and terminates in a pedi ment with two scrolls. These various races are famous for the strange tombs they erected , --each people having adopted a different form of sepulchral monument. Those of Lydia, often of colossal proportions, are of the primitive tumulus form , stones heaped up in the form of a cone upon a cylindrical base. The largest of all is the Tumulus of Tantalus, 200 feet in diameter, situated on the northern shore of the Gulf of Smyrna. More than one hundred similar tumuli are to be seen in the neighbourhood of the old royal city of Sardis, now occupied by the squalid village of Sarabat, and are supposed to be the tombs of the ancient rulers of the land. So called because the one word MIDAI is legible in an otherwise illegible inscription. Indian . It is to Asia. the cradle of the human race, that we naturally turn to find the earliest germs of art, and to trace their development. But if we expect to find the most ancient remains of architectural art in India, China, or any other country of the remote East, we shall be dis appointed. The history of Indian art appears to commence with the rise into power of Asoka (B.C. 272—236], who forsook the religion of UT Mac 21.- Dagoba from Ceylon. his fathers and adopted Buddhism. And what now exists of Indian architecture is a traditional style handed down from earlier times. In the very first period of its development Indian architecture attained to a distinctive style, which was employed in religious monuments. This style was subsequently adopted by the Hindu or Brahminical sects, who completely transformed it by the use of profuse ornamentation. The Hindu people retained their national religion and peculiar style of architecture, even in the political apathy into which they subsequently sank: ; and there exist many comparatively modern buildings in which the original forms can still be recognised. 24 ARCHITECTURE. The various districts of the vast territory of India are strewn with an extraordinary number of monuments of an exclusively religious character, erected by the professors of one or the other of the two great religious systems of India ; and resembling each other in general style, in spite of a vast diversity of form . The earliest works of which we have any knowledge are Topes ( from the Sanscrit stupha, a mound ), of two kinds — the tope proper, * erected to commemorate some special event, and the dagoba, a 22. -Cave of Elephanta . simple funeral monument for the preservation of relics of Buddha and of his chief disciples . — These erections are often of considerable size, —the two Topes at Sanchi, † for instance, the largest of which, erected by Asoka, is 121 feet in diameter and 55 feet in height. The topes of Ceylon are even larger : the Abayagiri ( B.C. 88) was 1100 feet in circumference, and 244 feet in height : the Ruanwelle was 270 feet gh. The Thuparamaya dagoba, near Anuradhapoora, the ancient capital of

  • Pillars called Låts, crowned with a capital in the form of an animal, which probably marked the entrances to temples.

+ In Central India. A cast of the gateway to one of these topes is in the India Museum , South Kensington. a INDIAN. 25 Ceylon, is smaller, but it stands on a platform nine feet high , and is surrounded by rows of pillars (Eng. 21 ). Rock - cut Caves . — Residences or monasteries ( viharas) for the followers of Buddha, and temples or halls of assembly ( chaityas) : such are the cave-temples of Karli, Ajunta, Ellora, Kannari, etc. The earliest known chaitya is at Nigope near Behar, dating from about 200 B.C. These build ings, which some think were followed by the early Christian churches in their internal arrangements, have rows of pillars separating the nave from the aisles ; and in Buddhist temples a small dagoba, or shrine, containing a seated image of Buddha, rises at the end of the cave, in much the same place as the altar in Christian churches. Buddhist caves are of simple construc tion, with plain piers and un pretending ornamentation ; the Brahminical, or Hindu, on the other hand, are often intricate structures, with every part pro fusely decorated with sculp tures. There are no less than thirty sis caves of this description scattered through the Western Ghauts and in the island of 23. — Gopura , or Gate Pyramid to a Hindu Temple. Elephanta in the harbour of Bombay (Eng. 22) . The Cave of Karli, on the road between Bombay and Poonah, is the largest, most perfect, and most beautiful. excavated in the first century after Christ. On the Coromandel coast, near the village of Sadras, are the cave temples of Mahavellipore, which are probably the remains of a once important royal city. They are hewn from rocks above ground. Pagodas. - Hindu places of worship , consisting of detached buildings و It was 26 ARCHITECTURE. VIR above ground. A pagoda comprises a group of structures sacred to the god, surrounded by several series of walls forming an enclosure. The central building is of pyramidal form , and is covered all over with profuse ornamentation - sometimes even overlaid with strips of copper . The walls are generally of hewn stones of colossal size, and the gateways ( Eng. 23) are elaborate pyramidal structures of several stories. The pagodas of Mahavellipore and Jaggernaut are fine specimens of this style of building. A system of civilisation so vigorous and advanced as that of the Hindus could not fail to exercise a lasting influence on surrounding nations ; and we find their religion and their style of art widely adopted in the large island groups, and the neighbouring continents. Mosques. But the most remarkable of all Indian buildings are those erected by the Mohammedan conquerors, who brought their own style with them , and combined it with the system of ornament prevalent amongst the 24. - Pillar in Hindu natives. In Hindu architecture representations Temple. of the human form are freely used ; in Moham medan it is never seen. The city of Ahmedabad, the Moslem capital of Guzerat, is especially rich in mosques of surprising beauty. In front of them is usually a court-yard, surrounded on three sides by open colonnades, the mosque itself filling up the fourth side. Three large doors give access to the mosque, which is surmounted by three or more large domes. The interiors of the mosques are richly orna mented, as are also the bold external minarets on either side of the principal entrance. The Temples, Mosques, and Tombs of later date will be described in another chapter. China and Japan. ALTHOUGH the Chinese as a nation can boast of a state of civilisation of much greater age than that of most Western nations, and have long been noted for decorative work, there are in China no remains of historic buildings of great antiquity. Their Buddhistic temples manifestly bear the impress of those of Indiau ; and the most truly typical examples of Chinese architecture are undoubtedly the pagodas. The largest temple is that at Honan, the southern suburb of Canton, two stories in height, consisting of a series of courts surrounded by colon nades and cells for the priests, and having attached kitchens, re fectories, and hospital wards. In the centre of the forecourt are the pavilions devoted to the worship of the idols. The temple itself is of stone, but the colonnade is of wood. Temples of similarform exist through out China. The roofs are always curved. The Taas, or Pagodas, are usually nine stories in height, diminishing as they reach the top, and octa gonal in plan. They are constructed of wood, richly painted, and faced both inside and out with glazed porcelain tiles of brilliant colours. The most celebrated is the well 25.- Japanese Pagoda. known Porcelain Tower at Nankin (about the height of the Monument of London) . There is a small roof at each story, and at each angle is a bell—144 in all, which when करता 28 ARCHITECTURE. a agitated by the breeze tinkle in a very pleasing manner. It was built about 1430, but is doubtless a traditional copy of earlier buildings. A Pagoda, built in imitation of the Chinese, may be seen in Kew Gardens. The great Wall of China, though more an example of engineering than architectural skill, may yet be mentioned. Built about 200 B.C., it is 1400 miles in length , 25 feet thick at the base, and 20 feet at the top, and from 15 to 30 feet high. The Japanese, though they employed stone in the construction of their bridges and walls, always confined themselves to wood in the erection of their buildings, until influenced by foreign countries. And as a result, all their buildings have been from time to time burnt down. The roofs of the Shinto temples are straight, but in the Buddhistic temples they are curved, as in those of China. The posts, brackets, and beams and other details are richly and fancifully carved in representation of animals and plants, and the roofs are covered with tiles. The Temples are usually approached through a kind of archway, Torii. Their Pagodas ( Eng. 25 ) are similar to those of China, and even more elaborately carved . It is a peculiarity of Japanese houses, that the walls are constructed of movable screens, thus precluding all possibility of privacy. As in China, colour is everywhere evident in Japanese buildings, and this mainly produced by means of lacquers and varnishes, in the production of which the Japanese have always been most proficient. Unfortunately for the student of pure Japanese art, European influence is every day becoming more apparent in the country. Early American. > BEFORE commencing our review of architecture in the different countries of Europe, we must turn for a moment to the New World, and inquire what monuments have come down to us of the civilisation of the early inhabitants of the two great American continents. The architectural remains of North America scarcely come within the scope of our subject, as they are all of the rudest description : mere mounds, varying from five to thirty feet in height, enclosed within colossal walls of earth and stone. Their origin, and the purpose for which they were erected, are alike involved in obscurity. The principal architectural remains, sculptures, etc. , in South America, are in Peru, and the most remarkable of them appear to date from before the time of the Incas, and to have forined part of build ings erected by the predecessors of the ancient Peruvians — a race whose very name is unknown. The Ruins of Tita - Hvanca, on the shores of Lake Titicaca, are of this class, and consist of monolithic doorways, one of which is 10 feet high by 13 wide ; of pillars 21 feet high, and of immense cyclopean masses of masonry The monuments of the times of the Incas are inferior in every respect to those of the earlier inhabitants of Peru. The ancient Peruvians appear to have constructed their earliest buildings of mud, which was supplanted by a kind of concrete, and that again by cyclo pean blocks. The ruins of Cuzco, the old capital of the kingdom, are the finest specimens of Peruvian masonry still extant. They are com posed of huge polygonal limestone blocks, fitted together with the greatest precision , and piled up in three terraces. The principal architectural ruins of Central America are in Mexico, Yucatan, and Guatemala. They are all supposed to have been the creations of the Toltecs, a race who probably dwelt in these provinces at the most remote ages, and attained to a higher degree of civilisation than their successors, the Aztecs of Mexico, and the mixed races of the neighbouring districts. The buildings most deserving of notice in Central America are the Teocallis, or Houses of God, and the 30 ARCHITECTURE. palaces of the kings. The former consist of four- sided pyramids generally divided into two, three, or more terraces — and the temple itself, which rises from a platform on the summit. The pyramid of Cholula, near Mexico, is the largest and most celebrated of the Teocallis of Mexico ; but it has been much defaced, and the original temple has been replaced by a modern church dedicated to the Virgin. This pyramid originally measured 1400 feet each way, and was 177 feet high. The Teocallis of Yucatan are in much better preservation. They are not built on terraces, but are approached by an unbroken flight of 26.- Palace of Zayi . steps. The Pyramid of Palenque is 60 feet high, and the temple on the summit is adorned with bas- reliefs and hieroglyphical tablets. The roof is formed by courses of stone approaching each other, and meeting at the summit, with external projections resembling dormer windows. The palaces differ but little from the Teocallis. The pyramids support ing them are generally lower and of an oblong form, and the upper buildings contain a larger number of apartments. The residence itself consists almost universally of a stone basement, with square doorways, but no windows, surmounted by a superstructure often elaborately carved, and evidently borrowed from aa wooden structure. The Palace of a EARLY AMERICAN. 31 Zayi, and the Casa de las Monjas ( the House of the Nuns) at Uxmal, are, per haps, the finest buildings of this description in Central America. Many suppose them to be temples and palaces standing together, or groups of different palaces, which belonged to temporal officers of high rank . The Palace of Zayi ( Eng. 26) rises on a pyramid of three terraces, HET KAR atten Nu conocOWN LINDUNU (FUTUாயர UTS 27. - Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal. with architectural façades, and consists of tiers of buildings adorned with grotesque carvings. The Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal ( Eng. 27 ) is raised on three low terraces, each about 20 feet high, one of which—that facing south -is pierced with a gateway leading into a court-yard, surrounded by buildings one story high, remarkable for the profusion of their decorations. 15 20 25 Ravenna T Μ Α R E Pince H volaterie Cortona Peru Clusium3 DO Tarquinii Vili ippopulis Ostia GROMAO Proenèse Intium MARE А Б Я Т А ті сом Capua Neapolit Pompi Pestrom Brundusium Tarentum Hotlespont 21. Olympus 40 inus 3 Tarantinus Lemnos T r RRHEN UM THESS MA Crotowe T'hebe ALIA Lesbos MARE Rhegium TONIUM celinunt'um SICILIA hoAgrigentum SYRACUSE Ægina Telplan Whalos Orchong Theba Chios Sicyon SATHER Elis Corinthuso colymupent (Mycenco Argos Tegeu oNaxos ELOPONNESUS Spart 2 Melos Cythera De CARTHAGO MARE .0 SI 0 CULUM 381 28. Sketch Map Ancient ofGreece Italy and . Greek . THE architecture of Greece is deserving of special attention, in that it has influenced all the styles of Western Europe. The architecture of the Egyptians, the Assyrians, and the Persians, though intensely interesting from an archæological point of view, has not however exercised any effect on that of western nations, while the influence of the Greeks is everywhere apparent. Every detail of their architecture has at some time or other been adopted by one people or another of the European countries. Although the arch and the tower are wanting from the buildings of the Greeks, it is considered that their absence is due to 11 29.-Ground-plan of the Temple of Neptune at Paestum. rejection and not ignorance, for the arches and towers of the Egyptians and Assyrians must have been known to them . Temples. Greek architecture reached its fullest development in the building of temples. A Greek temple rises from a platform of many steps within the walls of a sacred enclosure. Every part of the build ing is accurately proportioned, and every detail is as carefully finished as a work of sculpture. The Egyptians strove to give expression to their dim yearning for the sublime in the overwhelming extent and massiveness of their buildings, but the Greeks produced an impression of beauty and solemn grandeur by perfection of proportion and purity of outline. The Egyptian temple, moreover, was always designed for internal effect ; the Greek temple, on the contrary, appealed far more HLA D 34 ARCHITECTURE . strongly to the admiration of the bystander than to that of the worshipper who prayed within its portals. The ground-plan of a Greek temple is a parallelogram ( Eng. 29 ), either with columns at each end only, supporting the sloping pediments ( i. e. gables), or continued all round. The naos or cella -- the temple itself—is always small, even when the surrounding enclosure is large. The earliest Greek temples are supposed to have consisted of a naos only, and were astylar buildings ( i. e. without columns) except in front, where a porch was produced by continuing the side walls and placing columns between them in antis as it was called , or between the two antæ (i. e. pilasters) forming the ends of the walls. The next step was to advance the porch before the building, converting it into a prostyle ( i. e. projecting line of columns). When the other end of the building was treated in a similar manner, it became amphiprostyle ( i.e. prostyle at both ends), the sides being still astylar ( i. e. without columns). The next stage was the continuation of the columns all round, enclosing the cella with colonnades on every side. This treatment is called peristylar or peripteral ( i.e. having columns all round ). There are two kinds of peristylar temples, those with a single row of columns on each side, and those which have two, which latter are called dipteral (i.e. having two wings or aisles on each side ). The internal arrangement of all the Greek temples was very simple. From the pronaos ( i . e. porch ) we enter the cella, beyond which is the posticum ( i.e. back space ), leading in some cases to the opisthodomus ( back temple ). In large buildings the interior has a double row of columns, one over the other, the light having, it is supposed, been adınitted through the upper row . Greek Orders of Architecture. There are three Orders in Greek Architecture, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The most important feature is the column with its capital : the next is the system of columniation , which denoted the supporting columns and the horizontal beams and roof supported by them : and thirdly the system of decoration which is adopted. The capital of the column is, if the phrase may be permitted, the badge by GREEK. 35 in which the whole can be recognised. But it must be borne in mind that when any particular Order is mentioned, it does not mean the capital and column merely, but the whole style of architecture throughout the building. In all early Greek temple architecture we meet with substantially the same ground-plan treated in two widely different styles. This is accounted for by the fact that Greece was inhabited by two separate races, distinguished as the Dorian and the Ionian, who have given their names to the two chief Greek Orders of Architecture. The third Order is called the Corinthian, —why, has not yet been determined, as no examples of it have been found at Corinth. To avoid confusion, it will be well to make ourselves acquainted with the different parts of the column and its superstructure or entablature every Order before describing the different treatment of those parts in their various styles. A column consists of the base , the shaft, and the capital. The entablature, that part of the building which surmounts the columns and rests upon their capitals, consists also of three parts, —the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice ( Eng. 30) . The architrave is the horizontal portion resting on the abacus (a flat tablet placed upon the capital), and is sometimes ornamented by mouldings with flat spaces between them . The upper moulding projects beyond the other, to throw off the rain. The frieze, the middle portion of the entablature, between the architrave and cornice, is generally ornamented with sculptures. The cornice forms the upper portion of the entablature, and is divided into three parts ; namely, the supporting part, the projecting part, and the crowning part. The lower mouldings form the supporting part ; they are called bed -mouldings ; the projecting part is the corona (crown), but the true crowning point is the moulding surmounting the so-called corona, and forming the highest member of the cornice. The triangular space over the portico, enclosed within the horizontal cornice and two raking (i.e. sloping) cornices, which follow the slope of the roof, is called the tympanum , and is generally filled with sculptures, as in the Parthenon at Athens. The whole of the triangular end, which answers to the gable in Gothic buildings, is the pediment. The roof was most frequently covered with tiles or marble. D 2 Cornice . Pediment. Entablature . Corona . Mutules. Frieze with triglyphs and metopes. Gutta . Architrave. S Abacus. Capital. Echinus. Annulets. Fluted shaft. Stylobate. 30.- Deric Order. From the Temple at Selinus, GREEK. 37 The Doric order is remarkable for solidity and simplicity, com bined with elegance and beauty of proportion ( Eng. 30) . The Dorians had no base to their columns ; or rather they made the upper step of the platform serve as a common base for the whole row of columns. . Doric columns are massive, and have an entasis or slightly convex profile, and taper towards the top. They are generally fluted—that is , cut into a series of channels touching each other, of which the normal number is twenty. Several rings called annulets, deeply cut on the shaft, connect it with the capital, and throw into relief the echinus, a convex moulding forming the lower and principal part of a Doric capital. The Doric entablature is distinguished by the orna mentation of the frieze or central portion with triglyphs, i. e. three slight projections, divided by channels or flutes which, it is conjectured , represent the ends of timber beams. Beneath the triglyphs are the gutta. The spaces between the triglyphs are called metopes. They are square, and were, it has been conjectured, originally left open to serve as windows, but they are in all known examples filled in with stone. tablets, adorned with sculptures in relief. Above the frieze rises the third and last division of the entablature, -the cornice. Thin bands, called mutules, placed over each triglyph and each metope, connect them with the cornice. The soffits ( under surfaces) of the mutules are worked into three rows of guttæ ( i. e . drops ) . The Greek Doric order in many of the features of its entablature bears a resemblance to the forms natural to timber structures ; not perhaps so close as that shown by the Lycian tom bs, but still too marked to be readily accounted for on any other supposition than that timber buildings must have been the originals . This is especially the case with the triglyphs, the guttæ, and the mutules. But we have . already seen that the Egyptians employed , as at Beni- hassan, a column which may fairly be considered the prototype of the Doric column. The pediment, although not forming part of the order — which is complete without it -is too constant a feature of Greek buildings to be left unmentioned . We have already described its position. Doric temples are now known to have been painted both externally and internally, and the colouring must have greatly increased the beauty of the general effect. 38 ARCHITECTURE. The Ionic order ( Eng. 31 ) is of quite a different character to the Doric. We have already alluded to its resemblance to the style of the columns at Persepolis ( see Eng. 17) . Instead of stern simplicity, we have graceful Cornice . WWA Frieze . Architrave. Abacus. Capital. X Shaft. Shaft. Base . 31.-Ionic Order. From the Temple of Athene (Minerva ), at Priene. and pleasing, but strictly conventional, forms. The capital of the column is the distinctive mark of the order, but the column itself varies greatly from the Doric. Instead of rising abruptly from the platform of the GREEK. 39 building, it has a base consisting of a series of mouldings at the bottom of the shaft. The shaft itself is taller and more slender, the channels or flutes are more numerous, more deeply cut, and have spaces left between them called fillets. A necking is generally introduced in Ionic columns between the shaft and the capital. The latter, the distinguish ing mark of the order, has an echinus like the Doric, but instead of a simple flat abacus two volutes project considerably beyond the echinus on either side. The upper part of the Ionic capital is a thin, square, moulded abacus, adorned with leaf patterns. In the other portions of Ionic buildings we notice the same increase of richness and variety of form as in the columns. Thefrieze, called the zoophoros ( figure-bearer ), instead of being divided into triglyphs and metopes, consists of one unbroken series of perpendicular slabs, fre quently adorned with figures in bas- relief or other sculptures, but in some temples it was left plain. In Attica, Doric influence produced a modification of the Ionic style, which has appropriately been entitled Attic . We have next to notice the Corinthian order ( Eng. 32), which is in fact but a late variety of the already described Ionic, from which it is distinguished more by its deep and foliaged capital than by its pro portions. The base and shaft of the Corinthian column are borrowed from the Ionic, but the capital is a new and distinctive form, represent ing flower calices and leaves pointing upwards, and curving gracefully like natural plants . On account of its beautiful shape, the deeply indented acanthus leaf was most frequently adopted . Development. The history of the gradual development of the Greek system of architecture from the first crude rudimentary forms to the perfection in which we see it in the monuments which have come down to us, wil never be fully known ; but a careful examination of all existing build ings reveals certain differences in the treatment of their several parts, which may be taken as indications of the various stages of development. The first period ( B.C. 740—470) may be said to be included between the age of Solon and the Persian War. The so- called Treasury of NA QA Cornice . Frieze. Architrave. Abacus. Capital. Shaft. Shaft. HELLU Pase. 32. - Corinthian Orler. From the Monument of Ly sicrates, at Athens. GREEK. 41 Alreus and the Gate of Lions of Eastern character at Mycenæ form as it were a link between the oldest work of the Pelasgæ , such as the wall of unwrought stcne at Samothrace, and the earliest known Greek architecture. Existing monuments of this period are not very numer ous, and are all of a massive type, with an appearance of great antiquity. There are extensive ruins of magnificent Doric buildings in Sicily : Buhlia ,1939 Restoration . archaic 33. — The Temple of Neptune at Paestum ( about 550 B.c. ) . Selinus has six temples, Agrigentum three, Syracuse one, and yesta one ; the last- named is in a very perfect state. At Paestum , in Southern Italy ( the ancient Magna Græcia ), is an extremely fine group of temples, of which one-that of Poseidon ((Neptune)—is among the most perfect and best preserved of all existing relics of antiquity ( Eng. 33). The ruins of the Doric Temple of Corinth , dating from the seventh century B.C. , are perhaps the only remains of earliest Greek archi tecture on the soil of Greece itself. It is one of the most massive speci mens of architecture now existing. The columns were somewhat short. 42 ARCHITECTURE. The second period (B.C. 470-333 ) is included between the Persian War and the Macedonian supremacy. In the Temple of Egina , erected to the honour of Athene (Minerva ), we can see the commencement of the transition from the severe archaic style to the graceful ornate architecture of the later Greek temples. Its sculptures are of Parian marble, and are executed with the greatest care and delicacy, even the wrinkles of the nude figures being rendered . The Temple of Theseus, חר Transitional 34 – The Temple of Theseus at Athens (465 B.C. ) . at Athens, is one of the noblest works of the school of Attica, in which we see the stern Doric style of the earlier times softened and rendered pleasing and harmonious. Its proportions are more slender, its orna mentation more delicate, and its whole quality more refined ( Eng. 34 ). It is of more costly materials than that of Ægina, being built of white marble. It was when Pericles held the reins of government in Athens that the finest monuments were erected. In his age the dignity of the GREEK. 43 archaic style was combined with the science and grace of the mature epoch, and there was as yet no hint of approaching decadence. The Parthenon, or Temple of the Virgin goddess Athene ( Minerra) of Athens, erected on the Acropolis ( the highest point of the city) , had been de stroyed, with many other fine buildings, by the Persians under Xerxes. When Athens once more rose to the first position amongst the states of Greece, Pericles rebuilt the Parthenon (about 440 B.c. ) . He retained the original site of the old temple, but the form of the new building was BY USINM15, UGNET SELE ( cara Restoration . Thascal 35.-The Parthenon at Athens (built about 440 B.C.). different. It was of the Doric order, peripteral in style, and was of considerable dimensions for temples of that time : 228 feet long by 101 broad , and 64 feet high . The restoration occupied six years, and the buildings remained almost intact for many centuries, until they were destroyed by the Venetians in 1687 : two mutilated ruins are all that now remain of this magnificent structure. Ictinus and Callicrates were the architects, and Pheidias and his pupils are supposed to have executed the sculptures, many of which have been removed to the British Museum . Although they are so bruken as to be little better 1 e 4+ ARCHITECTURE. than relics, they are universally acknowledged to be among the most beautiful works of sculpture ever produced. A continuous band of sculpture in bas-relief, of which we shall speak further in the book devoted to SculPTURE, ran round the exterior of the cell near the top of the wall. We give two illustrations of this noble building ( Eng. 35 and 36 ) one as it was before time and the Venetians ruined it , the other show ing how it stood on the lofty rock known as the Acropolis, which site it shared with the Erechtheium , the statue of Athene, the temple of Nike Apteros, and the Propylaea. The portico, at each end, was eight columns in width and two in depth , crowned by a pediment. The exact mode of the construction of the roof, especially with regard to the admission of light, is the subject of conjecture, owing to the fact that the timber work, which was doubtless employed in it, has entirely perished . The coloured decoration too which was freely used has also totally vanished. The Parthenon affords a wondrous example of exactitude both in design and in carrying out the work , and of the studied care which the Greeks took to rectify , by the most minute variations, the optical illusions inseparable from perpendicular and horizontal lines ; such as the entasis and the inclination of the columns, and the curve of the architrave. Not less famous than the Parthenon itself is that magnificent Porch , the Propyla a , built of white marble, which formed the entrance to the temple on the western side of the Acropolis. It belongs to the same age as the Parthenon, having been erected by the architect Mnesicles under Pericles (about 430 B.C.). This building is remarkable for perfection of proportion and grace of detail, and is a fine specimen of the harmonious combination of the Doric and Ionic styles, as was also the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassa in Arcadia , designed by Ictinus, which was, it is supposed, Doric on the exterior and Ionic within . Ietinus also built another temple to Apollo in Arcadia , at Phigaleia. Amongst the remains of Doric architecture in Greece may be mentioned also the Temples of Zeus at Olympia, and of Demeter ( Ceres) at Eleusis in Attica. For early examples of Ionic we must go to Asia Minor. At Ephesus the remains of the famous marble Temple of Artemis ( Diana ), which Restoration . ERECHTHEIUM . ATHENE . PARTHENON . PROPYLAEA . NIKE -APTROS . Yo Athens .36. —The Acropolis at 46 ARCHITECTURE. was one of the Seven Wonders of the Wcrld, have been explored within our own day. Portions of the sculptured shafts have been brought to the British Museum , and they show that the shaft just abore the base was richly encircled by a group of life- size figures sculptured in relief — a method of treatment which had never before been attempted, and has not, to any extent, been imitated. We can likewise see the result of an Attic modification of the Ionic style in two works of extremely modest proportions of about the same SOTA 37.-Caryatid Porch of the Erechtheium . date as the Temple of Theseus: the ruined temple on the Ilissus, and the Temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory ) at the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens. But it is in the third building of the Acropolis, the Erechtheium , that we see the fullest development of the graceful Attic - Ionic style. The original Erechtheium was named after Erechtheius, an Attic hero, and contained his tomb, which was destroyed by the Persians ; and the second building bearing the same name, which rose on its ruins after the death of Pericles, was a splendid structure, with several chambers GREEK. 47 and three porticoes, containing not only the sacred image of Athene and the tombs of some of the old heroes of the land, but also many highly -venerated religious relics. The outside of this second building, although much mutilated , is still in a fair state of preservation. On the southern side a small vestibule remains, the entablature of which is supported by six beautiful female statues, or caryatides, * instead of columns ( Eng. 37 ). It affords an almost unique example of devi ation from the simple regularity of the ground-plan of the Greek temples. Fragments have lately been found of the colossal Mausoleum at Ilulicarnassus, erected to Mausolus, king of Caria, by his widow Arte misia, in 353 B.C. , which we must consider to have been one of the finest structures of the kind ever raised. Some marble pilasters with richly inlaid panels, a statue of the king in several pieces ( now joined together, and at the British Museum) , and part of the quadriya ( i.e. four-horse chariot) which crowned the monument, were amongst the ornaments excavated. It was of unusual height for a Greek building. The third period commenced when the power of the republics began to wane, and lasted until the final overthrow of Greek freedom . The buildings erected in this age were fine and numerous, but wanting in the simple, massive grandeur of earlier works. Oriental voluptuous ness and sensuality gradually acquired an influence over the manly and highly- cultivated Hellenes, and the effect on their architecture was the substitution of profuse ornamentation for severity and purity of structure. Handsome private residences, palaces and theatres were built instead of temples, and the ornate Corinthian style may be looked upon as the offspring of the age. Of the palaces and dwelling-houses no vestige remains, but it is thought that those of Pompeii and Hercu laneum were based upon them. The Agora is known to us only by written description and by its offshoot, the Roman Forum. And the only erections besides temples and monuments of which we know anything for certain are the Theatres, such as that of Dionysos at Athens, and that at Segesta, which were elliptical in plan and open to the sky. The transition from the Ionic to the Corinthian style can be seen in Copied at St. Pancras Church, London.

48 ARCHITECTURE. the Temple of Athena Alea, at Tezea, erected in 394 s.c. by Scopas, the celebrated architect and sculptor. The Corinthian monuments in Athens itself are small; the most characteristic is the choragic monu ment of Lysicrates, in which we see the Egyptian and Asiatic features combined with the Ionic. This monument was erected in 334 B.C. ( See Eng. 32 ). Asia Minor also contains many remains of fine buildings of the Corinthian style belonging to this age. Such are the Temple of Athene at Priene, dedicated to the patroness of the arts by Alexander the Great, and the famous Temple of Apollo Didymaus at Miletus -a huge dipteral building, 303 ft . long by 164 wide. The scheme of ornamentation adopted by the Greeks has had a last ing influence on Western Art. Mouldings of frets, honeysuckle (adapted from the Assyrians) and acanthus were everywhere to be seen , and increased in beauty and variety with the growth of the orders. The colouring of the buildings on the other hand decreased, as the necessity for it became less with the increased decoration . The Seven Wonulers of the World . The much - talked -of Seven Wonders of the World, of most of which we have already given descriptions, all existed at this time. They were -1. The Pyramids of Egypt ; 2. The Hanging Garlens of Babylon ; 3. The Pharos, ( Lighthouse) at Alexandria ; 4. The Temple of Artemis, at Ephesus ; 5. The Statue of Zeus, in the temple at Olympia, by Pheidias ; 6. The Mausoleum at Ilalicarnassus ; 7. The Colossus of Rhodes. The Labyrinth in the Lybin Desert, about 70 miles south -west of Memphis, was once one of the Seven Wonders. According to Herodotus it was a building of two stories, containing more than 3000 chambers, each of which had a flat monolithic slab for its ceiling. It is now nearly all buried in sand. Etruscan . Of the origin of the Etruscans nothing definite is known, but they are supposed to have been an Asiatic people who took refuge in the north of Italy about irteen centuries before the Christian era. They never became assimilated with the Italians, and their art was never blended with that of the people in the surrounding districts . When Etruria was subjugated, it soon became extinct as an inde. pendent state, and all that remain to testify to the higher degree of civilisation which it had attained before the very name of Rome had been heard in the land, are the works of masonry and ceramic art which have come down to us. They are suffi cient to prove that the Etruscans were skilful architects. The fortifi cations of their cities were walls of immense strength, frequently of polygonal stones, but sometimes of squared 38.-Cloaca Maxima, Rome. masonry, and in the gates of some of these we see the first introduction of the arch, built of wedge- shaped blocks of stone fixed without cement, which was sub sequently so widely adopted by the Romans. Such a gate is that called L'Arco, at Volterra. The famous Cloaca Maxima at Rome ( Eng. 38) , one of the finest and most solid , as well as one of the oldest structures of the kind, made during the reign of the Tarquins, has been attributed to Etruscan builders ; it was a subterranean tunnel of vast extent, covered by three large arches one within the other. Several portions of it still exist. The Tombs are amongst the most interesting of Etruscan antiquities. They are hewn in rocks, and consist of several chambers, the roofs of HHA E 50 ARCHITECTURE . wbich are supported on columos. Paintings run round the walls , representing incidents in the every -day life of the people, the worship of the dead , and the condition of the soul in the other world, etc. The façades of the tombs have every appearance of great ant quity, and slightly resemble in outline the fronts of Egyptian temples ( Eng. 39 ). The finest of these tombs are at ('orneto, Vulci, Chiusi, Castellaccio, and Norchia , a group of cities to be found in ( 'entral Italy . Besides the rock - cut tombs there were tumuli similar in form to the Pelasgic tombs of Asia Minor. The Etruscans also erected theatres and amphitheatres ; 1 39. –Faç ide of Tomb at (' astellaccio . an example of the latter is seen in the ruins at Sutri - almost a perfect circle. Objects of ornament or use of great variety have been found in the tombs, many of them carved and polished . · The most interesting are the painted vases, a number of which are to be seen at the British Museum ; but many of them formerly called Etruscan are now proved to be of Greek origin. That the Etruscans had a distinctive style of architecture we only know from written records ; no remains of religious buildings have been discovered . The Etruscan language has never yet been fully deciphered , and until this is achiered we must remain ignorant of much that existing inscriptions might reveal. Roman. The geographical situation of Italy much resembles that of Greece ; but owing to her greater proximity to the East - the original home of the arts — it was through Greece chiefly that the diffusion of culture amongst the various races of the continent was effected. We find Hourishing Greek colonies in the south of Italy at a very early date. The Romans were deficient in imaginative genius, and we see few original forms of their own creation in their architecture. Their early works were copied from Etrascan buildings, and in their later style they borrowed largely from the Greeks. Two peculiarities of Etruscan architecture, however, were always retained by the Romans, and carried by them to great perfection, namely, the arch and the vaulted roof. At first these were only employed in such structures as bridges and aqueducts, but gradually they were introduced into buildings of every kind - basilicas, amphitheatres, and baths. The simplest kind of vault used by the Romans is the plain waggon or barrel vault, which is a semicircular arch thrown across from one wall to another, or from one end to another of a longitudinal apartment. A second and more elaborate form of vault is the groined ( i.e. intersecting) vault, in which two tunnel vaults of equal height cross each other at right angles over a square space. A third form is the dome vault, which was subsequently combined with the semi- dome, over the semicircular recesses called apses. These three systems of vaulting enabled the Romans to cover spaces of every and the arch was freely used to adorn the outer and inner walls of Roman buildings. While making the fullest use of a constructional expedient which the Greeks had never employed, the Romans, who were always better engineers than architects, were content to borrow an artistic element from another source. This was the columniation of the Greeks, which they copied in a comparatively coarse and tasteless way, and employed not only in the entrances to their temples, basilicas, theatres, amphitheatres, palaces, and baths, but also in the richly -decorated courts of their private houses. The three Greek orders were often introduced into a single building, but size ; E 2 52 ARCHITECTURE. the favourite order was the richly-decorated Corinthian, the beauty of which the Romans strove to increase by adding to it the fulness and strength which the Greeks had never succeeded in giving it ( Eng. 40). The Composite or Roman Order was the outcome of the attempt to improve the Corinthian, of which it was in fact a somewhat free version ( Eng. 40a . ), while what is known as the Tuscan order was, on the other hand, an impoverished version of the Doric. The distinctive feature of Roman architecture is the combination of the Etruscan circular arch with the Greek system of columniation . The Romans seldoın invented a new form , they never worked out a style distinct HOLLOLADA 40.-Roman-Corinthian Capital. 40a . — Composite Capital. from that of their predecessors or complete in itself ; and the interest of Roman architecture , apart from the wonderful extent of the structures and the skill with which they were erected , consists entirely in the fact that it is a transition style, a combination of all ancient styles, and the starting - point of early Christian architecture. An examination of Roman buildings, as we shall presently see, enables us to understand much that must otherwise have remained inexplicable in the arts of the Gothic age. In considering Greek architecture, our attention was mainly confined to the study of the temples ; but now we come to Rome, we shall find that many forms of erections have to be noticed :-temples, basilicas, ROMAN 53 theatres, amphitheatres, circuses, baths, bridges, aqueducts, triumphal arches and columns, tombs, palaces, and dwelling- houses. Roman architecture of the earliest period was of an entirely Etruscan type. To Tarquinius Priscus-one of those early monarchs of Rome, round whose name so many legends have gathered—is ascribed the building of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. Some of these early temples were circular in plan : of these the best known are those erected to Vesta at Rome and Tivoli. The buildings erected in the earlier portion of the republic were of an exclusively utilitarian class. The Via Appia ( Appian Way) , from Rome to Capua, the first paved road in Rome ; the bridges over the Tiber and in the provinces ; and the long line of aqueducts of the Cam pagna are memorials of this age ( about 312 B.c. ) . In the latter days of the republic Greek influence began to be felt, especially after the subjugation of Greece by the Romans (about 150 B.c. ) . The first fine temples of the Greek style and the earliest basilicas were built by Metellus (who died 115 B.c. ) out of the booty acquired in the Macedonian wars. The basilicas were not only courts of justice, but market -places and exchanges. They consisted of a quadrangular hall; and the earliest specimens were quite open to the air. Later, an external wall took the place of the colonnade which surrounded the original basilica. The space required by the prætor for his court was railed off from the other portion of the building, in which markets were held and business was transacted, and consisted of a semicircular apse with a raised plat form , projecting from the back of the hall. No remains exist of the basilicas erected under the Republic ; but the ruins of the Basilica Ulpia , which have been excavated in the Forum of Trajan , show us what the basilicas of the Empire were like. The basilicas are interest ing as having been the first buildings of architectural importance used for Christian worship, and forming the model of early Christian churches. Towards the termination of the republic, when Ronce was convulsed with civil war, and the revolts of the slaves threatened to overturn the whole system of government, the republican simplicity of earlier buildings was changed for a princely magnificence of style. The theatre, 51 ARCHITECTURE. built by Marcus Scaurus, in 58 B.C., which was capable of holding 80,000 spectators, contained handsome marble columns and fine statues, and was richly decorated with such costly materials as gold, silver, and ivory. Three years later, Pompey erected the first stone theatre in Rome ; it held 40,000 spectators. But Roman theatres are best known to us from remains found at Pompeii. Julius Cæsar enlarged and beautified the Circus Maximus, built by Tarquin the elder, of which but a few ruins remain . It was circular at one end and rectangular at the other. 41.-Section of the Pantheon , Rome, B.C. 27. Restored , 202 A.D. These, and many other buildings, were, however, only steps in the advance towards that golden age of Rome, when Roman architects so entirely freed themselves from their old trammels as almost to have created a national style of architecture. The finest monument of this time is the Pantheon of Rome ( Eng. 41 ) , first built about B.c. 27, which is one of the grandest buildings of the ancient world . Whether it was erected as a Temple or as a Hall attached to the Thermæ of Agrippa is aa moot point.. It is even now in a sufficiently good state of preservation for us to be able to judge of what it was. Its plan and the section of its dome exhibit the circular form of which the people of a ROMAN. 55 ancient Italy were so enamoured. Externally the effect is rather spoilt by the combination of the rectangular temple and the rotunda, but the interior is extremely beautiful, although it has been much spoilt by in appropriate alterations of a date later than the original building. The costly columns of yellow marble, with capitals and bases of white marble, and the marble slabs of the lower walls, however, still serve to give some idea of its pristine splendour. We must also mention the Theatre of Marcellus, much of which still 42. – Ruins of the Coliseum, Rome. remains in the present Orsini Palace ; and the ruins of the handsome Tomb of Augustus, —the enclosure walls of which have alone been preserved as monuments of this age and that immediately succeeding it . After the death of the Emperor Augustus—whose boast it was that he had converted a brick into a marble city—the zeal for building seems to have cooled, and not to have been again revived for a considerable time. With the Flavii ( A.D. 69) a second golden age of Roman architec ture commenced. In the foremost rank is the Flavian amphitheatre, 56 ARCHITECTURE. known as the Coliseum ( Eng. 42) , which was begun by Vespasian and finished by his son Titus. It was the largest structure of its kind , and is fairly well preserved . It covers about five acres of ground , and could contain, it is estimated, about 87,000 persons. It is 620 feet long by 513 broad. The exterior is about 160 feet in height, and consists of three orders of columns-Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian - with a story of Corinthian pilasters above them all . There are arches between the columns, forming open galleries throughout the building. Four tiers 390 CE CUTE TURN 43.-- The Arch of Constantine, Rome. of seats inside correspond with the four outside stories. The building was covered in by a temporary roof or awning called a velarium , supported on poles which passed through the cornice. Besides the gladiatorial encounters, mimic sex-fights were held in the Coliseum , for which a most elaborate system of water supply for the arena has been discovered. The Triumphal Arch of Titus, at Rome ( A.D. 70), which is well pre served, is remarkable for beauty of detail , and for the fact that it com memorates the conquest of Jerusalem . The vast Arch of Constantine DENIM HD SAN ketsHINET AM HIS UOI MAIO - MTOM 41. – Trajan's Forum, with Trajan's Column, Rome . 58 ARCHITECTURE . 1 ( Eng. 43) owes much of its interest to its sculptures having been bor rowed from a Trajan monument of earlier date. The Tomb of Hurian , much of which still exists under the name of the Mole of Hadrian or the Castle of St. Angelo, surpasses all the sepulchral monuments of the time. Its basement was a square of about 310 feet , and 75 feet high, above which rose a round tower 235 feet in diameter and 140 feet in height, the whole being crowned by a dome, the central ornament of which was a quadriga. It was facel with Parian marble, and contained two sepulchral chambers, one above the other. The Tomb of Cuecilia Metella, erected B.C. 60, is typical of these sepulchral monuments. The Basilica of Constantine, begin by Maxentius, belongs to the latest period of ancient art . Fragments of the broken roof are strewn like masses of rock upon the ground, but three barrel vaults, which have remained standing, still rise from the ruins, together with the apse subsequently built on to the side aisle ; and, with the Coliseum , they overlook the desolate scene so suggestive of fallen greatness, and form a striking feature of the landscape for miles round. Of the various fora ( open spaces where markets and courts of justice were held ) the largest and most celebrated was the Forum Romanum . It stretched from the foot of the Capitoline Hill to the temple of the Dioscuri, and was surrounded by temples and houses. The boundary on the east and north was the Via Sacra ( Sacred Way) ; on the other sides were corridors and balls ( for the bankers, money -changers, etc. ) , many of them of great beauty. The Forum Trajanum , erected by the architect Apollodorus, is remarkable for its great circumference, and for its simple dignity and beauty. In the centre was a colossal statue of the Emperor Trajan, about 20 feet in height, on a triumphal column 117 feet 7 inches high , * covered with sculpture from the pedestal to the capital, erected to commemorate his victory over the Dacians ( Eng. 41 ) . Of all the monuments of departed greatness to be found in Rome, the remains of the thermo ( public baths) are the most remarkable for extent. They were not only fitted for bathing, but for gymnastic exercises, and as places of public resort, and were open to the public at the most nominal fee . The first were built in A.D. 10 by Agrippa. The

  • A cast is in the South Kensington Museum .

1 7 ROMAN. 59 Baths of Caracalla (A.D. 217 ) were gigantic halls (Eng. 45 ) in which 1 la 2001 ROSS Restoration . 45. — The Baths of Caracalla . there were marble seats for sixteen hundred batheis : splendid columns 60 ARCHITECTURE . 6 and magnificent sculpture' adorned this immense building it was a vid its ruins that the “ Farnese Bull ' and the · Farnese Hercules ' were found in later years. The Baths of Diocletian ( A.D. 303) were larger still , and had seats for two thousand four hundred bathers. The walls are still standing, and show the prodigious size of these grand public baths. The Grand Hall now forms the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, restored by Michelangelo. SOLO Restoration . 46.- Interior of a Roman House In each of these establishments, the central building, which is the type of almost all the greatest public halls that have been erected since, was a group of vast halls of varied shapes and magnificent size. The Palaces, built by the Roman Emperors, are known to us only by descriptions, for the ruins of the Palace of the Cæsars are but fragment ary, and the Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia, on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, dates not earlier than the beginning of the fourth century A.D. “ It certainly gives us a most exalted idea of ROMAN. 61 what the splendour of the imperial palace at Rome must have been when we find one emperor - certainly neither the richest nor the most Games RE Restoration . 47.-Interior of a Pompeian Basilica. powerful — building for his retirement a villa in the country of almost exactly the dimensions of the Escurial in Spain , and consequently surpassing in size, as it did in magnificence, most of the modern 62 ARCHITECTURE. palaces of Europe. The great southern gallery, 515 feet in length by 24 in width , extended along the whole seaward face of the building. " -- Fergusson. The private dwelling -houses of ancient Rome were of two kinds -- the insula or block of buildings for the poorer cla - ses, and the domus, or detached residence, for the more wealthy. They consisted of a vestibule, the atrium (rocfed in at the siles, but open to the sky in the centre) flanked by sleeping apart ments , the muniment rooms, the peristylium or reception room , sur rounde l hy dining -rooms, saloons, libraries and picture galleries ( Enj. 46 ). Most of the rooms were on the ground floor, and lighted by the door : they were richly decorated with marbles anl coloured designs. The monuments of Pompeii and Herculanæum deserve a word of special notice, as in them we can trace the transition from Greek to Roman forms. In the triumphal arches, baths, city walls and gates, temples ( Eng. 47 ) and palaces, we have a Rome in miniature. The private residences — the House of Sallust, for instance --- show us, as far as the ruins of Pompeii may be taken as a guide to the buildl ings of Rome, that the Romans enjoyed all the appliances of comfort and luxury known to the ancients. It is not only in Rome itself that we find relics of the architecture of the period. Wherever Rome held sway there she left evidences of her greatness in temples, amphitheatres, arches, and dwelling -houses, notably in other parts of Italy, in France, in Britain , in Spain, and in North Africa. As examples we may mention the Amphitheatre at Verona, the Temple of Nimes ( called the Maison Carrée), which pro bably dates from the time of Hadrian ; the Temple of Baalbec, and the Treasury of Pharaoh, at Petri, in Syria ; the Portu Viyri and the Basilica at Trèves ; the great Theatre at Orange ; and the Pont du Gard (aqueduct ), near Nimes. Early Christian. To find the first traces of Christian architecture we must turn to the Catacombs - the narrow, winding, gloomy network of passages, hollowed out of the soft and easily -worked rock in the vicinity of Rome, in which the early Christians met for worship and buried their dead. These Catacombs are also called crypts, or cemeteries, and consist of long, low galleries , much resembling mines. The graves are hollowed out of the sides of the galleries , and are so low and small as to look scarcely capable of holding a body. The entrance to the grave is built up with stones, on which are often inscribed the letters D. M. ( Deo Maximo) , or XP, the first two letters of the Greek name of Christ ( Xploròs). For a saint, or a martyr, a larger tomb would be hollowed out, the walls of which were adorned with unpretending frescoes. Ilere and there the galleries expand into spacious and lofty vaulted chambers, containing several niches, the walls and ceilings being adorned with painting. These chambers were evidently intended for the service of the Church, and in some respects still resemble sacred Christian buildings. The Catacombs of the Via Appia, near Rome, are the most celebrated of any which have yet been discovered : but they are interesting rather for the examples of wall-painting which they display than as examples of architecture. These crude and inartistic attempts at architecture date from the first century of our era. It was not until the time of Constantine ( A.D. 312–337) that the persecuted and scattered Christians abandoned these gloomy refuges, and found themselves in a position to erect places of worship worthy of the creed they professed. Under Con stantine the power of Paganism waned , and Christianity received recognition from the state. Heathen temples were little suited for Christian worship, and we find that they were seldom employed for that purpose ; but it was impossible to create a new form of building for the emergency, and, as we have seen (see p. 53) , the Roman basilicas of various kinds, which had been in use under the heathen empire, were found to be admirably adapted to the requirements of the Christian worship. The long quadrangular building, divided into three or five

64 ARCHITECTURE. © aisles by rows of pillars, accommodated the congregation, and the semi circular apse - generally elevated, and railed off from the rest of the building - was exactly the right place for the altar. The bishop naturally took the seat formerly occupied by the prætor or quæstor, and the priests or presbyters those of the assessors. This, then , was the origin of the early Christian basilicas. This semicircle was some times separated from the rest of the building by a transverse passage running across the entrance to the apse, thus converting the form of the building into that of a large cross. These passages, which run at right-angles to the church, directly opposite to each other , cut it through, and were therefore called transepts. At the point where the arms or transepts in tersect the body of the cross formed by the central aisle , the altar was placed , and above it rose a triumphal arch, often sup ported on two extremely massive pillars. The portion of the central aisle which runs westward from this central point to the chief entrance is called the nave ( from navis, a ship ) ; and the portion which runs eastward is the choir. The columns of the aisies were joined together by means of arches, or by a horizontal architrave, and the central aisle or nave was higher and wider than the side-aisles. 48. — Ground- plan of the old In many cases, numbers of windows Basilica of San Pietro, Rome. with semicircular arches were let into the walls of the nave above the columns, through which a flood of light was admitted to the body of the church . In the low walls run ning round the side aisles, windows were also sometimes introduced ; but the apsis or choir was generally left unlighted, in a kind of mystic twilight produced by the reflection of the light in the rest of the build ing on the glimmering gold mosaics ( Eng. 49 ) with which it was adorned . These decorations were most rich in design , crowded with sacred figures, and bright in colours. The floors were usually decorated with a form of mosaic known as Opus Alexandrinum . There was a separate EARLY CHRISTIAN. 65 entrance to each aisle, and in large churches the nave had three entrances. An atrium or enclosed court-yard generally existed at the entrance to the basilica ; it was usually surrounded by columns, and formed an essential feature of most early Christian churches. The earliest basilicas are also the most beautiful, as the costly materials of the ruins of fine antique buildings were employed in their construction , San Clemente in Rome is one of them : the lofty nave, a part of which is occupied by the choir, is separated from the side- aisles by TAXIMIANVS COCO 0000 DO odo . 49. — Justinian and his Suite. Mosaic. About A.D. 554. In San Vitale, Ravenna. arcades ; underneath it is a crypt. On either side of the choir is a pulpit termed an ambo. The church of San Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome ( Eng. 50) , destroyed by fire in 1823, was one of the finest and most interesting of the basilicas of that city. It was built by Theodosius and Honorius, about A.D. 386. Unfortunately it has been restored in modern style, and little remains of its original beauty. The old basilica of San Pietro, replaced in the fifteenth century by the great temple bearing the same name, was erected in the reign of Constantine, and was a magnificent structure, with a noble atrium or HHA F 66 ARCHITECTURE. entrance -court, and a nave eighty feet across, but with a very small apsis or choir. The two small basilicas of Sant Agnese and San Lorenzo, at the gates of Rɔme, were erected in the end of the sixth and the beginning of the seventh centuries, and remain, com paratively speaking, little altered. They have their side aisles in two stories. The church of Sant' Apollinare in Clusse ( Eng. 51 ) at the old port of AL اسے Tui a 2 5 ) .-luterior of the Basilica of San Paolo, Rome. Built about A.D. 388 . Ravenna, about thre3 miles from the city, is a fine basilica of the first class, erected between A.D. 538 and 549. The internal details are extremely beautiful, but the outside is painfully plain and unembellished , as is the case with almost a ! l buildings erectel by the early Christians. It is interesting as possessing a circular Campanile, or bell- tower, which feature of church architecture originated with the basilicas, as did also EARLY CHRISTIAN . 67 the Baptisteries ; these were detached buildings, examples of which exist in Rome, and Ravenna, and later examples at Florence and Pisa. Some few basilicas, such as San Stefano Rotondo at Rome and San Vitale at Ravenna, are circular in plan, recalling the circular temples of Rome : others are polygonal. According to German chronicles, most of the buildings erected by the Germanic races at this period ( sixth century ) followed the plan of the Roman basilica. The complete plan of a church and monastery intended to be erected CM 181816 TACTO 51. – Sant'Apollinare in Classe, at Ravenna,549 A.D. at St. Gall has been preserved. The name of the author is unknown, but he is supposed to have been an architect at the court of Louis the Pious ( Ludwig der Fromme). However that may be, the plan evidently belongs to the early part of the ninth century, and was sent to Abbot Gospertus when he was rebuilding the monastery of St. Gall. It is interesting and valuable, as proving that many additions supposed to be the invention of later ages were known to architects as early as the ninth century . Two apses, a crypt, a sacristy, and a library are included in the principal group of buildings. The Church of the Nativity, at Bethlehem, is one of the very few F 2 68 ARCHITECTURE. early Christian basilicas remaining in the East. Its chief peculiarity consists in its having three apses, which add much to the beauty and dignity of the inside of the building. Of the various basilicas we have described above, some of the more modern have vaulted roofs, but the earlier have all flat ceilings over the central enclosure. Byzantine. 3 The Byzantine style of architecture was that adopted by the Slavonic races of Europe, as distinct from the Teutonic, and was generally employed in all those countries where the Greek form of Christianity was professed. Simultaneously with the transformation in the West of the Roman basilicas into places of Christian worship, a new style began to develop itself in the East, likewise founded on Roman models . Byzantium (Constantinople) was to Eastern Europe what Rome was to Western. It was in Byzantium that ancient art was saved from total oblivion , in the darkest period of the Middle Ages. There was preserved the remembrance of the ideal forms of antique beauty, together with the technical knowledge necessary for their embodiment anew. Byzantine architecture was not, like the Roman , a mere combination of antique styles without individuality or origin ality : by its artistic recognition of all that distinguished Christianity from paganism , and by its bold and original development of those principles of plan, construction and decoration which it adopted , it gained for itself a position as an original school of art . The chief peculiarity, or rather the fundamental principle, of the construction of Byzantine churches is the employment of the cupola or dome covering in the central part of the church, and the substitution of an almost square plan for the long aisles of the Roman churches. Instead of the rows of columns of the basilicas, strong and lofty piers connected by arches supported the cupola. To the central space, covered by the cupola, were joined half - domes of less magnitude. Small columns were only used for supporting galleries and, so to speak , railing off the central portion of the building from the surrounding BYZANTINE. 69 parts. The apse, or choir, containing the altar, was an invariable feature of Byzantine churches ; and, in common with the early basilicas, they displayed the narthex, divided off from the rest of the building, to which catechumens and penitents were admitted . Every portion of the building was richly decorated : the pillars were of marbles of various colours, which were also used to line the lower parts of the walls, and the domes and subsidiary domes and penden. tives were covered with mosaics of great beauty. The bases and capitals of the columns, the cornices, the friezes, and the railings of Byzantine EETIDEE Ground Floor Upper Story بدیعی Air 52.—Ground- plan of Saint Sophia, at Constantinople. the galleries were all of marble, and ornamented with great profusion. The church of San Vitale at Ravenna, octagonal in plan, built at the time of the supremaey of the Eastern Goths, is a fine specimen of Byzantine architecture. But the best example of any is the church of Saint Sophia (Holy Wisdom) , which is now the great mosque of Con stantinople ( Engs. 52, 53) . It was commenced by Justinian in 532, and completed in 537, but was much injured by an earthquake twenty years later. Its architects were Anthemios of Thralles, and Isodoros of Miletus. It is of no great beauty externally, but its internal arrangements are of a surpassing grandeur. The narthex consists of 70 ARCHITECTURE. two fine halls , one over the other, and the church itself is almost a square, being 229 ft. north and south by 243 ft. from east to west, surmounted in the centre by a vast dome, 107 ft. in diameter, and rising to a height of 182 ft. from the floor of the church. East and west of this are two semi-domes of the same diameter, which are cut into by three smaller half-domes, supported on two tiers of columns. On the lower range of these columns stands a gallery, running all 1 53.- Saint Sophia at Constantinople. round the church except at the apse. North and south the galleries are surmounted by a wall instead of the semi- domes, and these walls are pierced with twelve small windows. The double narthex, galleries, and apse are lighted by two rows of windows, which extend all round the church. The central nave is lighted by one great western window and a number of smaller openings pierced in all the domes just above the springing Another church at Constantinople, in which later Byzantine archi BYZANTINE. 71 tecture can be studied in its completeness, is that called Treotocos (Mother of Go ! ) . It was probably erectel about the end of the tenth or beginning of the eleventh century. In other parts of the ancient Greek empire many examples of Byzantine architecture still exist. At Salonica there are the remains of many churches. In Athens there is a small cathedral decorated . ՆովոսԱրա (ԱՎԱՍԱՐԱյն , 51. - Saiat Mirk's, Verice. Begin A.D. 977. ( Showing a corner of the Doge's Palcc ..) internally with mural paintings, and externally with sculpture ; anl at Misitra ( the ancient Sparta) is the Church of the Virgin ; and at Turmanin, in Syria, an ancient church is still preserved . How widely Byzantine influence was felt in Western Europe is proved by the existence of such buildings as the magnificent Cathedral of St. Mark at Venice ( Eng. 54), begun A.D. 977, which still , in spite of NO : SEX PH990 第 第四 DEX SITTI AA BASO BA 100003 54a.- Part of the “ Pala D'Oro , ” the Golden Altar - piece of San Marco, Venice. BYZANTINE. 73 certain Gothic alterations, exists in much of its original grandeur of a purely Byzantine type. It has five equal- sized domes arranged in the form of a cross ; and at the great front seven large porches, which are supported by hundreds of marble columns. Over the middle porch stand the four celebrated bronze horses which once adorned the arch of Trajan at Rome. The Emperor Constantine took them to Constantinople, whence they were brought to Venice by Doge Dandolo in 1204. The interior of the cathedral is covered with a profusion of glittering mosaics, which render it one of the most remarkable buildings in the world. Its beauty has been fully brought home to us by the eloquent writings of Mr. Ruskin . The Pala d'Oro, or golden altar-piece, which is about ten feet long by six feet nine inches high, is made of coloured enamels inlaid in fine filagree work of gold, so that the effect is like that of a coloured-glass window . It was made at Constantinople about A.D. 978 ( Eng. 54a ). The Cathedral of Aix -la -Chapelle, supposed to have been built by Charlemagne between A.D. 796 and 804, also shows Byzantine in fluence ; it is one of the oldest and finest of the circular buildings of Northern Europe. In Russia, too, the impress of the Byzantine style is evident to this day. And in France, at Perigueux, in Auvergne, and elsewhere, examples of Byzantine architecture are still to be found. Romanesque. ALTHOUGH we have turnel aside for a time to notice the Byzantine style , which developed itself in the East, the present chapter must be looked upon as a continuation of that on Early Christian Architecture . The form assumed by Christian architectuie in the Western Empire, after it freed itself from pagan influence, was that known as the Romanesque, or debased Roman . This was to be met with in almost , if not quite, every country of Europe, and may be considered as a 1 1 1 de 55. -Ground- plan of St. Godehard at Hildesheim . transition style leading up to the great Gothic development of Christian architecture, which we shall shortly reach. In this respect Western art differed from Byzantine, which has perpetuated the same forms almost to our own day without passing into any new phase. To render the basilica more suitable for Christian worship, when the early republican form of religion was replaced by the division of the priests and laity into totally distinct classes, the apse was Erst appropriated to the use of the clergy, and then the whole dais, or raised part in front of the apse, on which the altar stood, w.is separated for them by railings called cancelli , -hence the modern term chancel. A further change was the introduction of a choir or enclosed space, attached to the presbytery or apse, outside which the congrega tion assembled to hear the gospel and epistle read from a kind of 1 ROMANESQUE. 75 a was pulpit called an am: lo. Another feature early introduced was the burying of the body of the saint to whom the building was dedicated in the basilica itself, in a crypt or vaulted sanctuary constructed to receive it beneath the choir. To make room for the whole congregation, the nave and side aisles were lengthened, and the atrium or court-yard in front of the principal entrance was converted into a simple porch ( Eng. 55 ) . The principal western entrance was generally flanked by two towers, which subse quently became an almost invariable feature of northern buildings. The flat roof was replaced by the vault-generally the groined vault, more rarely, as in France, by the tunnel-vault or series of cupolas. The plain ness of the walls, above the pillars of the nave, relieved by the introduction of a cornice, above which were rows of windows usually of a smaller size than those the early Christian basilicas. Windows of similar description, but even smaller, were introduced in the walls running round the 56. – Pasket Capital. From the Cathedral of Gurk. side- aisles and in the apses. The semicircular arch, usually without mouldings, was always employed . Circular or wheel windows were widely adopted , being introduced above the principal porch, as well as in the building itself. Piers and columns were used for a great variety of purposes, and were of very varied forms. The antique orders were replaced by columns with basket capitals ( Eng. 56) , or capitals representing flowers of different kinds. Later, every variety of form was introduced into capitals : flowers, leaves, human heads, and those of animals being treated with the greatest boldness and freedom. The arcaded cornice to the walls of the nave ( Eng. 57 ) was a char acteristic feature of many Romanesque buildings ; but perhaps the of a 76 ARCHITECTURE. profuse ornamentation of the west fronts is what principally marks the cathedrals of this early age. The chief entrance was the pırt most sumptuously decorated ; but every portion of the front was often richly carved with devices of marvellous variety. Flowers and leaves alter nate with scroll-work and tracery ; human figures with grotesque animal forms - some of deep symbolic meaning, others the mere crea tions of the architect's fancy. The period included between 1175 and 1220 is known as the Transition Period . In it Romanesque architecture reached its fullest development ; many churches of great beauty were erected, retaining all the peculiarities of the true Romanesque style , --imbued, however, with a slight Gothic feeling, premonitory of the coming change. The 11 1 ATT 57. - Romanesque Arcaded Cornice. From a Church at Vienna. restless spirit of the age, ever longing for and reaching after change, was reflected in its architecture, in the constant adoption of new forms and new coinbinations of familiar details. The transitional style was the result of the ever- increasing demand for finer and more costly places of worship . The Crusades unlocked to the people of the West the treasures of Eastern art ;; and Eastern formswere widely adopted by the Western nations, alike in architecture, sculpture and painting. Some thing of the grand severity and purity of form of earlier works was lost, never to be regained. Pointed and foiled arches replaced the circular Roman arch ; the shafts of the columns were more richly clustered , the capitals more elegantly carved . But in nothing was the change so marked as in the doorways, which were more richly carved and more profusely adorned with sculptures than ever ( Eng. 58) . The ROMAN ESQUE.. 77 ! large circular wheel or rose window was also more generally introduced, especially in France, where the narrow lancet windows, so general in England, were never adopted. This circular window was a very great ornament as long as it retained its simple form, like that in the west front of the cathedral of Chartres. а an TUMELDUETAS PI FRUIZIMINSTITUTE Sojaka 58. - Doorway of the Church of St. Jak, Hungary. ( Transition Period . ) Germany. --Saxony is especially rich in Romanesque basilicas of the earlier period, with flat ceilings , such as the Schlosskirche (Church of the Castle ) at Quedlinburg. But we meet with them also in other provinces of Germany ; such was the convent church at Paulinzelle, now a fine ruin in the Thuringian forest. The Cathedral of Hildesheim , built at the beginning of the eleventh а 78 ARCHITECTURE . century, is of a later date, when the style was more fully dereloped. It has bronze gates, 16 ft. high, adorned with very fine bas -reliefs. The vorm TIMMEN 59. — Cathedral of Spires. Convent Church at Limburg on the Haardt ( 1035 ) is one of the largest cf the German basilicas. It is now in ruins, but it is easy to see what ROMANESQUE. 79 it ras before its decay. It has a square choir instead of the usual semicircular apse. The Cathedral of Trèves ( Trier) may be considered a typical medieval church. The original building was erected by the Empress Helena, and consisted of a circular baptistery and a rectangular basilica, but the former was taken down in the thirteenth century to make way for the present church of St. Mary. The basilica was strengthened and completed as a place of Christian worship by Arch bishop Poppo in the beginning of the eleventh century. He converted the original Roman columns into piers ,* by casing them in masonry, covered in the atrium, and added an apse at the western entrance. In the twelfth century Bishop Hillin took up Archbishop Poppo's un finished task, and commenced rebuilding the choir, or eastern apse, which was completed by Bishop John at the beginning of the thirteenth century. These two apses -- one built when the Romanesque style was in its infancy, the other when it had reached its culminating point are admirable illustrations of its development, Three great German buildings of this epoch, in which we see the flat roof superseded by the vault, are the Cathedra's of Mainz, Worms and Spires. The first was begun in the tenth, and finished in the eleventh century. Little of the original building remains except the eastern apse, with its two round towers. The second—that of Worms - was begun in 996, and finished in 1015, but part of it fell down in 1018, and as it is known to have been subsequently reconsecrated ( 1110) , it is supposed that it was entirely rebuilt. The eastern end is all that remains of the building consecrated in 1110. Its chief peculiarity is that the apse is circular inside and square out. The third cathedral that of Spires ( Eng. 59 ) —is the largest and finest of the three great rivals. It is a solid, massive building, of a simple grandeur unknown to later times. It has a narthex, or porch-a feature seldom met with in Germany ; the nave is 45 feet wide between the piers, and 105 feet high to the centre of the dome. The outside is remarkable for its simple beauty ; it has no ornament but the small windows, and an arcade running under the roofs ; but its massive square towers and rounded dome harmonise admirably together, and present an imposing

  • The difference between a column and a pier is that the former is always round,

and the latter may be of almost any shape. ma [D 60.-Dɔuble Church of Schwartz Rheindorf, on the Rhine, A.D. 1158. ROMANESQUE. 81 appearance , rising as they do far above the groups of insignificant houses which form the town. The two Churches of Schwartz Rheindorf, one over the other, on the Rhine - erected by an Archbishop of Cologne in 1158 ( Eng. 60 ) -are excellent examples of the style of church building of this time. The Church of Limburg, on the Lahn, belongs to the early part of the thirteenth century, and that at Gelnhausen is supposed to have been commenced somewhat later. They are fine specimens of the > SORUNS STUDY Present State , 61. – Basilica of San Miniato. ( Begun in 1013. ) transition style ; as are also the cathedrals of Naumberg and Bamberg, the latter of which is very handsome. St. Stephen's at Vienna, with its beautiful spire, marking the transition from the square tower to the tapering pinnacle, is one of the largest of German churches of the pointed style. In North Germany, where it was difficult to obtain stone, buildings similar to those mentioned above were constructed of brick, The Romanesque style was adopted in the early part of the twelfth century HHA G 82 ARCHITECTURE. -the flat roofs and columns of the basilicas being quickly superseded by piers and vaults.

Italy . - The Romanesque buildings of Italy of the eleventh and twelfth centuries differ greatly from those of Germany. Ir many of them we see a combination of the early Christian basilica with a simple system of vaulting. One of the best specimens is the basilica of San Miniato, near Florence, begun in 1013 ( Eng. 61 ) . It has three aisles, but no transepts, and is divided into three longitudinal portions by two large arches supported on clustered piers . * These arches may be looked upon as a crude effort at vaulting the central portion of the church, and the clustered piers show the working of the influence to which later on the Gothic system of arches was due. This church is now much modernised. The Cathedral of Pisa, commenced fifty years after the church of San Miniato, is considered as typical of the Italian transitional Romanesque style. It has more Gothic peculiarities tban the earlier building ; the form of the cross is fully developed by the extension of the transepts on either side of the choir, but it has the flat wooden roof of an early basilica . The church of San Michele at Lucca, of the same style as the cathedral of Pisa, is remarkable for the profusion of columns and arches characteristic of the later Romanesque style. Lombardic architecture early freed itself from Roman influence, and in the buildings of the eleventh century we can trace the growth of its peculiar style. The church of Sant Antonio at Piacenza was built in the early part of the eleventh century ; the plan is Romanesque, but even that differs considerably from the ordinary type, the transepts being at the west end, and the tower, which rises from the point where the nave and transepts meet, is supported on eight pillars and four piers. The whole building is roofed with intersecting vaults, and out side we see the buttresses which afterwards became so important a feature of Gothic architecture. In the Cathedral of Novara a further development of the Lombardic style is noticeable. It too belongs to the early part of the eleventh

  • A clustered pier is one in which several small columns are joined together, each with a base, shaft, and capital.

ROMANESQUE. 83 century, and retains the atrium, the baptistery and the basilica. One chief characteristic of this and other buildings of the age was the intro duction of open arcades immediately under the eaves of the roofs, through which light and air were admitted. The church of San Michele of Pavia is one of the most perfect of Italian buildings of this age. In TOOOO 19.20 9 62.-St. Saturnin at Toulouse . it we see the style almost developed into the true Gothic--the only subsequent inventions being the pointed arch and window - tracery. The Cathedral of Modena is another example of this style. In the Capella Palatina in the palace at Palermo we have a specimen of the mixed Romanesque and Moorish styles, remarkable for richness of detail. G2 84 ARCHITECTURE. France. It would be impossible even to name the numerous churches ñin BO 63.-- St. Etienne, Caen ( Abbaye aux Hommes) . of France belonging to this period (eleventh and twelfth centuries). One of the most interesting is that of Maguelone, which has a re ROMANESQUE. 85 markable doorway, in which the Classical, Moorish and Gothic styles are combined. A typical example of French Romanesque architecture is the church of St. Saturnin ( or St. Sernin) , at Toulouse ( Eng. 62 ). It has a nave and side- aisles, with an arcade above the latter. The choir, however, is of a form essentially French ; instead of the simple semi circular apse of the Roman basilica, which was universally adopted in Germany and Lombardy, the French invented a chevet , which is an apse TO 191 61.-Romanesque Arches. round which is clustered a group of chapels in place of a simple aisle. Both at Canterbury and Westminster at well as at Norwich there are English examples of the chevet. Normandy is rich in churches of this age. ' One of the finest is St. Etienne ( Abbaye aux Hommes) at Caen ( Eng. 63) , erected by William the Conqueror, in 1066, to celebrate his conquest of England. It is now 364 feet long, the original apse having been converted into aa chevet 86 ARCHITECTURE. a century later. The western entrance is flanked by two towers, which subsequently became a distinctive and almost invariable feature of French churches. a Spain . — Most of the very early and smaller churches of Spain were built with a semicircular apse, but the cathedrals and larger churches are usually arranged on the chevet plan ; that is , having a series of apsidal chapels radiating from the chancel, according to the French method . All the larger ecclesiastical buildings possess transepts, usually of very short length, seldom projecting much beyond the walls of the side aisles. At the intersection of the nave with the transepts there is almost invariably a rising of the roof either dome or tower-shaped and well-marked externally. This was known to the Spanish archi tects as the cimborio. The nave is sometimes furnished with side chapels, and always with side- aisles. So far the characteristics of the Spanish ecclesiastical architecture vary but little from those of most other European nations, but the choir occupies a position west instead of east of the chancel transepts, and is entered by doors immediately opposite the transept entrances, while the space eastward of these is so small as to provide room for the high altar only. The clergy and choristers are seated lower down ; even westward of the cimborio. This is a great defect , for as in most Gothic cathedrals the stalls of the chief dignitaries are heavily canopied , and form as it were a grand enclosure, the consequence is that from the principal door, which is as usual at the west end, all view of the high altar is in the case of most Spanish churches completely shut out. Great Britain .-- The English buildings belonging to this age will be noticed in the chapter on English architecture. Mohammedan. To avoid confusion of dates, we will here insert a brief notice of Moorish or Saracenic architecture, otherwise called Mohammedan, before continuing our review of the Christian styles which subsequently developed themselves. Almost every new style of architecture is the result of the require ments of a new religion, and the Mohammedan mosques are a striking ( العالية وانا انا ولا 65. —Arabian Gateway at Iconium. instance of this fact. The followers of the Prophet found Christian places of worship well suited to their own rites, and the earliest mosques were built by Christian architects from Constantinople, and much resembled Byzantine buildings. Gradually, however, the new style of decoration known as Arabesque was introduced, in which all representation of animals was eschewed, but a profuse and brilliant 88 ARCHITECTURE. decorative effect was obtained, vegetable forms, geometrical figures and letters being interwoven into an endless diversity of patterns ( Eng. 65 ) . To Moorish architects some have attributed the pointed arch itself, as well as the various forms of foiled arches which have been so widely adopted in Christian buildings. They also originated the horse- shoe arch, which remains the most distinctive and original feature of Mohammedan architecture , and has very rarely been imitated. The internal arrangements of a mosque are not unlike those of a Christian church. The mosque almost invariably consists of porticoes surrounding an open square, in the centre of which is a tank or foun tain for ablutions; sometimes, however , the central portion is circular, as in Byzantine buildings. In the south - east of the mosque is a pulpit, and in the direction in which Mecca lies is a sacred niche towards which the faithful are directed to look when in prayer. Opposite the pulpit there is generally a desk for the Koran, on a platform surrounded by a parapet. The simplicity of the original mosques was gradually replaced by an infinite variety of arcaded courts, gateways, domes, and minarets, and frequently by the addition of a tomb sacred to some person of renown, the dome being in most cases the leading feature, although occasionally the wooden ceiling of the early Christian basilicas was adopted in its place. The Moors, however, introduced a ceiling, known as the stalactite, which is almost as distinctive a feature of their archi tecture as the horse- shoe arch. The minarets alluded to are tall turrets divided into several storeys, each marked by a balcony, írom which the Muddin (Muezzin) calls the faithful to prayer, and nothing can exceed the elegance of design displayed by many of them . The outsides of many mosques are entirely without ornamentation, and this peculiarity renders the richness of the internal decoration the more striking. The flat surfaces of the walls are everywhere covered as with a carpet with many-coloured patterns, of the utmost richness both of design and colour, recalling the textile fabrics of the East. In the early monuments of Saracenic architecture which have been preserved in Arabia, Palestine, and Syria we see the crude beginnings of a style struggling into life. Such are the Kaabah at Mecca , the famous Mosque of Omar and the Mosque of El Aksah , both at Jerusalem , and that of Caliph Walid at Damascus. 1 MOHAMMEDAN. 89 It was in Egypt that Arabian art first acquired a distinctive character and a settled style. Side by side with the mighty monu ments of the ancient Egyptians rise many handsome mosques. Such are the Nilometer, on an island near Cairo, and the Mosque of Amrou, at Old Cairo, founded soon after A.D. 643. But it was in Spain that Saracenic art attained its greatest beauty. . KE SE32 1941 mann 66. — Moorish Pavilion near Granada. The Moors obtained a footing in that country in A.D. 711 , and their subsequent intercourse with the knights of Western Christendom exercised a great influence on all their arts, especially on their archi tecture, -although it always retained the exuberance of colouring and richness of decoration characteristic of their buildings in every country. . The celebrated Mosque of Cordova, commenced by Caliph Abd el Rahman in 786, and completed by his son, was the first and most 90 ARCHITECTURE. important building erected by the Moors after their conquest of Spain . It was enlarged and ornamented by successive rulers, and is therefore YIKAMA Haust2 SIMPRIMARMA 67. -A Doorway in the Alhambra. (Begun A.D. 1248. ) interesting as containing specimens of the different styles adopted in Spain from the first arrival of the Moors until Moorish architecture reached its fullest development in the Alhambra. MOHAMMEDAN. 91 After he was driven from Seville ( 1248 ) , Mahammed ben Alhamar commenced building the citadel of the Alhambra upon a rocky height overlooking the city of Granada. The work seems to have been faith fully carried on by his immediate successors, but all the principal portions of the building as it now stands date from the period inter vening between the accession of Abou Walid in 1309 and the death of Yousof in 1354, after which time no important additions appear to have been made. The portions of the original Alhambra which are still standing are ranged round two long courts — one called the “ Court of the Fishpond,” the other the “ Court of the Lions. ” They consist of porticoes, pillared halls ( Eng. 67) , arcaded chambers, ex quisitely paved with mosaics, etc. They may be studied in miniature in the “ Alhambra Court " at the Crystal Palace, where they form one of the most beautiful series of decorations of the place . They were elaborately carried out in faithful imitation of the original designs by Owen Jones. No building of any importance was erected by the Moors after the Alhambra, before their final expulsion from Spain in 1492. At the very time when the power of the kings of Granada was rapidly declining , a new province was being added to those already occupied by the followers of the Prophet, by the conquest of Constanti nople by the Turks ( 1453 ) . The new rulers of the Eastern Empire effected a great change in the architecture of the subjugated country, and introduced a style of mosque which differed not only from the sacred buildings of the East, of the time of which we are treating, but also from anything previously produced by the Mohammedans. They took Santa Sophia for their model, and all their buildings are repro ductions more or less perfect of that great work of Justinian. The Mosque of Soliman II., at Adrianople, is an exact copy of Santa Sophia in plan and form, but differs from it in detail. It was com pleted in 1556. The finest mosque built by the Turks at Constanti nople is that of Soliman the Magnificent ( 1530—1555) . Little now remains of the buildings erected by the Mohammedans in Persia, but in India many mosques still testify to the power of 92 ARCHITECTURE. Mahommed . With slight exceptions, these mosques are closely based on Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Some of the most beautiful are the BBBET COMUNI fe SENSE INAMANIAN பாபா 68. -The Jumma Musjid, at Delhi. * ( Built by Shah Jehan in the sixteenth century .) Jumma Musjid , or Great Mosque at Delhi ( Eng. 68) , and the Taj Mehal, at Agra, both erected by Shah Jehan in the sixteenth century.

  • Reduced from a sketch by Mr. Fergusson .

Gothic. m GOTHIC architecture is often termed Pointed architecture — from the almost invariable occurrence of the pointed arch in its buildings -and sometimes, but less accurately, Christian architecture. Gothic was the style adopted in Europe from the middle of the twelfth century to the classical revival of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The round- arched Gothic is a term applied by many writers to the transitional style between Romanesque and Pointed. The word Gothic was first used in derision by the artists of the Renaissance, to characterise this art as quaint and antiquated. But this, the original meaning of the word, is now quite lost , and the term has come to be generally accepted in the way we have described. The chief peculiarities of a Gothic building are the disuse of hori zontal cornices and of such gables as have a very moderate slope ; and the introduction of vertical or very sharply-pointed features, such as gables, spires, buttresses, high -pitched roofs (often open and made ornamental) , pointed arches, and pointed instead of waggon- headed vaults ; the substitution of mouldings cut into the stone for projecting mouldings ;; and the use of window tracery. In late work we meet with piers formed of clustered pillars in the nave arcades, and with flying buttresses. It is, of course, not to be expected that all these peculiarities will occur in every building, or that they are all equally to be met with in every development of the style ; but they are all characteristic of it. They were all the result of structural necessities, and have a meaning and purpose of their own. We have already de scribed the Roman basilicas and the early Christian churches built on their models ; and if the ground-plan of a cathedral ( Eng. 69) be com pared with that of a basilica -church, already given, they will be found very similar. Cathedrals were always built east and west, the high altar (A) being at the one end, and the main entrance ( B) at the other. In plan they are almost invariably cruciform. The stem of the cross is called the nave (c) , and is flanked by aisles ( v) . The arms, called transepts, usually the same width and height as the nave ( E) , have sometimes but one aisle, sometimes two, and occasionally more. The east а 9+ ARCHITECTURE . end—the head of the cross — is called the choir. The presbytery, or the chancel, is the most important part of a cathedral ; its floor is raised higher than that of the nave, and it contains the stalls for the clergy and choir and the bishop's throne. Its end is sometimes rectangular, and sometimes in an apsidal ( i.e. semicircular or polygonal) form . Beyond the chancel is often the Lady Chapel. Other chapels frequently open out of the aisle of the apse or from the eastern walls of the transept, and occasionally, from the nave. Beneath many cathedrals NORTH Det B XXY Dr. NAME 69. - Ground- plan of Cologue Cathedral. there is a crypt. The main door is almost always at the west end : there is generally another entrance on the north side of the nave. The principal tower is usually erected at the crossing of the nave and transept, often called the intersection . The west front is sometimes flanked by two towers, and sometimes by one only ; and sometimes there is one, and occasionally there are two, at the end of each transept. But all these towers are rarely to be found in one building. The spires surmounting the towers became more tapering as the style ad vanced. Attached to the cathedral was frequently a group of monastic GOTHIC. 95 buildings, and usually an ambulatory for the monks or priests, called the cloisters. We have now to explain the origin of the distinctive features of Gothic buildings, which are all developed out of existing styles. EEEEEEEEEEEEEEE PEPERTRAYZELFREELDES HELPEDERE SEEEEEEEEEEN EEEEEEEVAREFTITTEET WONITA Am VOTRE 70. -Interior of Beauvais Cathedral . Walls and Buttresses . — The walls of Gothic buildings are generally of stone. The external buttresses are props or piers added outside the building, opposite to the point of pressure of the groins, to strengthen 96 ARCHITECTURE. the walls ; and sometimes a further support is added in the shape of an arch thrown across between the wall and the upper part of the buttress, so as to help support the nave roof. This is called a flying buttress ( see Eng. 103) . Vaults and Roofs. — The early semicircular or barrel vaults were found to require extremely massive walls to resist their thrust ; and the first modification was the introduction of tranverse arches, thrown across here and there beneath the barrel vaults, to concentrate the chief thrust on certain points, opposite to which buttresses were placed. In the 71.-Two- light lancet. 72.- Tracery of later date . Gothic Windows. side-aisles , the spaces to be covered being small, the Roman intersect ing vaults were used ; but as barrel vaults were necessarily dark and gloomy, it became desirable to introduce lofty windows to light the vaulting, especially of the nave.. This could only be provided for by the introduction of cross vaults, piercing the principal one. It was in struggling with the difficulties which attended the use of such cross vaults on a large scale that the pointed arch was first introduced . Pointed arches are capable of being applied to vaulting bays of any size or shape, as they can be made of equal height whatever their span . The groins (i. e . intersecting lines of the vaults) were strengthened with GOTHIC. 97 ribs, and these ribs and their mouldings became more and more numerous, as the Gothic style developed itself, until the whole vault was covered with them , finally producing in England the beautiful fan-tracery (see Eng. 111 ) with which we are familiar in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, etc. ; and in France and Germany many other forms of elaboration. The general vertical tendency of Gothic work—the steep roofs, the buttresses, vertical breaks (i.e. projections of any part within or beyond the general face of the work ), etc. — are largely traceable to the desire to obtain effects of shadow from a low sun. The horizontal cornices of classic archi tecture lose most of their natural effect in countries where the sun for much of the year is low in the heavens, and light is diffused and comparatively faint. In the Gothic buildings of the south of Europe ( Spain and Italy ) this vertical tendency was less com pletely developed. Gables are particularly char acteristic of Gothic architecture, 73.-Circular or Rose Window. and are usually much decorated . The greatest attention was always paid to that of the nave, forming the west front. Windows.-- Window tracery—a peculiarity of Gothic architecture which has no parallel in any other western style-was developed gradually from a desire to group several windows together under one arch ; and a complete series of forms can readily be made out, beginning with two lancet lights * (Eng. 71 ) and the enclosing arch, leading up to the beautiful tracery of which our engraving No. 72 is an example, and to such elaborate compositions as the great windows in Long narrow windows, with the head shaped like the point of a lancet. なんで タップル いる

HHA H 98 ARCHITECTURE. the flamboyant buildings of France. The circular Rose windows ( Eng. 73 and 77 ) often seen in their great western fronts and in the transepts of the large cathedrals surpass anything of the kind in England. Piers . — In Gothic architecture, columns and piers were externally little used ; but internally they were of the greatest importance. If used for ornament only, the shaft was usually slender, but if for massive support, it was stronger. The carvings on the capitals were often very rich , as may be seen in the examples given ( Eng. 74, 76 ) . The clustered piers ( Eng. 75) were a device for carrying the leading ribs of a groined roof, or the leading lines of a moulded arch, down to the ground. They are piers subdivided into different shafts, each with a cap (i.e. capital) 74, 75, 76. — Three Gothic Capitals. of its own, bearing a separate portion of the vaulting or arcading. They were of less value structurally than optically. Mouldings and Tracery . — Gothic buildings are developed in a series as regular as Gothic tracery - commencing with the bold and simple structures of the transitional Romanesque, and going up to the ut most complexity. It would carry us beyond the limits of a hand -book to enter upon an analysis of mouldings and tracery ; but those who wish to study Gothic architecture scientifically must make themselves thoroughly acquainted with both ere they can be said to have mastered the subject. The character of the decorative sculpture is also thoroughly typical of the style, and varied with every changing phase which it went through : it should consequently receive the student's earnest attention. GOTHIC. 99 C'lerestory and Triforium . - In Gothic , as in Romanesque buildings, the vaults of the nave were carried high enough above the side-aisles 3 . = = 77. - Rheims Cathedral, West Front. to admit windows under the roof to light the nave ; and these windows in Gothic churches form what is called the clerestory ( i. e. clear storey ). The gallery, or open arcade, which occurs in large churches below the H 2 100 ARCHITECTURE. clerestory windows and above the great arches that separate the nave, or central avenue, from the aisles, or side avenues, is called the triforium ( see Eng. 108) . Nothing can exceed the beauty of the general view of a Gothic cathe. dral, with its endless variety of intersecting lines of arches, meeting overhead, its grouped shafts and delicate ribs, its long perspective of aisles, and its rows of stained -glass windows, from which is poured a flood of light, tinting the stone-work with every variety of hue. The outside of a Gothic cathedral is as remarkable as the interior for boldness of design and easy grace of ornament. The projecting buttresses, often crowned by acutely pointed pinnacles, the slender spires tapering heavenwards, produce an indescribable effect of light ness and complexity. They are, so to speak, the staccato notes of that “ frozen music ” to which Schlegel has likened architecture. 78.- Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral. Sculptures. — In mediæval times symbolism entered largely into all the arts ; and Gothic cathedrals owe much of their strange unearthly beauty to the weird, fantastic sculptures with which every part — even the crypt, but especially the west fronts, the portals, and the sacrarium , or sanctuary containing the high altar - was decorated . The full develop ment of this love of mystic ornament led to the church becoming, so to speak, a universe in miniature. Everywhere we see hovering angels or mystic emblems of Christian virtues ; trailing vines and lions, symbols of faith ; roses and pelicans, of Divine love and mercy ; ivy and dogs, of truth ; lambs, of submission, etc. , whilst the walls and altars glow with sacred pictures, and the holy shrines, containing the relics of the saints, sparkle with jewels. And the harmonious and mellow stained-glass placed in the windows lends a glorious tone to the sun's rays which greatly enhance the beauty of the interior. GOTHIC. 101 The Gothic style may be said to have passed through three periods : the earlier severe style, of the thirteenth century ; the middle or perfected Gothic, in the fourteenth century ; and the decadence, in the fifteenth century ; these dates being, however, only approximate, as the rate of progress varied in different countries. The round -arched, or transitional Gothic style, originated in Italy and the south of France, where it lingered long, and developed itself naturally from the Romanesque, introduced by the Lombards and other Italians. France. The pointed Gothic, with which we have principally to deal, was worked out first in Northern France ; and the earliest example of its full development was the Cathedral of St. Denis, near Paris, founded in 1140. The Cathedral of Notre Dame, in Paris, is a later build ing ; that of Chartres is somewhat later still, and marks a step in advance ; that of Rheims (see Eng. 77), completed in 1241 , greatly surpasses either of its predecessors ; and that of Amiens, completed in 1272 ( the model in rivalry with which Cologne cathedral was built) , is equal to that of Rheims, if it does not excel it. The Cathe:Iral of Beauvais ( see Eng. 70) much resembles that of Amiens, but is incom plete. It was commenced five years later, and consecrated in 1272. In the second period of French Gothic, many additions were made to the cathedrals and other buildings commenced in the first, as an example of which the tower and spire of St. Pierre, at Caen, may be noticed. The Church of St. Maclou , at Rouen ( 1432—1500) , is a specimen of the third style, called flamboyant ; * but to enumerate and describe all the Gothic cathedrals and great churches of France from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries would alone require a volume. In the domestic and military department of architecture of the first period, mention may be made of the Fortress of Mont St. Michel and the Chateau of Coucy, and in the flamboyant style, the Château of Blois, and the Hôtel de Ville at Caen. Netherlands. — In the Netherlands, which is particularly rich in examples of this style of architecture, the chief Gothic buildings are the great halls of the towns. These buildings, usually a long rectangle in

  • From the flame- like shapes of the window tracery.

79. –Cloth-hall at Ypres. Thirteenth Century. GOTHIC. 103 form, occupying one side of the chief square in the town, are several stories in height, and the fronts are covered with small windows : dormer windows too are frequently studded over the high-pitched roof, above which rises the tower, always an important feature . The Cloth -hall of Ypres ( thirteenth century ) ( Eng. 79 ) is one of the earliest and hand somnest ; the Town -hall of Bruges (commenced 1377 ) is a small and elegant building ; that of Brussels ( 1401–1435 ) is famous for its open work spire; that of Louvain ( 1448–1463) is elaborately decorated ; that of Ghent ( 1481 ) marks the commencement of the decadence, when beauty of design was replaced by extravagance of ornament; and the Exchange of Antwerp ( 1515) , in spite of the fineness of some of the internal details, was a specimen of the debased Gothic, when the true characteristics of the style were forgotten. Mention must also be made of the Cathedrals of Antwerp, Brussels, Mechlin and Ghent. Germany. --The Gothic architecture of Germany, like that of France, can be divided into three periods :—The first, or round- arched Gothic, may be seen in the Church of the Holy Apostles at Cologne, and the Churches of Arnstein and Andernach. It was not until 1220 that the pointed arch was adopted, and even then it had to struggle long with the semicircular before it finally triumphed. The following cathedrals of Germany are of the pointed Gothic style, and are monuments of the time when the German nation was united in “ one faith, one hope, one baptism " : The Cathedral of Magdeburg, 1208—1363 ; the Minster of Freiburg, thirteenth century ; the Church of St. Elizabeth at Marburg, 1235--1283 ; the Liebfrauen - Kirche at Trèves, 1227--1244. The Cathedral of Strasburg, the eastern part of which belongs to a Basilica of the eleventh century, is one of the most interesting, the present nave having been commenced in the early part of the thirteenth century. The west front of this great cathedral , which is second in importance to that of Cologne alone, was begun by the celebrated Erwin of Steinbach, and proceeded with by his sons on his death ( 1318) . The Cathedral of Cologne, the finest of all German buildings in the pointed Gothic style, was, until lately, supposed to be the building begun by Conrad de Hochsteden in 1248 : but it is now ascertained 104 ARCHITECTURE. that he only rebuilt the old cathedral of the ninth century. Nothing is known of the architect of the present edifice, which was commenced about 1275, and cor secrated in 1322.. The nave and spires have, after 80. — Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim . many years of work, now been finished according to the original design, and this magnificent building is an almost single example of a cathedral begun and finished without any radical alterations in its original plan (see Eng. 69). GOTHIC. 105 DEELS TILL St. Stephen's of Vienna belongs to the fourteenth century, as does also the Maria Kirche of Lubeck . The Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim ( Eng. 80) belongs to the third period , corresponding to the Flam boyant style of the French . It is marked by intricacy of the moulding, which loses much of its original grace. Many fine civic buildings in the pointed Gothic style were also erected in different parts of Germany : such are the Rathhaus (Town-hall ) of Lubeck ( Eng. 81 ) , and those of Bruns wick and Munster ; the Junker's Hof (Merchants' Court) at 81.-Rathhaus at Lubeck. Dantzig, etc. In Eastern Prussia and elsewhere, where stone was scarce, a style of brick building came into use about this time. The buildings of this time in Switzerland, and in Norway, Sweden and Denmark partake much of the nature of German Gothic. In Norway and Sweden they were almost always con structed of wood Eng. 82). Italy . — In Italy the charac teristics of Gothic architecture were, as has already been said , largely influenced by the climate. The use of marble as the chief building material, and a strong 82.- Church at Hitterdal, Norway. infusion of what may be called classical taste, also contributed to mould the peculiarities of Italian UDOVI 94IECISION 0000000000000 MILK la .Campanile with Gotto's ,ofFlorence Duomo 83. - GOTHIC. 107 Gothic. Here the horizontal cornice is often retained, low -pitched roofs are common , spires are comparatively rarely met with ; the elaborate groined vaulting of Northern Europe, with its attendant external buttresses, are almost unknown, and window tracery is of a very inferior character. The double church of St. Francis at Assisi ( 1238—1253) , famous for its beautiful fresco paintings rather than for its architectural design ; the Duomo of Florence ( Eng. 83), one of the largest churches of the Middle Ages, commenced 1294 or 1298, and completed early in the fourteenth century, remarkable alike for the grandeur of its plan ( larger and better conceived than that of the great cathedral of Cologne), and for the inappropriateness of its details ; Giotto's beautiful Campanile adjoins it ; the Cathedral of Milan ( 1385—1418) , one of the largest of the mediaval cathedrals, built of white marble and sumptuously decorated, spoilt by an attempt to combine Renaissance with Gothic features ; and the Cathedrals of Siena ( Eng. 84) and Orvieto (the former commenced 1243, the latter 1290), are among the best known specimens of Italian pointed Gothic, which is, however, to be met with in many other fine examples scattered throughout the country, at Treviso, Cremona, Como, Bergamo, Bologna ; but in Rome it never became acclimatized. The civic buildings of Venice are many of them fine specimens of the same style ; of these, one of the richest is the palace called the Cà d'Oro ( Eng. 85 ) ; but the noblest and most renowned, as well as largest, is the well- known Doge's Palace. At Cremona is the Palace of the Jurisconsults ; and at Como, the Broletto, with its party -coloured marbles. > Spain . There are but little trustworthy data for any exact history of Spanish architecture in the middle ages. The influences which combined to form the Spaniards themselves are also traceable in the varied character of their architecture. The Moorish conquest in the eighth century introduced an altogether new style into the country. In the south the predominance of their influence is still visible in the rich and florid character of the prevalent architectural decoration, blended with the severer outlines of the Gothic, and known as Moresco ; but in the more northern towns, such as Cordova and Granada, the Gothic manner retained, even during the Moorish occupation, undisputed 108 ARCHITECTURE. hold upon the taste of the people. The present grand Cathedrals of lo OE LILU, 11.02 MEZOEAS . X.AN 84.--Cathedral of Siena. ( Façade by Giovanni Pisano .) Seville, Toledo, and Granada are all built not only upon the exact sites GOTHIC. 109 of more ancient Moorish mosques, but, in the case of the first-named, almost upon the very foundation lines : in the last only, however, are there any remaining traces of Arabic work not wholly obliterated by the superseding Christian structure. There were three periods of Gothic architecture in Spain . To the OVO OTO D Mt. 85. — The Cà d'Oro, Venice, earliest belong the Cathedrals of St. Iago di Compostella , * Zamora , Tarragona and Salamanca. In the second period the French cathedrals were taken as models ; and the Cathedrals of Burgos (Eng. 86) and Toledo were erected . To the third period belongs the famous Cathedral of Seville, of which we have before spoken, the largest Gothic cathedral in Europe. In later times the architecture of Spain became very florid in character. A cast of the grand Puerta della Gloria, built by Master Matteo about A.D. 1180, is in the South Kensington Museum.

Leave 5ooo zadl WHITEULADAS 86.- Burgos Cathedral. ( Commenced 1221.) GOTHIC. 111 Portugal. — The architecture of this country does not call for more than a passing votice. The church at Batalha erected by King John in 1385, one of the most important, is very freely covered with florid decoration, especially the tomb-house of Emanuel the Fortunate. Great Britain.— We reserve our notice of the English pointed Gothic buildings for the chapter on English architecture, in which will be found a continuous description of the development of the style in this country. We must not quit the architecture of the Middle Ages without calling attention to the institution of freemasonry, which in the middle of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth centuries exercised a considerable influence upon art. The freemasons were a body of men skilled in masonry of every kind, and competent to carry out any work they undertook in the best scientific manner. At the time of their organisation writing was unknown to the majority of the laity, and a system of secret signs was invented, by which masons could recognise each other. The houses of meeting were called lodges : the principal were at Strasburg, Vienna, and Zurich. The vast cathedrals of Germany are believed to owe much of their beauty to the harmonious co- operation of the freemasons of the different states. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. First Period : Early Renaissance, 1420-1500. The Renaissance (i. e. revival) is the name given to that style which succeeded the Gothic. It took its rise in Italy, and was in fact a revival of ancient Roman architecture. Gothic, although introduced into Italy, and adopted, as we have seen above, to a certain extent, HHH 87. — Court of the Cancellaria Palace at Rome. never really flourished there, nor supplanted entirely the classical style ; and when Petrarch revived the study of classic literature, that revival was the signal for a return to the ancient models in all the arts ; first in Italy, and later on in the rest of Europe. The fifteenth century was the transition time, when an attempt was made to combine existing styles with those of ancient Greece and Rome. In churches and cathedrals belonging to this period, the RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 113 TA பாபா 0102 groined ceiling of the Gothic styles alternate with the intersecting vault, and the civic build ings are a transition from the feudal fortresses of the Middle Ages to the palaces of a later date. We can trace in them a change somewhat similar to that which came over the lives of the old feudal barons —warlike sim plicity giving place to princely elegance and luxury. The palaces were still distinguished for their ornamented fronts, as in the previous cen turies, but pilasters and arcades were largely in troduced. A principa and distinctive feature of Italian public build ings and palaces of this time is the cortile ( i. e. court- yard) , surrounded by open arcades, over which the upper apart ments were carried in the manner seen in our illus tration ( see Eng. 87) . Although it is impossi ble to deny that from a strictly architectural point of view there is DI WOMAN WE 2 88.–Part of the Ospedale Maggiore, Milan . With terra - cotta decoration . By Antonio Filarete, A.D. 1457. HHA I 114 ARCHITECTURE. much in the buildings of this era that is open to the criticism of those who insist on architectural correctness, there is nevertheless a grace and a delicacy in the ornamentation, and a freshness and simplicity in the details , which render them superior to the buildings which were at the same time being carried out in the later Gothic styles. The Italians, especially in Lombardy, were very successful in moulding bricks for ornamental purposes, and employed them largely in their civic buildings and sometimes also in their churches : they executed the details of the cornices and the moulded arcades and window openings, either by moulding the bricks, or by the use of bricks of different designs arranged in patterns. The Ospedale Maggiore of Milan is a well - known example of Italian ornamental brick and terra - cotta work ( Eng. 88) . Italian Renaissance architecture may be divided into three schools— the Florentine, Roman, and Venetian . Florence may be said to have been the cradle of the Renaissance ; and it is to her great master, Brunelleschi, that she owes her pre eminence in the revival of classic architecture . He completed the dome of the Cathedral, and built Santo Spirito and the Pitti Paluce. In the last -named work he first managed to give artistic importance to a “ rusticated structure. The Strozzi ( built by Cronaca, 1498 ) , Gondi, Riccardi, and Rucellai Palaces may be cited as other fine Florentine buildings of the early Renaissance age. Rome. - In Roman buildings of the same period we find a closer imitation of classic models, and a freer use of pilasters and arcades than in the Florentine palaces. Sometimes two or more storeys are included in one order of columns with their entablature surmounted by an attic ( i. e. low storey ). The two so - called Venetian palaces in Rome — the large palace with the Church of St. Mark adjoining it built by Giuliano de Majano about 1468, and the smaller by Baccio Pintelli in 1475 —are good specimens of Roman Renaissance domestic architec ture : the large unfinished courtyard of the former is the first example of a building constructed on the model of the Colosseum, with its tiers of columns and series of arches. During the whole of the fourteenth and parts of the fifteenth RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 115 centuries Rome was so much dist:arbed by intestine contests, that the population of the city was reduced to less than 20,000 inhabitants. This will explain why “ Rome possesses no buildings of this period that can compare with the stern grandeur of the Florentine palaces, or the playful luxuriousness of those that adorn the canals of Venice ' ( Fergusson ). 11 . 89.-- Palazzo Vendramin Calergi, Venice. By Pietro Lombardo, 1491. Venice. — The Venetian is the most ornate of the three schools. Each storey of the chief buildings of Venice possesses a separate tier of columns and an entablature. The arched windows are ornamented with columns, and the spandrels are frequently filled with figures. The fronts are many of them of marble. Of the palaces of the early · Renaissance, the Palazzo Vendramin Calergi (Eng. 89) and the Palazzo Giovanelli deserve special mention. I 2 म CRISIS MEER Saint 90. -Peter's ,Rome atwith Bernini's Colonnade . RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 117 Second Period : Advanced Renaissance, 1500–1580. As long as Florence was the home of the new style, it retained its transitional character, the result of the combination of mediæval and antique forms ; but in 1500 the scene and destiny of the Renaissance alike underwent a change. Julius II. , an enthusiastic lover of art, attracted the greatest masters of the day to his court, and Rome became the centre of the art world, as it had long been of the religious. For a period of twenty years the classic sculpture of the age of Pericles and the best monuments of Roman art were diligently studied ; and once more painters, sculptors, and architects worked together in harmonious combination, producing masterpieces of undying beauty. In this age the Romans delighted more than ever in vast and noble masses of well ordered forms, and their finest works were now , as before, their civic buildings. Donato Bramante of Urbino, the founder of the Roman school of architecture, will ever be famous as the designer of St. Peter's. In the palaces which he erected, he adhered strictly to antique details, treating them , however, with a grace of his own. The Cancellaria ( see Eng. 87 ) and Giraud ( now Torlonia) palaces are amongst his chief works. He also designed the Sacristy of Santa Maria and the eastern part of Santa Maria delle Grazie, both at Milan . One of the masters who approached most nearly to him was Baldassare Peruzzi, who built the Farnesina palace, famous for its frescoes by Raphael. To Raphael himself we owe a noble work of architecture—the Palazzo Pandolfini ( 1520) at Florence ; and a fragment of a palace in Rome itself (Palazzo Vidoni) is also said to have been built from his designs. Michelangelo Buonarroti, the mighty genius who excelled alike in the three sister arts of architecture, sculpture, and painting, left the impress of his vigour and power on architecture. To him we owe the design of the present Capitol, with its picturesque group of buildings, the Porta Pia, and the completion of the cupola of St. Peter's. This, the largest church in Christendom, is built on the site of the old basilica of Constan tine. The foundation- stone of the new building had been laid in 1406, and the work was proceeded with after designs by Bramante, until his TO 91.- Biblioteca of San Marco, Venice. By Jacopo Sansovino. After A.D. 1536. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 119 A0 death and that of the Pope. Raphael and Peruzzi took up his un finished task, and were in their turn succeeded by Michelangelo in 1546, when he had already reached his seventy -second year. He designed the done, and at the age of ninety saw the greater part of his task ful filled . When he died, he left models for the completion of the church in the form of a Greek cross, with the dome at the crossing ; but his successors, Vignola and Giacomo della Porta, altered his plan by prc longing the nave westward beyond the length which would have harmonised with the dome. Maderno erected the west front and Bernini added the colonnade ( Eng. 90). The church of St. Peter became the model of the most ambitious of the later churches of the Renaissance style. Its interior is very richly decorated with mosaics and coloured marbles. The Farnese Palace, be gun by San Gallo in 1530, and finished by Giacomo della Porta, also bore the impress of Michelangelo, who worked on it after San Gallo. It is one of 92. – Palazzo Valmarano, Vicenza. By Palladio. the grandest in all Rome. In North Italy, the school of Venice attained to much importance during this the golden age of Roman art . For this she was indebted to the great master, Jacopo Tatti, called Sansovino, who built the Library of St. Mark's * ( 1536) ( Eng. 91 ) , considered his masterpiece, and sculptured the magnificent Gate of the Sacristy of the church of the same name. In Vicenza, in the sixteenth century, a group of buildings was erected by Palladio, remarkable not only on their own account, but because they became the models upon which a very large proportion of the Renaissance work in our own country was based ( Eng. 92) ; the

  • The design has been copied in the Carlton Club in London .

120 ARCHITECTURE. manner of Palladio - in the facade of whose buildings pilasters frequently covered two storeys within - having become the fashion in 2 93. - Loggia of the Palazzo del Consiglio, Verona. By Fra Giocondo, before 1500. England, while that of Vignola, whose chief work was the Farnese Palace at Caprarola , was more followed in France. In Verona there still exist buildings of the same period remarkable for the beauty of their decoration. One of the most elegant is the RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 121 Palazzo del Consiglio, built by Fra Giocondo, a dominican who attained much celebrity at Verona . Third Period : Decline of the Renaissance, 1600-1800. The simple beauty which distinguished the works of art of the fifteenth century, and the richness and dignity which they displayed in the sixteenth, were succeeded in the seventeenth by a style in which all the defects of the Renaissance were exaggerated, and almost all its merits left out ; and which unhappily reflected the unbridled license and effeminate luxury of the age. It was neither classic nor Gothic. Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini was the chief master of the new style, and the extent to which unmeaning and capricious decoration was indulged in is seen in his bronze baldacchino (canopy) covering the high altar of St. Peter's. His great architectural work is the colossal Colonnade in front of St. Peter's ( see Eng. 90) . Bernini was also famous as a sculptor. One of his best works is a group of Apollo and Daphne, finished in his eighteenth year. His rival, Francesco Borromini, endeavoured to outdo him by even greater exaggeration of ornament. From his buildings rectilinear forms disappear almost entirely , -even the gables of the windows, the cornices, and the entablatures are broken and contorted, so that all regularity of design is lost, and an effect produced of painful confusion and instability. In the eighteenth century architecture recovered, especially in France, from the exaggeration of the previous period, and a simpler and more dignified style prevailed, in which an attempt was made to return to classical forms ; but the many important buildings erected were deficient in interest as works of art ; for the creative power which had given character to the productions of the great Roman school, founded by B : amante and Michelangelo, was wanting ; and, in spite of their vast size and the richness and luxuriance of their decorations, they remained cold, unmeaning structures. France. — Whilst the style of the Renaissance rapidly made its way in Italy to the almost total exclusion of any other, the other countries 122 ARCHITECTURE. of Europe still remained true to Gothic traditions, and it was not until the sixteenth century was considerably advanced that the classic revival spread to France and England. At first many of the old Gothic forms were retained, combined with Italian features. This is the case in the châteaux of Chambord and Chenonceaux ( Eng. 94) on the Loire, in the palace of Fontainebleau , TE 94. - Château of Chenonceaux , on the Loire . and many other fine buildings. The two first - named palaces, a part of the Château of Blois, and many other mansions in the valley of the Loire, belong to the period of Francis I. —a time when the architecture of France, in its passage from Gothic to Renaissance, displayed a grace, a piquancy, and a refinement rarely equalled, coupled as it was with the most exuberant use of delicate surface orna nent. It was in the RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 123 seventeenth century that the Italian style was universally adopted ; but it was unfortunately the debased and exaggerated style of the late 95. –Façade of the Invalides, Paris. By Mansard . Renaissance, not that of the golden age. Italian architects were largely employed, and their directions were obeyed in every country. The west front of the Louvre, erected by Pierre Lescot, 1544, is one of the finest buildings of early Renaissance in France. The old portion 124 ARCHITECTURE. of the Tuileries, built by Philibert De Lorme, 1564, shows more of the defects of the style. In the next century, when the classic element again began to prevail in Italy, the effect was felt in France, and the result was the erection of the handsome buildings of t ? e Invalides (Eng. 95 ) and the Pantheon --- two of the finest buildings of the period . To the earlier part of the century belong the Palais Royal, built for Richelieu, and Palace of the Luxembourg. Later, Mansard raised the huge building at Versilles, which , though vast, lacks both variety and dignity ; and Perrault added the eastern block to the Louvre. To the last form assumed by this period of the Renaissance style the term Rococo is often given. It is characterised by extravagant and meaningless ornaments profusely applied. Spain.--In Spain we may instance the Monastery of the Escurial, built by Juan de Herrera, one of the finest Renaissance palaces in Europe, and especially remarkable for its central church ( 1563—1584 ) , as the chief work of this style. Other examples are the Cathedrals of Granada and Malaga, and the Townhalls of Zaragoza and Seville. The Netherlands.- In the Netherlands, which affords but few im portant examples of Renaissance architecture, the Townhall, and also the church of St. Jacques at Antwerp, designed by Rubens, and con taining the monument of bis family, need only be mentioned . Germany. —The Gothic style prevailed in Germany until the com mencement of the seventeenth century. The noble hall known as the Belvedere, in the Hradschin Square at Prague, and the Castle of lleidelberg, now in ruins, are examples of early Renaissance, or what is sometimes called the Transition, in Germany. Architecture in the Nineteenth Century. The researches made in Greece in the eighteenth century, and the accurate representations of the monuments discovered in that country which were produced at this period , were of vital importance to archi tecture, and constituted an event in its history. Hitherto the Roman form of the antique style had alone been known and imitated ; but at the beginning of the present century an attempt was made in England, Germany, Italy, and France to revive Greek architecture. Nowhere was this movement more strongly developed than in Great Britain ; but, as a separate chapter is devoted to a comprehensive view of our own architecture, in which the Greek phase will receive notice, we pass at once to Germany and France, the two continental countries where Greek art was most studied and followed by architects. Germany. - Schinkel, a man of powerful and original genius, was one of the first architects to grasp the new ideas and embody them in forms of beauty borrowed from the Greeks, but with a vital character of their own. His principal works are the Royal Guard -house, the new Theatre ( Eng. 96) , the Artillery and Engineers' School, and the Building School at Berlin, and the Casino and St. Nicholas's Church at Potsdam . He also designed many churches, castles, and country houses. All his productions are remarkable for unity of design and vigour and harmony of detail . Another German architect, Stüler, built the Friedenskirche at Potsdam , and the new Museum at Berlin, which is of no special external beauty, but praiseworthy for the harmony and appropriate ness of its internal arrangements ; and for its noble staircase, one of the finest in Europe. Munich is especially rich in buildings erected in the present century. Leo von Klenze and Gärtner are the architects of the greater number. The Glyptothek (sculpture gallery) and the Pinakothek ( picture gallery ), by Von Klenze, are in the classic style ; the former is not altogether a copy of a Greek work, but has something of original feeling : the 126 ARCHITECTURE cornice above the portico is finely decorated, and the pediment is enriched with decorations by Wagner, Schwanthaler, and other sculptors. The picture gallery is by some considered a finer work than the glyptothek. It fully expresses the purpose for which it was erected ; the galleries for large pictures and cabinets for smaller ones are extremely effective. The materials are brick , with stone dressings. OPORU 96. — The Royal Theatre, Berlin . By Schinkel . These buildings, and many others in different parts of Bavaria , —the Walhalla near Ratisbon, by Von Klenze, the Ludwigs- kirche and Triumphal Arch in the same town by Gärtner, for instance — were all built at the expense of Ludwig I. of Bavaria, an enthusiastic lover of art. Gärtner adopted a revived Romanesque, whilst Von Klenze adhered more closely to the Greek. Other German architects, who have aided in the classic revival of the present century, are Gottfried Semper, builder of the Theatre ( destroyed IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 127 by fire), and of tte Museum of Dresden, and Theophil Hansen, to whom Viepna owes many handsome buildings. France, as well as England and Germany, has had a classic revival ; and the most powerful architectural school in the present century was that body of French architects whose style is called the néo-Grec (i. e. revived Greek) , and to whom we owe the fine buildings of the Second Empire ; these are all strongly marked by features derived from the study of Greek art engrafted upon the framework which the gradual development of the Renaissance had supplied. The Church of St. Vincent de Paul, erected by Hittorf, and the École des Beaux Arts, by Duban, both in Paris, are early specimens of this style. The Church of St. Mudeleine, in imitation of a Greek temple, was commenced in 1764, but was not completed till 1842 by Huvé. That of St. Augustine ( 1860—68) , in the form of an irregular triangle, forms an unusual example of the use of iron in its construction ; the Opera -house, by Garnier ( 1861--74) , is the most important, but by no means the most artistic , example of its latest form ( Eng. 97 ) . It is the largest existing theatre in the world, covering an area of nearly three acres. Marbles, granite, and porphyry have been freely used in its decoration ; in the interior are mosaics and paintings of great magnificence, and on the façade are groups of statuary. We must not omit to notice the great group of palaces formed by the Louvre and the Tuileries, part of which was burnt by the Communists in 1871 ; the difference in the styles and want of conformity in alignment of the two palaces long formed an insuperable difficulty to giving unity to the appearance of the whole ; and it was reserved for the architect Visconti to arrange the new portions in such a manner as to tone down the disparities , and produce a pleasing harmony in the various parts. Some large central feature is still considered necessary by Fergusson and other authorities ; but even without it, the Louvre, as it now stands, is one of the finest palaces of the day. The Hôtel de Ville, originally built in the Renaissance style in 1628 , and afterwards much enlarged, until it became one of the most magnifi cent structures in Paris, was burned by the Communists in 1871. It has since been restored in the same style. 128 ARCHITECTURE The new Custom -houses, Prefectures, Hôtels de Ville, and similar public buildings in such cities as Bordeaux, Lyons, Rouen, and Marseilles may be cited as good examples of the style when employed for edifices of a secondary class. The domestic architecture of Paris was largely improved under the Second Empire. The modern houses of Paris are especially remarkable for the happy arrangement of the windows, and for the general appro 97.—The New Opera House, Paris. By Garnier. a priateness of all the details, though wearisome in the monotony of their endless repetition. Our limits will not permit us to do more than make a brief allusion to the Trophies of Paris, which, however, deserve separate study, alike for their historical and artistic value. The Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile, built after the design of Chalgrin, and decorated with grand groups of sculpture by Rude and many other artists ,-commemorating the IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 129 triumphs of the first Napoleon ,-is one of the finest triumphal arches of Modern Europe. The Colonne Vendôme, the Colonne de Juillet, the Fontaine, St. Michel, and the Palais du Trocadéro, are among the other conspicuous public works of the present century. In Italy the classic revival was carried out with much purity of taste and refinement of detail, but nothing has been produced of sufficient novelty to call for special remark, with the exception perhaps of the Arco della Pace ( arch of peace) at Milan, commenced by Napoleon I. , and finished by the Emperor of Austria . Russia has of late years shown considerable architectural activity. Many handsome marble palaces have been erected in St. Petersburg all of them, however, from designs by foreign artists . The Palace of the Archduke Michael, after the design of Stalian, is one of the finest structures of the class. The New Museum of St. Petersburg, by Von Klenze, is a building of considerable merit. The Church of St. Isaac, after a design by a French architect, De Montferrand, is the best ecclesiastical edifice of this northern city. [Within the last forty or fifty years a reaction against the rigid copying of classic forms has sprung up throughout Europe, and a revival of mediæval architecture has supplanted the Greek, if not the Renaissance, style, especially in ecclesiastical buildings. Two great English architects, Augustus Pugin and Sir Charles Barry, were among the first to depart from the fashion which had so long prevailed of introducing Greek and Roman forms into every building of import ance : the most conspicuous of the early examples of the revived Gothic style in Europe is the new Westminster Palace, or Houses of Parliament, after the design by Barry, and with details largely furnished by Pugin. Of this reaction we shall speak more fully in our chapter on Architecture in Great Britain .] The Germans adhered longer than the English to the classic style, which they had been originally slow to take up ; and in France the reaction against all antique forms has not been so strong as in England, HHA K 130 ARCHITECTURE. though very distinctly noticeable. The recent works of Gothic character done in France have indeed been chiefly restorations of the decaying cathedrals and chateaux ; and for new structures, even for churches , the néo -Grec has been largely preferred. All this cannot be called living art ; 'something more is wanted for the creation of a new school of architecture than even a successful re vival of a beautiful style like the Gothic, or a resurrection of antique forms, which must ever retain about them something of the savour of the tomb. Within the last few years, however, there have been indi cations of a possible fusion of certain forms of Gothic and classic architecture. Efforts have been made to combine Gothic details with the regular arrangement of masses and the bold semicircular arches of the Renaissance, and to engraft on old forms novel features suitable to the requirements of the day. Of the late revival in England of the style of architecture pre valent in the reign of Queen Anne we shall speak more fully in a succeeding chapter. Architecture in Great Britain . All that we have said in preceding chapters on the architecture of the Continent will , we trust, be found useful in enabling the reader to understand our own, and to recognise the chief characteristics which distinguish English from contemporary art on the continent of Europe. Architecture, like language, is the expression of national ideas and national peculiarities ; and the study of English history might be to no inconsiderable extent illustrated by an examination of the buildings belonging to each period under consideration . Each race which became dominant in Britain left its impress on the architecture of the time, and the gradual advance in civilisation was marked by a corresponding advance in the science of building. When Julius Cæsar invaded Britain, in 55 B.C. , the dwellings of the inhabitants were of the simplest description - caves, mud huts, or circular houses of stone or wood with tapering roofs, through an aperture in the summit of which light was admitted and smoke emitted . It is therefore at least possible that the remarkable collection of mono lithic masses on Salisbury Plain, called Stonehenge (i. e . hanging or uplifted stones) , with the appearance of which every child is familiar, may not have been erected by the same race of men as those who inhabited these dwellings. Stonehenge shows great experience in the handling of enormous masses of stone, and practice in the art of the Many other rude stone monuments, though none so advanced as works of art, exist in various parts of Britain ; but the date when they were raised and the history of their builders still remain obscure. The arrival of the Romans was an event of great importance for British architecture. They converted London from an enclosed fort into a city, and taught the natives the principles of construction. Agricola ( A.D. 80) especially did all in his power to wean the Britons from their wandering life, and to encourage them to practise the arts He was successful, and under his rule cities rose surrounded by massive walls, and adorned by temples, basilicas, and palaces. The remains of Uriconium (Wroxeter) and Silchester may be cited as mason. of peace. K 2 132 ARCHITECTURE. examples of this advanced civilisation . In the third century, British architects became famous for their skill ; and when the father of Constantine the Great built the city of Autun in Burgundy ( A.D. 290) , many of the workmen employed were sent from Britain . At the end of the third century architecture began to decline in Britain , as elsewhere in Western Europe. This was caused in great measure by the drawing off of the best artists to Byzantium ( now Constantinople ), to aid in the great works undertaken by the Emperor Constantine. When the Romans left Britain , the natives allowed their buildings to fall into decay, or to be seized and destroyed by invaders ; and there fore but few relics of Roman structures remain in England. Of their domestic architecture, the foundations of Villas at Woodchester in Glou cestershire, and Brading in the Isle of Wight, are the most important. The following are the styles into which we may conveniently divide English architecture since the Roman occupation Anglo - Saxon , from end of seventh century to Norman Conquest, 1066 . Norman , from 1066 to nearly 1200 . Gothic, from 1190 to 1546. Transitional, from 1546 to 1619. Renaissance, about 1619 to the present day. The Gothic is commonly divided into three periods, to which different names are assigned by different authorities ; those introduced by Rickman and still usually accepted , are --Early English, 1199 to 1272 ; Decorated , 1272 to 1377 ; Perpendicular, 1377 to 1546 (the later Perpendicular being also called Tudor ). The Transitional period is commonly divided into Elizabethan and Jacobean, 1546 to 1619 ; and a third modern phase of it , to some extent contemporaneous with Renaissance, is now known as the Queen Anne. Anglo- Saxon Style. On the arrival of the Saxons ( A.D 449 ) , the little that remained of true artistic feeling in the natives of Britain was quickly crushed. GREAT BRITAIN. 133 Like the rest of the Germans at this date, the Saxons knew nothing of art, and did not employ stone in any of their buildings ; even their cathedrals were of wood. The original church of York was of timber, covered with reeds. It was not until the seventh century that arcbitecture revived, thanks to the earnest efforts of Wilfrid, bishop of York, and Benedict, founder of the Abbey of Wearmouth ( Sunderland) . நாம்ய 98.- Tower of Earl's Barton Church , Northamptonshire. Their exertions began in the style called Anglo - Saxon, which prevailed in England until the Norman Conquest in 1066. This and the Norman style which succeeded it were, however, in reality nothing more than the most western form of the Romanesque or Byzantine style, to which two chapters . have already been devoted. Bishop Wilfrid erected handsome buildings at York, Ripon, and Hexham ; and to Benedict we owe the first introduction of glass in churches. He invited glass 13+ ARCHITECTURE. manufacturers from France, who taught their art to the natives of Britain . The total destruction of all the wooden cathedrals, etc. erected before and during the reign of Alfred renders it impossible to describe their style or appearance. Of the stone churches of later date but very few remain, and these only in part. * The following are the principal — the tower of Earl's Barton in Northamptonshire ( Eng. 98) , Stukely in Buckinghamshire, Barfreston in Kent ( Eng. 99 ) , Avington in Berkshire, Worth in Sussex, and St. Lawrence at Bradford -on - Avon. The original stone edifice of Westminster Abbey was built by Edward the Confessor, between 1055 and 1065. All that now remains of it is the P'ye House -- a low , narrow room , with a vaulted roof, divided down the centre by a row of seven plain pillars with simple capitals. The principal characteristics of Saxon work are plain semicircular arches, short columns, with rude capitals decorated with indentions of various lengths, or a rough copy of some Greek order ; windows with a semicircular head, often very narrow compared to their length, and sometimes divided by short balusters, used like small columns ; very thick walls without external buttresses, and what are known as “ long and short” quoins, at the angles of the building. Ornamentation, except in the capitals of columns, is sparingly used. The plan of Saxon churches is generally a rectangle, divided into a body and chancel, and separated by an ornamented arch , the chancel terminating in a semicircular apse. Transepts did not appear until towards the end of the Saxon period. About the same time towers were erected at the west front, and bells were first used in churches. Norman Style. The Norman style is that which prevailed from 1066 to about 1200, including the reigns of William I. , William II. , Henry I. , Stephen, Henry

  • The lower part of the tower of Barnack in Lincolnshire is believed to be the

earliest example of stone architecture in England . Deerhurst in Gloucestershire, built in 1056, is the earliest dated church in this country. GREAT BRITAIN. 135 II . , and Richard I. The Normans did not introduce many new features , but they improved the existing style by bringing to this country men who had carried it to a far higher pitch than it had reached here, and who possessed a greater experience in the erection of large buildings, and were accustomed to a richer treatment of details. The following are the chief characteristics of the Norman style. Semicircular arches, a OLERINA File EU to - I 99. —Doorway of Barfreston Church, Kent. ( Norman .) such as those of the nave of Peterborough Cathedral ( see Eng. 102), with larger openings than the Saxon , and almost invariably with mouldings and enrichments. The entrance -arches of churches were profusely decorated, as, for example, at Ely, with mouldinys, wreaths, masks, human figures in relief, etc. Towards the close of the period pointed arches were occasionally introduced in the upper storeys of a 136 ARCHITECTURE. building, whilst those in the lower remained circular. · We even see them alternating here and there with the old form. Norman columns, though higher than the Saxon, are of immense diameter as compared with their height and the distances between them. They have circular, hexagonal, or octagonal shafts, with fluted, reticulated ( i.e. like the meshes of a net ), or lozenged mouldings ( Eng. 100) . Their capitals are of a well- marked type, and either plain or decorated with a kind of volute ( i.e. spiral enrichment), or with plants, shells , animals, etc. , etc. Norman windows are narrow and semicircular- headed like the Saxon, Mb LOODUS USC M 100. — Late Norman shafts, capitals, and parts of arches at St. Peter's, Northampton . but they are larger, and are often grouped together in twos or threes . The ceilings are generally flat and of timber, except in crypts, which are vaulted with stone, the groins being plain , or if decorated, only on the edge. Norman walls are extremely massive, with no buttresses, but in their place plain shallow piers are used. For decoration, rows of arcades with nothing to support are of frequent occurrence ; the chief mouldings are the chevron ( i. e. zigzag moulding), the fret ( i. e . ornament with one or more fillets- -narrow bands or rings—meeting in vertical or horizontal directions), nail-head , billet ( i. e. cylindrical pieces GREAT BRITAIN . 137 4 +

two or three inches long in hollow mouldings ), calle, lozenge, wave, etc. The large semicircular (torus) and the hollow ( cavetto) mouldings occur in bases, and elsewhere. In our Norman buildings the masonry is usually beautifully executed—far more perfectly, indeed, than was the custom in some subsequent periods. In Norman churches transepts are of frequent occurrence ; the tower, rising from the point of intersection between them and the nave, being loftier than in Saxon buildings. The chief distinction between the two - styles is increase of size and richness. The great length of the nave in Norman churches, unbroken by any rood-screen, gives a sense of vastness to the whole building. We may here remark that the eastern limbs of Anglo- Norman churches were generally square ended, whilst that of continental buildings belonging to the same age was apsidal, that is to say, semicircular, or more rarely polygonal. The earliest specimens of the Anglo -Norman style closely resemble the continental Norman. The Cathedral of Canterbury, founded by St. Augustine about the middle of the sixth century, and rebuilt by degrees by Archbishops Odo (940) , Lanfranc ( 1070—1089 ) , and Anselm ( 1093) , supplies us, in the portions still remaining of the Norman building, with illustrations of the principal characteristics of this style. The Cathedral of Rochester is another building in which the Norman style may be studied. It was commenced about 1077, and the nave is but little altered from its original appearance . Its internal details are plainer than those in contemporary French churches ; but its western doorway, which is uninjured, is a good specimen of the rich external ornamentation of the age. The choir and crypt were rebuilt early in the thirteenth century. The ground- plan of Winchester Cathedral is Norman , and the transepts remain unaltered, but the nave was overlaid with Per pendicular work by William of Wykeham. Chichester Cathedral was commenced in 1082, and the nave, which has remained unaltered, was completed thirty - six years later. The f

  • The screen at the entrance of the chancel, so called from its having been sur mounted by a large figure of Christ on the cross. The Anglo - Saxon word rod

signifies a cross, and the word , rood, derived from it, was applied to the cross on which our Lord was put to death . ' ' 138 ARCHITECTURE. building was extended eastward, like most English churches, in the early part of the thirteenth century ; and this position is a good specimen of the completed transition from the short to the elongated choir, which came into general use in the thirteenth century. Norwich Cathedral retains its original Norman form with less alter ation than any other in England . It was founded in 1094, by Bishop Losinga ; it is 411 ft. long by 191 ft. broad at the transepts, with a spire of later date 315 ft. high. It has the French chevet termina tion instead of the English square choir, but in nothing else does it resemble the continental cathedrals of the age. Its vast length as compared with its breadth, and the bold projection of the transepts, are distinctively English features. NORTH XIAS XIN E ...DXNXX SOUTH EAST WEST 1 . 101. - Peterborough Cathedral— Ground -plan.* , The ground-plan ( Eng. 101 ) and nave ( Eng. 102 ) of Peterborough Cathedral are Norman. The nave retains its original appearance ,' except for the substitution of whitewash for the colours with which it ' was painted. The side- aisles are vaulted , whilst the nave retains the flat roof of the earliest basilicas. A great part of St. Alban's Abbey was, till recently, Norman ; the nave, one of the longest in England , consisting of no less than thirteen bays, was extended by Paul , the first Norman abbot , during the latter years of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth century. This Abbey, now a cathedral, has been lately restored. A, Nave ; B, Transepts ; C, Choir ; D, Side- aisles ; E, Doorway.

GREAT BRITAIN. 139 a பாபயாட பாயா கராமா பாபா பா பரமாரியாபாரம் By the beginning of the twelfth century the Norman style had become generally adopted in England , and had assumed an entirely national character. Durham Cathedral is a fine example of this, as it differs entirely from anything on the Continent. It is , moreover, one of the finest ecclesiastical buildings in England ; its galilee , or western chapel, is an extremely elegant and characteristic example of Anglo Norman work. Durham Cathedral was commenced by Bishop William unsur: inetnamu GERAL : de Carilepho, about 1093, in the form of a Latin cross , and additions were gradually made till about 1500 ; so that the changes of style which took place between these dates can be well studied in it . Amongst other ancient monuments, it contains the tomb of the Vener able Bede, who died A.D. 735 . There are four churches in Eng land circular in plan-viz. , those of the Holy Sepulchre at Cambridge, and Northampton ; the Temple Church in London, and the church at LittleMaplestead, in Essex. It is impossible, in a work like the present, to enumerate all the cathedrals and other important churches of England containing Norman features ; enough has, we trust, been said to enable students 102. - Nave of Peterborough Cathedral. to recognise these for themselves ; and we would urge them to take every opportunity of visiting and studying the abbeys, cathedrals, and parochial churches scattered over the length and breadth of England. Our review of Norman architecture will not be complete without a brief notice of the castles with which every eminence of any strategical importance was crowned in the time of William the Conqueror and his 140 ARCHITECTURE. successors. The keep, or main tower, was the part first built ; in some instances it stood alone ; in not a few, thanks to its great solidity, it still stands, though all subsequent additions have disappeared. One of these castles , when fully completed by the additions of subsequent gener ations, was often of vast extent, and usually of irregular form , as the shape of the ground indicated . The exterior line of defence (or outer bailey) was surrounded by a deep ditch called a fosse or moat, protected by an outwork called a barbican , consisting of aa strony wall, with 103.- The Keep of Norwich Castle . turrets, for the defence of the great gate and drawbridge. The ex ternal wall enclosing this outer bailey was placed within the ditch, and was 8 to 10 ft. thick by 20 to 30 ft. high, with a parapet ( i. e. a wall breast-high ) and embrasures (i. e . openings in a wall or parapet ). Square towers were raised here and there above the walls, and con tained lodgings for the officers engaged in the defence of the castle, etc. The tops of the turrets and of the wall were flat, and the defenders of the castle stood on them to hurl down missiles upon their assailants. GREAT BRITAIN. 141 a The great gate was flanked by a tower on each side, with rooms over the entrance , which was closed with a massive folding door of oak, and provided with a portcullis (i.e. a falling gate, consisting of a strong grating made of timber and iron, with pointed spikes for striking in the ground, made to slide up and down in a groove of stone work, inside the entrance arch ). Within the outer walls of the castle was an open space ; and another ditch, with a wall, gate, and towers .complete, enclosed an inner court ( inner bailey ), from which rose the keep i.e. the large central tower already referred to), also called the donjon ( i. e. dungeon ). In the keep was often the great hall for the entertainment of guests and retainers, with the raised daïs ( i. e. plat form ) at one end, where stood the table for persons of high rank. The principal castles of England occupied at the present day are those of Dover, Windsor, Warwick , Alnwick , Norwich ( Eng. 103 ) , and the Tower of London ; those of Hedingham , Kenilworth, Arundel, and others may have equalled these before they fell into the decay in which we see them at the present day. The Tower of London contains a fine specimen of a Norman keep, known as the White Tower. The walls of the keep, or donjon, are in parts 16 ft. thick, and of extremely solid masonry ; the chapel in the White Tower is one of the best preserved and most interesting works of its age extant, but most of it is very much modernised. The whole enclosure occupies a space of 12 or 13 acres. Rochester Castle, near the cathedral, is a good specimen of a Norman keep, though much dilapidated. The Keep of Colchester Castle, though in ruins, shows that it must have been even larger than the White Tower. Gothic Architecture. 66 as First Period.—Early English. The period generally known as “ Early English ,” or less commonly Early Pointed ,” lasted from about 1189, the date of the accession of Richard I. , to 1307 , the date of the death of Henry III. The crusades of the eleventh century, combined with other influences , led to a revolution in European architecture, and, in fact, in all the arts. 142 ARCHITECTURE. The styles which then sprang up received the comprehensive name of Gothic. England was almost a century behind some of the countries of the Continent in adopting the Pointed style, and our earliest examples of it retain much of the massiveness and strength of the Norman. The chief points which distinguish Early English architecture from the buildings of the preceding age may be briefly enumerated as follows. Walls of Early English buildings are often less massive than the Norman , and are frequently strengthened with external buttresses, which at this period were always set square to the line of the walls. Arches . - In large arches the archivolt (i. e . the arched portion as distinguished from the jambs or sides from which it springs) is heavily moulded , exhibiting a succes sion of round mouldings alter natingwith deep hollows ; and the plain faces which were conspicuous in the archivolts of the Norman style have wholly disappeared. The small arches are slight, lofty, and acutely pointed ; the piers gen erally consist of a central shaft surrounded by several 104. - Clustered pillar from the nave of smaller ones, with a clustered Wells Cathedral. base and foliaged capital (Eng. 104 ). The triforium , or gallery over the aisles, the clerestory, or row of nave windows above the triforium , the high pointed roofs and vaulted ceilings, exhibit a degree of lightness combined with solidity which removes all appearance of ponderous weight. The line along the apex (i.e. summit) of the vault is generally decorated with raised mouldings. Roofs. There are not any existing specimens of roofs of this era, with the open carved timber-work described by various writers ; but in the church of Warmington, in Northamptonshire, there is a groined roof in which the ribs (i.e. bands running along the groins or inter secting lines ) are of wood, and the cells ( i.e. surfaces) of the vaulting are covered with boards. The general roofing of this period is groined GREAT BRITAIN. 143 'vaulting, of which the roofs of Salisbury Cathedral, and of the choir and transepts of Westminster Abbey, are fine specimens. In Wells Cathedral and the Temple Church of London, examples of Early English vaulting may also be seen . Windows are the features in which the gradual progress of the Gothic style may most readily be studied ( consult p. 97) . In the Early English they are long, narrow, and lancet- headed (i. e. with an acute angle at the head) . Sometimes one window like this is seen alone, but more usually three, five, or seven are grouped together. The necessity for filling up the vacant spaces between the heads of the several windows so grouped led to their perforation with ornamental forms. This was the origin of the tracery and foliation so largely employed in later styles. The smaller windows, when thus com bined, are called lights. The great window at Lincoln Cathedral, consisting of eight windows or lights combined together, is a good example. The cathedrals of Salisbury, Chichester, Lincoln and York , Beverley Minster, and Westminster Abbey, contain specimens of Early English windows. York Minster possesses an Early English window, called the Five Sisters , which, although it consists merely of long, simple, undecorated openings, is almost unrivalled for effect and dignity. The larger west fronts generally include a pointed 105.- Early Euglish . central gable, with a tower on each side rising above the gable ; and enriched by one to four rows of niches, windows, and arches over the doorways. The west front of Lincoln Cathedral contains a good deal of Early English work grouped round a Norman doorway ; that of Peterborough consists of three large arches, adorned with clustered piers, architraves, and a large number of mouldings. The west front of Salisbury Cathedral is considered the richest façade we have in this style. The sculpture, however, is modern. Doorways.— Early English doorways are often very beautiful; the mouldings forming the head are bold, deeply recessed, and often 1IM 144 ARCHITECTURE. elaborately carved. The west doors of Wells and Salisbury Cathedrals, the door of Salisbury Chapter House, the west doorways of Ely and 108.—Lichfeld Cathedral. Chichester Cathedrals, etc. , are fine examples. The porches of English cathedrals are frequently more than mere doorways : sometimes they GREAT BRITAIN. 145 are compartments of considerable size , called galilees, answering to those rooms which were used in the early days of the Christian Church for the reception of penitents, etc. , and known by the name of narthexes. Steeples were greatly developed during this age. In Anglo-Norman churches a low square tower was used sometimes with no visible roof, sometimes terminated by a low pyramid, very occasionally gabled. This, in the Early English style, was heightened and developed into a Spire. Towards the end of the period turrets and pinnacles began to be largely employed, the buttresses became more slender and taper ing, and “ flying buttresses were introduced. The three spires and the buttresses of Lichfield Cathedral ( Eng. 106) are examples of the best kind. The most distinctive enrichment of the Early English style is a small perforated pyramid, called dog-tooth, or tooth ornament. The first great cathedral built entirely in the new style was that of Salisbury, commenced in A.D. 1220 and finished in A.D. 1258. It is in the form of a double cross, having two transepts, one between the nave and choir, and one nearer the east end. It is 480 ft. long by 232 ft. wide. The west front is flanked by two massive square towers surmounted by spires and pinnacles ; and over the central entrance runs an arcade, above which is the great western window. The galilee or porch is as wide and lofty as one division of the north aisle. The spire, which is of rather later date than the rest of the church, rises from the intersection of the nave and larger transept, to 400 ft . , and is the highest in England. The interior has been injured by injudicious restoration ; the stained glass with which the clerestory windows were once filled, and the colouring which formerly adorned the walls, are wanting ; but, in spite of all these drawbacks, Salisbury Cathedral remains a masterpiece of art. The Chapter-House ( Eng. 107) , an octagonal room with a central clustered pillar supporting the palm- like ribs of the vaulted roof, is very beautiful. The choir and transepts of Westminster Abbey, erected by Henry III. , belong to this style. The four eastern bays of the nave belong to the transition between this and the Decorated style ; they are the work of Edward III. , who also built a chapel dedicated to HHA L 146 ARCHITECTURE. the Virgin, which was removed to make way for Henry VII.'s chapel. The nave and the very elaborate west front of Wells Cathedral, in the Early English style, were commenced in 1214 by Bishop Joceline. The most remarkable feature of this celebrated structure is the variety 107.— The ChaĻter-House, Salisbury Cathedral. of sculptured figures in the niches of the upper part. They have been noticed by our great English sculptor Flaxman as marking the state of art at the period of their execution . They consist of figures " in the round " (i.e. fully detached ), and others in high relief. Those on the southern portion of the front represent the Creation , the Deluge, GREAT BRITAIN. 147 and other Old Testament incidents ; those on the northern, events in the life of our Saviour. * Above these are two rows of statues larger than life ; and near the gable is a high relief of Christ come to Judgment, attended by His angels and the twelve apostles, —the upper arches on either side being filled with figures starting from their С B امه TI A 108.—Nave of Wells Cathedral. A Arcade. 109.—Choir of Worcester Cathedral , B Triforium . C Clerestory . graves, their faces and attitudes admirably expressing hope, fear, grief, and other emotions. Another effective and characteristic feature is the use of light projecting buttresses, which produce by their bold projection a most striking effect of light and shade. The general aspect

  • See ' Iconography of the West Front of Wells Cathedral, ' by C. R. Cockerell, R. A. 7

L 2 148 ARCHITECTURE , of the nave may be inferred from the illustration of one bay ( Eng. 108 ) . This cathedral was not finished till A.D. 1465. By its side we give a bay of an almost contemporaneous work — the choir of Worcester Cathedral, A.D. 1203--1218 ( Eng. 109 ) . The choir and transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, with the exception of the presbytery added at a somewhat later date, are in the Early English style ; most of the ecclesiastical buildings of England received additions at this period ( A.D. 1189 to A.D. 1307 ) . Some of the finest buildings of Scotland also belong to this age -the choir of Glasgow Cathedral, for instance ; their architecture is of a more massive character than any of the English edifices noticed above. The Crosses of Queen Eleanor belong to the end of this period. Those at Waltham , Geddington , and Northampton are the finest, and in the best preservation. A good reproduction by the late Edward M. Barry, R.A. , of the ancient Charing Cross may be seen in front of the Railway Station in the Strand. Second Periol.- The Decorated Style. The style which succeeded the Early English, and which was the second stage in the development of Gothic architecture in England, is known as the Decorated, or sometimes as Middle Pointed. It is generally dated from 1307 ---the date of the accession of Edward, II. —to 1377, the date of the death of Edward III . The Decorated style, however, grew so gradually from its predecessor that the dates given above can only be looked upon as approximate. The following differ ences distinguish Decorated from Early English architecture. The arches are generally not quite so acute, and the mouldings are sometimes carried down to the base of the pier or jamb without being interrupted by a capital. The mouldings are less boldly undercut, and of more regular section than in the preceding style, and are rarely used so as to produce the same striking effects of intricacy and richness. The piers or clustered pillars are grouped in a slightly different manner from the Early English, the shafts being joined GREAT BRITAIN. 149 together instead of detached ; the carving of the capitals, which has a conspicuous peculiarity of character, is more delicate, and is carried round the bell or body of the capital in a wreath instead of springing stiffly from the neck-moulding. The vaults of the Decorated style differ from those which preceded them in being divided into a greater number of compartments, and in the multiplication of the ribs. At the point of intersection of the groins, bosses (i. e . small masses of carving) were constantly introduced . Open wooden roofs were common at this period ; but as they were very subject to decay or to destruction by fire, few remain . The roofs of the nave of Higham Ferrars Church, in Northamptonshire, of the corporation chancel of St. Mary's, Leicester, and of the nave of Ely Cathedral, are of the class referred to. The roof of Eltham Palace is also a good example. The windows are the most beautiful feature of the Decorated style . They are larger than the Early English, and are divided into a greater number of lights — the heads being filled with the tracery, which is sometimes of strictly geometrical forms, sometimes of a flowing outline, corresponding to some extent with the French Flamboyant. Some of the most beautiful windows of England are constructed with these graceful flowing lines . York Minster, the Minster and St. Mary's at Beverley, and many other churches contain examples. The great west window at York is an extremely fine specimen, but even this is surpassed by the east window of Carlisle Cathedral, which is considered to be the finest Decorated window in the kingdom. In the best windows of this style, the mouldings of the mullions and tracery are simple in section, the principal mullion having sometimes a capital and base. Circular windows were sometimes used : as, for instance, in Exeter, Chichester, and Lincoln Cathedrals. Fronts of buildings in the Decorated style differ little from those of the Early English ; more complicated forms were resorted to for effect, and some of the beautiful and effective simplicity of earlier buildings was lost. One of the finest west fronts in this style is that of York Minster ( Eng. 110) , the nave of which also belongs to the Elwardian age. Spires were so much admired at this time that they were added to 150 ARCHITECTURE . towers complete without them . The buttresses were now carried higher than before, and surmounted by pinnacles. They were more richly decorated than ever, and were not now invariably planted at right-angles with the walls they supported. As the name of the style implies, a corresponding exuberance of ornamentation prevailed in every detail of construction . The ball flower ( i.e. a small round bud of three or four leaves) is the characteristic enrichment of the Decorated style , as the dog-tooth is of the Early English, and the chevron or zigzag of the Norman. One of the most beautiful specimens of Decorated architecture in England is the large octagonal tower at the intersection of the nave and transepts of Ely Cathedral, built by Alan de Walsingham , to supply the place of the old Norman tower which had fallen down. The beautiful Lady- chapel of Ely Cathedral also belongs to this age. The royal chapel of St. Stephen's at Westminster, although small, must have been an extremely fine edifice. It was built during the reigns of the three first Edwards, and therefore belonged to the ripe age of English architecture. The greater part has been removed, but the crypt, carefully restored, is still to be seen, and serves as the chapel of the Houses of Parliament. Among other examples we may name Lichfield Cathedral ( see Eng. 106 ), the Abbey Church of Bristol, the nave of Exeter Cathedral, Battle Abbey, and Tintern Abbey. Many churches were enlarged and enriched by the addition of chapels during the prevalence of this style. Excellent examples of its mouldings and ornamentations are to be found in the many fourteenth century tombs and monuments in our cathedrals and churches. A great improvement took place in domestic architecture in England in the reign of Edward III. , especially in the halls of castles and palaces. The Round Tower of Windsor was built by him for the table of the Knights of the Order of the Garter, founded in his reign. As examples still remaining, we have the hall of the Bishop's Palace , Wells, and the gatehouse there ; one of the gatehouses at Bury St. Edmunds, the hall at Penshurst, the earlier parts of Haddon Hall, and the noted Edwardian castles of Wales- such as Conway, Caernarvon , and Chepstow, Sans TE MEAN UNDEN LAUALAU MAANA MEZGER'S X.A.T.C. 110 .-- York Minster - West front. 152 ARCHITECTURE. Third Period . — The Perpendicular Style, sometimes called “ Third Pointed . ” 6 The style which succeeded the Decorated in England is known as the Perpendicular. It is generally considered to have pre vailed from 1377 — the date of the accession of Richard II. -to 1547 --the death of Henry VIII. It was contemporary with the Flam boyant style in France. Its chief characteristics are the rectilinear lines, which replaced the flowing tracery of the windows of the Decorated period. The same feeling, however, pervaded the other features of Perpendicular buildings, -- the buttresses, towers, and piers being all slight, and continuous vertical lines being used whenever possible. All this offers a strong contrast to the dark shadows and raised mouldings of the preceding period. The stone roofs of this style are more elaborate than those of any other, and display that peculiarly English feature, fan -tracery - a development of vaulting admitting the highest ingenuity and skill . The four -centred arch , sometimes called the Tudor arch, belongs to the latter part of this age. The fronts of buildings of the Perpendicular period are often very fine . Those of Beverley Minster and King's College Chapel, Cambridge, are considered the best examples ; and those of the Cathedrals of Winchester, Gloucester, Chester, of the Abbey Church of Bath, and St. George's Chapel, Windsor, are also good . The mouldings of this style are more regular and more shallow than in the two which pre ceded it. Sculptured animals are frequently introduced as ornaments, often producing a grotesque effect. The three typical specimens of English edifices in the later develop ment of this style are Henry VII.'s Chapel, in Westminster Abbey, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, near the Castle, and King's College Chapel, Cambridge. Henry VII.'s Chapel is a prolongation of the eastern limb of the Abbey, and is in fact the Lady Chapel, as well as the sepulchral chapel of the king whose name it bears. It consists of a nave, two aisles, and five small chapels, and can only be entered from the Abbey itself. The exterior is richly decorated ; the buttress turrets GREAT BRITAIN. 153 are especially beautiful, rising to a considerable height above the HE 111.--Fan -tracery in the roof of Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster. para pet, and ending in finials ( i. e. the tops of buttresses and pinnacles in Gothic buildings), richly ornamented. The flying buttresses are also 154 ARCHITECTURE. extremely ornate, covered with lions , dragons, and other symbolic creatures. The chief beauty of the whole is, however, universally admitted to be the groined ceiling of the interior, which is the most exquisite specimen of fan -tracery in exister.ee, the whole surface being spread with a network of lace -like ribbing (Eng. 111 ) . UULIUILLA 112 .-- Open timber roof of St. Stephen's at Norwich. The Chapel of King's College, Cambridge, is not so richly ornamented as Henry VII.'s, but is remarkable for being one of the very few large Gothic churches without side-aisles, the absence of which gives an almost overwhelming sense of space. Its vault of fan-tracery yields to The exterior of Henry's VII.'s Chapel was restored by Parliamentary grant, between 1807 and 1822. GREAT BRITAIN. 155 . none except that of Henry VII.'s Chapel, and for vigorous mastery of the style it is absolutely unequalled by any other building. St. George's Chapel, Windsor, has a fine groined fan- tracery roof, which entitles it to rank with the other two. The Cloisters and Lady -chapel of Gloucester Cathedral, considered by some to be the earliest example of Perpendicular work , the central tower, Lady-chapel, nave, and western transepts of York Cathedral, and an immense number of parochial churches -- especially in Somerset shire, Gloucestershire, Norfolk, and Suffolk - may be instanced as further examples of the style. The open timber roofs of St. Stephen's ( Eng. 112 ) and St. Peter's Mancroft at Norwich are among the best examples of one of the distinguishing features of this period, The chapels of Roslyn and Holyrood in Scotland belong to this age, and combine the elegance characteristic of it with northern massiveness. The pillars of the nave at Roslyn are remarkable for their beauty. The Tudor, or Florid English style, is the term sometimes applied to the Late Perpendicular, when the Pointed style was beginning to decline in Eagland, -which it did not do until some years later than in the rest of Europe. It was remarkable for redundancy of ornament, in which a constant repetition of the same forms took the place of the exquisitely carved foliage and sculpture of the earlier part of the period. The more extensive use of panelling was another characteristic, the walls of Tudor chapels being almost entirely covered with it. Fan tracery vaulting was extensively employed, and in many cases clusters of pendant ornaments resembling stalactites mark the intersections of the ribbing. The doorways are extremely elaborate, and often form the finest portion of the work. That of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, is an excellent example . The ecclesiastical edifices of this age are not numerous, -few of any importance were erected after 1530, -and it is in the domestic buildings, such as palaces and castles, that the style can be best studied. Large sums were expended by the nobility on their private residences. Henry VII . built a handsome palace at Shene, in Surrey, to which he gave the name of Richmond, retained by the town which grew up round it, although scarcely a trace of the building itself 156 ARCHITECTURE. remains. It was in this palace that the bay window (i.e. a projecting window rising from the ground) was first extensively nised . In the time of Henry VIII. , before the close of the style and the commence อากาศ : SaleRRENT JJACKSON 113.-Wolsey's Great Hall in Hampton Court Palace. ment of the Renaissance, the greater number of Tudor palaces were erected. One of the finest existing examples is Hampton Court Palace, built by Cardinal Wolsey. It consists of three quadrangles, and has a GREAT BRITAIN, 157 square tower at the entrance, flanked by an octagonal turret at each angle. The gateway is pierced through this tower, and is formed by an obtuse arch with oriel windows (i. e. windows projecting beyond the front of a building and supported by a corbel from the masonry of the wall) . A battlement of open tracery crowns the wall. The build - ings on the right and left of the tower have been modernised, but at each end is one of the original gables, with its sloping sides adorned with griffins. The timber roof of the Great Hall ( Eng. 113) , built in the early part of the sixteenth century, is one of the best existing specimens of carved roofs of this age. The finest in England, or indeed in Europe, is the roof of Westminster Hall. Both these are technically called hammer-beam roofs. The roof of Crosby Hall, London, is another good example. The fire- places and chimneys of Tudor buildings were often enriched with beautiful carving and sculpture. The chimneys towered to a considerable height above the roofs, and were grouped in such a manner as to form an important and picturesque feature of Tudor mansions. Foreign artists were constantly employed during the reign of Henry VIII. , and to their influence is due the introduction of many Italian and German decorative details in domestic architecture. Girolamo da Treviso and Holbein were the most celebrated. They largely employed the moulded brickwork and terra cotta , at that time in vogue on the Continent. There are excellent examples of this in the large and beautiful medallions on the old gateway at Hampton Court Palace. Fourth Period . — The Transitional Style. The period of the transition from Gothic to pure Renaissance is commonly divided into the Elizabethan and Jacobean styles. It began in the latter part of the reign of Henry VIII., and lasted under various phases until the reign of Queen Anne, in the early part of the eighteenth century. A few years before the death of Henry VIII. , Giovanni da Padova

  • Mr. J. H. Parker says, “ This is really no style at all.”

158 ARCHITECTURE. ( John of Padua ), an Italian architect of note, arrived in England, and his appointment to the office of " Deviser of His Majesty's buildings,' in 1544, was the immediate occasion of the introduction of the Italian Renaissance style into England. With the name of Giovanni must be associated that of Theodore Kave, or Kavenius, of Cleves. The chief work of John of Padua was Longleat, the mansion of the Marquis of Bath, in Wiltshire, built between 1567 and 1579 ; and that of Theodore Kave, Caius College, Cambridge, erected between 1565 and 1574. Longleat is considered 114. - Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire. one of the finest English palaces of this period. It consists of three storeys, each with an order of its own, and it possesses the essentially English feature of the principal windows being directed outwards, and the only internal quadrangle being a back - court instead of the Italian cortile (i.e. central court -yard ). Caius College, Cambridge, is one of the most complete specimens of this Early Renaissance style in England . The buildings are half Gothic, and the gateways are richly adorned with Italian details. The “ Gate of Honour ” ( 1574) is the finest. The chief English architects of the reign of Elizabeth were Thomas GREAT BRITAIN. 159 Holt, Robert Smithson, and John Thorpe. The first built the Public Schools of Oxford, the gateway of which ( 1612 ) is a good example of the early Renaissance ; the rest of the buildings are , however, of the debased Elizabethan Gothic. Holt was, it is said , the first English architect to introduce all the orders into a single front. Smithson, aided by Thorpe, erected Wollaton Hall ( Eng. 114) in Nottinghamshire ( 1580-90 ), the general design of which resembles that of Longleat, but is pervaded by Gothic rather than Italian feeling. The following buildings also belong to the Transition period : Hatfield House, 1611 ; Holland House, IKKAITATION TURE STALITA さて さて 、 マイメロ ( 99ゴーゴー ゴムは さい KIIT Коактави . HHHHH HADDE 1 115.— The Banqueting House, Whitehall. By Inigo Jones. 1607 ; Charlton in Wiltshire ; Burleigh, 1577 ; Westwood , 1590 ; Bolsover, 1613. They are all characterised by a lack of simplicity and elegance, and are wanting alike in the distinctive beauties of the Gothic and Italian styles ; yet they possess a charm of their own which is almost superior to anything of which more regular works can boast. Renaissance. The first and most accomplished architect of the pure Renaissance in England was Inigo Jones, who studied the principles cf architecture in Italy at the expense of the Earl of Pembroke. His 160 ARCHITECTURE . fame rests chiefly on his design for Whitehall Palace, planned by command of James I. : the present Banqueting House in Whitehall ( Eng. 115 ) was a single feature of that great project, and the only part of it actually carried into execution . Many other buildings in London and different parts of England were designed by Inigo Jones. Of these, St. Paul's, Covent Garden, was perhaps the most successful. It has a recessed portico in antis, with very simple pillars, which gives an extremely dignified appearance to the outside of the building. The inside is somewhat spoiled by the building up of the central door in order to allow the altar to be placed at the east end, which takes away the meaning of the portico. We have now arrived at the time of Sir Christopher Wren, who was born about 1632, when Inigo Jones's reputation was at its height. Wren was early distinguished for his mathematical and scientific acquirements. The Great Fire of 1666 opened for him a splendid field as an architect, and to this circumstance we are indebted for the finest buildings of the metropolis. Within three days of this disastrous con flagration , Wren presented a plan to the king for the rebuilding of the whole city. This it was not found practicable to carry out ; but the restoration of St. Paul's Cathedral and of some fifty other churches was entrusted to him . The present cathedral was commenced nine years after the Fire, and thirty - five years were spent in its construction. It is the largest and finest Protestant Cathedral of the world ( Eng. 116 ) . The ground -plan is a Latin cross, with nave, choir, and transepts. It is 500 ft. long from east to west, by about 250 ft. wide at the transepts. The outside of St. Paul's consists of two super-posed orders - i.e. one over the other. The western entrance has a portico of twelve Corin thian columns supporting an entablature, from which rise eight Composite columns supporting a second entablature, surmounted by a pediment enriched with sculpture. The western towers are about 250 ft. high decorated with Corinthian columns. The dome is a triple structure. The part seen from the outside springs from a base 250 ft . from the pavement, and the summit is 404 ft. high . Though open to criticism in many of its minor details and arrangements, St. Paul's is allowed to stand foremost among buildings of its class in Europe, Wafelmerle Em wanaਜਾ ਗੁਰੇ.; 'rchS QUE finest DELS TO! 用 HHA יון." ALLAותיו MULTID 110 WED HILLT HIS 222 116 .-- StPaul's Cthedral ,London 162 ARCHITECTURE . St. Peter's at Rome alone excepted. Its interior at present lacks decoration, but its exterior is undoubtedly the most harmonious and imposing composition which Renaissance architecture has yet produced. Greenwich Hospital, the steeple of Bow Church, and the interior of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, are considered the best of Wren's other works. The western towers of Westminster Abbey were added after his design . On Sir Christopher Wren's death, in 1723, his pupil Hawksmoor, and Vanbrugh were the most promising architects of the day ; but neither of them produced anything denoting high original genius. The principal works of Hawksmoor were St. George's, Bloomsbury, St. Mary's Woolnoth , in Lombard Street , and St. George's in the East ; and of Sir John Vanbrugh, Castle Howard and Blenheim Palace. James Gibbs, an architect wbo rose into some eminence in the middle of the last century, built St. Martin's - in -the- Fields ( Eng. 117 ) and St. Mary- le - Strand , two of the handsomest churches of the day. His octastyle ( eight-columned ) portico of Corinthian columns is speci ally fine if considered merely as an accurate copy of a classic design. The Radcliffe Library at Oxford , also by Gibbs, is one of the best classical buildings in that city. Sir William Chambers and Sir Robert Taylor were the most cele brated architects of the reign of George III. They carried the imita tion of classic and modern Italian buildings to the greatest extreme, displaying much erudition and intimate acquaintance with the build ings of antiquity, but less of that imaginative genius which alone can give originality to a building. Sir William Chambers designed Somerset House and a great many other buildings of the day, adhering in them to the Italian style ; but shortly after his death there was a gradual change to the earlier classic forms of Rome and Greece . The brothers Adam endeavoured , with but small success, to imitate Greek forms in the Adelphi Terrace, the Screen of the Admiralty, and other buildings in London ; much of the detail of their work, however , especially of its internal finishing, was very graceful and well-designed . They were more successful in producing an effective exterior in the College at Edinburgh, with its fine monolithic pillars. It is difficult to understand to what Sir Robert Taylor owes his reputation : his GREAT BRITAIN. 163 chief works were Gorhambury, Hertfordshire, and Hevingham Hall, Essex : he was a sculptor as well as an architect. Newgate Prison , 117.- St. Martin's - in - the - Fields. By Gibbs . designed by George Dance, is , in its way, a masterpiece of appropriate and original architectural expression of character. His father built the Mansion House. M 2 164 ARCHITECTURE. Architecture of the Nineteenth Century. The Classical Revival of the present century, inaugurated by Sir William Chambers in the latter part of the eighteenth century, was at first marked by Italian features . The publication of Dawkin's and Wood's ' Illustrations of Palmyra and Baalbec,' in 1750, first directed English attention to the beauties of Roman buildings, and this interest was sustained by Adam's Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro,' brought out ten years later. It was the series of works on Greece and Greek antiquities, commenced by Stuart in 1762 and completed by Cockerell in 1861, which led to the prefer ence of Greek to Roman forms. The Greek Doric became the favourite order, and soon not a building, however humble, was considered complete without a classic portico, and this rage lasted for many years. The imitation of classic forms was, however, destined to give way before a passion for the revival of our national style of architecture, which led many, whose sympathies were with mediæval rather than with antique thought, to reproduce the exquisite Gothic work of the middle ages, which had been so admirably suited to the ornate ritual of the Roman Catholic religion ; and with this desire was associated a reaction against the coldness of Protestant worship ard the sim plicity of Protestant churches. Once more, symbolic painting and sculpture, and the varied accessories of a ritual form of worship, were introduced in Protestant churches, and felt to be in their place ; once more, the screen separated the body of the congregation from the clergy, whilst the choir containing the altar was enriched with sculptures of mystic meaning, and glowed with many- coloured sacred pictures. Gothic spires and pinnacles became as common as Greek and Roman pediments had been before : but both the resuscitated styles, beautiful and appropriate as they had been as the spontaneous expression of national thought, were too often spiritless, cold, and wanting in vitality, when they were copied to order. To avoid confusion, we propose to notice the chief, first of the Classic, and then of the Gothic buildings of the nineteenth century. GREAT BRITAIN . 165 St. Pancras Church, London, built by Inwood between 1819 and 1822 , soon after the purchase of the Elgin marbles for the British Museum ( 1816), is a typical example of revived Greek. The Ionic order employed in it is a copy of the Erechtheum at Athens, and a small “ Temple of the Winds, ” in imitation of that at Athens, forms the steeple. To make it more complete, porches with caryatid columns have been added on the north and south sides, like those attached to the Temple on the Acropolis. The University Club House in Pall Mall East, the portico of the Post Office, and the front of the British Museum, are other examples in which the same order is employed. Sir John Soane was perhaps the most successful of the architects of the early classical revival. He rebuilt the Bank of England, the order of which, as it now stands, is an exact copy of that of the circular temple of the Sibyl at Tivoli . Holland, Burton, and Nash were three architects who erected many important classical buildings. In the portico of Carlton House, built by Holland, the most ornate form of the Corinthian column was employed. When Carlton House was pulled down, the columns were used for the portico of the National Gallery, where they may still be seen. Wilkins, another celebrated architect of the early part of this century, worked both in the classic and Gothic styles. His master piece is the portico of University College, Gower Street. He also designed the National Gallery, which failed mainly from want of adaptation to a site which required a much more lofty building of bolder character. He erected the Nelson Monuments at Dublin and Great Yarmouth . Sir Robert Smirke, architect of the British Museum , and Hardwick , architect of Goldsmiths' Hall, should also be mentioned. The chief and most original of all the buildings of the classic revival was St. George's Hall, Liverpool, by Elmes, completed after his death by Cockerell. It is 250 ft. long by 140 ft. wide, and the order by which it is ornamented is 58 ft. high. One grand hall occupies the centre, with wide recesses on either side. This fine building is adapted, not copied, from the great halls of the Therme of Rome. The chief front has a portico with sixteen Corinthian columns, each 46 ft. 166 ARCHITECTURE. high ; and although its general idea is Roman, it is carried out with Greek details. In Edinburgh and Glasgow there are many successful buildings in the classic styles. The High School of Edinburgh,, by Hamilton, is perhaps the best. Sir Charles Barry was the first to realise how ill-adapted all this copying was to the requirements of our climate and our time ; and he reverted, with much success, to the types furnished by the best palatial buildings of the Italian Renaissance. He designed the DOT C GULL 118.—Bridgewater House, London . By Barry. Traveller's Club, the Reform Club, and Bridgewater House (Eng. 118 ) , introducing in the two latter buildings the Italian cortile in a slightly altered form with great success . The Halifax Town Hall, his latest work, deserves special notice as a free adaptation of Renaissance architecture. The detail of this building is excellent, and its compo sition spirited ; it is crowned by high -pitched roofs, and possesses a species of spire as original as it is happily conceived. As distinguished examples of modern Renaissance we may name the Leeds Town - Hall, by Broderick ; the first Carlton Club, London, by Smirke; Holford House, Park Lane, by Vulliamy ; the Liverpool Exchange, by T. H. Wyatt ; and the intericr of the India House, by GREAT BRITAIN. 167 Sir Digby Wyatt. As a specimen of a still more recent date we may take the Royal Albert Hall ; no building of the day has more success fully combined the skilful arrangement of plan and the bold treatment characteristic of early Roman buildings with the constructive dexterity of our day ; though it is inferior in refinement of detail and in architectural merit to many of the buildings just enumerated. The Albert Hall is in the form of a Roman amphitheatre, with a velarium (i.e. awning) overhead ; the corridors, staircases, and sloping rows of seats are all borrowed from the Roman type, but the huge roof of iron and glass , the external terra- cotta decoration, and the mosaic frieze are modern features. The original design was by Captain Fowke, but the actual construction and the working designs are due to General Scott. The celebrated Horace Walpole was one of the earliest to attempt to revive mediæval architecture, by his building at Strawberry Hill ; but the first great impulse was given by the erection of Fonthill Abbey, a vast private residence, in which Mr. Beckford attempted to repro duce an old Gothic Abbey. It was completed in 1822, and caused a great sensation. It was pulled down a few years later. One of those who did most to promote this movement was John Britton, who brought out a series of fine works on the architectural antiquities of Great Britain, which were followed by the publications of Pugin — a man of real genius and rare energy. Rickman did more, however, than these two to systematise for men of taste and intel ligence the study of architecture as an art, and he it was who intro duced the nomenclature generally employed by all writers on Gothic architecture. Typical buildings in revived Gothic are Windsor Castle, the Houses of Parliament, the New Museum of Oxford, and the Albert Memorial. The first was almost entirely rebuilt under the direction of Sir Jeffrey Wyatville ( 1826) , who gave it the appearance of an old castle adapted to the requirements of a modern monarch ; and it may be taken as a specimen of such Gothic as was designed before Pugin's day. It is not without effectiveness on a general view, but its details are lamentably inappropriate. 168 ARCHITECTURE. The Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, are in the Gothic of the Tudor age, and owe their beauty of detail to Pugin's own superintendence ( Eng. 119) . Though fashion has now preferred other styles, and it was at one time customary to depreciate this building, it is probably the finest effort of the Gothic revival, not in England only, but in all Europe. In its plan, its detail, and the beauty of its sky- line , it is especially successful. mm 119.-The Houses of Parliament, with Westminster Abbey in the distance . The New Museum of Oxford, from the designs of Woodyard, may be fairly said to represent the results of Mr. Ruskin's teaching. It was begun in 1855 , and is a good example of all that was then considered most advanced . The Albert Memorial, in Hyde Park , by Sir Gilbert Scott, the most ornate effort of revived Gothic, though far from popular among GREAT BRITAIN. 169 architectural critics, must be taken as representing fairly well the point which the art has reached. The new Courts of Justice in the Strand , designed by Street, are considered by many to be the finest examples of this style to be met with in England. The south front is remarkable for its grandeur and fine effect. Other examples of note, which our space only permits us to name, are the Revived Gothic.

 : :

... Martyr's Memorial Oxford Lincoln's Inn Hall London St. George's Church Southwark St. Giles's Church Cheadle Holy Trinity Church Westminster All Saints' Church London Irvingite Church London Exeter College Chapel Oxford Assize Courts ... Manchester St. James's Church Westminster Town Hall Northampton Town Hall Preston College Aberystwyth Cathedral Cork University Glasgow Midland Railway Terminus London Keble College Oxford Balliol College Oxford Castle restorations Cardiff Town Hall Manchester Royal Courts of Justice London Scott. Harılwick. Pugin. Pugin . Pearson . Butterfield. Brandon . Scott . Waterhouse. Street. Godwin . Scott . Seddon . Burges. Scott. Scott. Butterfield . Waterhouse. Burges. IVaterhouse. Street. 1848. 1843. 1845 . 1849. 1849. 1849. 1851 . 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861 . 1862. 1864. 1865. 1866 . 1873. 1867. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1881 . ...

Revived Classic. Cathedral ... Natural History Museum Constitutional Club National Liberal Club Truro London London London Pearson . Waterhouse. Edis. Waterhouse. 1887. 1881 . 1887 . 1887. It is difficult to define the present position of architectural art in England. Our architects can no longer be divided into classes, one practising revived Gothic, the other revived Classic. The truth appears 170 ARCHITECTURE. to be that revived Greek is falling into disuse, whilst Renaissance is regaining favour, and the transitional architecture bearing Queen Anne's name is, strange to say, being brought forward by men who till lately have been chietiy known as supporters of revived Gothic. As examples of this fashion in the art we may name New Zealand Chambers, in Fenchurch Street, and many other buildings by Norman Shaw, and the School Board Offices, on the Thames Embankment, by Bodley. Many new Town- halls, Assize-Courts, and other public buildings, have been erected in the provinces, as at Manchester, Birmingham , Nottingham , and Glasgow (Gothic ) : and, quite recently, several hotels of great magnificence have been built, which have added considerably to the beauty of the street architecture of the metropolis. During the last few years many of the principal artists have built houses for their own use, which have greatly added to the importance of architecture in England. Most of them have adopted some modified form of the style of Queen Anne, and have treated it picturesquely.

SCULPTURE .

SCULPTURE . NOTE. Students of Art who are resident in or near London are strongly recommended to visit the British MUSEUM, and there examine the Statues and Bas- reliefs in the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Lycian Galleries ; the Room of Archaic Sculpture ; the Elgin and Hellenic Rooms; the Etruscan Room, and the Græco- Roman, and the Roman Galleries. In the South KENSINGTON MUSEUM, they will find, in the South-west Court, a fine collection of casts of many of the principal classical statues ; in the North Court are original sculptures and casts from Italy, including many examples of Majolica and Della Robbia ware ; and in the Architectural Court a great number of reproductions of the best sculpture of German, Flemish, Spanish, and French work manship of the fifteenth , sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. In the CRYSTAL PALACE are many hundred casts of sculpture of all countries and of all times which may be seen to great advantage among shrubs and appropriate architecture. These casts were collected at a very large cost by Mr. Owen Jones and Sir Digby Wyatt, who searched for and secured the best examples of sculpture in Egypt, Assyria, Greece, Italy, and France. References to Sculpture at the British Museum are marked B. M .; at the South Kensington Museum , S. K .; and at the Crystal Palace, C. P. SCULPTURE. INTRODUCTION. IN e N its true sense, Sculpture ( from the Latin sculpo, I carve ) is the art of cutting or graving hard materials ; but it has come to mean all representation of organic life in relief, whether in T'he round, i. e. fully detached or statuary ( from stare, to stand) . Statues are divided into five sizes : -colossal, heroic, life-size, small life -size, and statuettes: ; and are either standing, seated, recumbent, or equestrian. These terms all speak for themselves. Alto - relievo or high relief, i. e. nearly detached from the surface. Mezzo -relievo or semi-relief, i. e . fully rounded, but still attached to the surface. Basso -relievo or low relief, i. e. slightly raised from the surface. Intaglio or cavo -relievo, i. e. hollowed out. Sunk -relief or cavo-relievo. The Egyptians used a kind of relief peculiar to themselves, a very low relief sunk below the surface, and therefore combining basso - relievo and intaglio. It is called by the French bas -relief en creux. We propose to interpret Sculpture in its widest sense, which includes : the chiselling of perfect figures and groups in any hard substance ; the carving of high or low reliefs , whether in marble, ivory, wood, or any other material; the moulding of statues or groups of a plain material enclosed within a coating of more noble material- such as the chryselephantine ( i. e . gold and ivory) statues of the Greeks, in which the nude portions were of ivory and the clothing and weapons of gold ; bronze and metal statues , whether cast in a mould or beaten into shape ; terra-cotta statues and architectural ornaments ; plaster 174 SCULPTURE. statues and bas-reliefs ; wax or clay models ; engraved gems, whether intaglios or cameos ; and medals or coins, whether stamped or cast. MATERIALS USED IN SCULPTURE .

1 1 1Marble . — For statues and groups marble is the favourite substance, on account of its crystalline texture and of its gleaming surface, which admits of a high polish and absorbs the light equally. The most fainous marbles used by the ancients were the Parian, from the island of Paros, and the Pentelic, from the mountain of Pentelicus, near Athens, both of which were white. Black and coloured marbles were also used. The Egyptians employed substances even harder than marble, such as porphyry, basalt, and granite. Modern sculptors generally prefer the white fine-grained Carrara marble, from the neighbourhood of Florence. Bronze is the principal metal used in sculpture. It consists of a mixture of copper and tin , the quality varying according to the proportions of the ingredients. Bronze statues were sometimes gilt by the ancients . There are unfortunately not many original bronze works of ancient times existing. ( There are a few examples in the British Museum .) Gold, silver, copper, lead , and even pewter, which is a mixture of lead and tin , have occasionally been employed. Terra - cotta , baked clay, was much used by the ancients for small statuettes and ornaments. It affords a freedom and exact truth to the artist's work unprocurable in other materials. It was covered with a vitreous glaze which rendered it more durable. In Italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries it was revived , and used for busts and architectural decoration. In the latter century it was introduced into France and England. Excellent examples may be seen in the old gateways of Hampton Court Palace. At the present day it is very frequently employed in the ornamentation of important buildings. Plaster of Paris, gypsum , when burned and reduced to powder, forms a paste which immediately sets, or becomes firm, on being mixed with its own bulk of water ; for this reason it is much used in making casts and architectural decorations. PROCESSES. 175 Alabaster, a kind of gypsum found in Tuscany and also in Derby shire, was at one time much used for vases and statuettes. Limestone and Sandstone, softer and less durable materials than marble, are largely employed for architectural ornaments. Wood .-The principal woods employed for carving are, that of the lime, which though soft is tough and durable, the oak, and the cedar. Ivory . — The carving of ivory was practised by the Romans. It was carried to great perfection in the early days of the Christian Church, when it was used for statuettes, tablets, and other ornaments, many of which may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. The ivory chair of St. Maximian , made in the sixth century, is still preserved in the Cathedral at Ravenna. In the year 803 two beautifully - carved ivory chairs were presented to Charlemagne. Reference has already been made to the chryselephantire statues of the Greeks, which were roughly hewn out of marble and covered with layers of ivory and gold. - Gems. —The principal gems used by ancient engravers were : car nelians, chalcedony, onyx, sardonyx, agates, jaspers, garnets, beryls, amethysts, sapphires, rubies, topazes, turquoises, etc. For cameos, the onyx was preferred above any other stone. Coins and Medals. — Gold, silver, copper, bronze, and occasionally other metals or combinations of metals are used. PROCESSES. first Wemay now briefly describe the various processes employed in the different kinds of sculpture. For Statues, Groups, and high or low Reliefs in Marble, the sculptor sketches ” his design on a small scale in clay or wax, which process is sometimes preceded by a sketch on paper. He next makes a model of the required size, having the object to be represented before him. The clay is kept moist whilst it is being worked, and when the model is completed is allowed to harden . A cast is then taken of the model by throwing over it a mixture of liquefied plaster of Paris. 176 SCULPTURE. When the plaster-mould so obtained is hardened, the clay inside is picked out, and an exact impression of the model remains. This mould is then brushed over with some kind of varnish and filled with fresh plaster, and as soon as it is set the mould is removed with chisels, and a completefac simile of the model is produced. With this before him the artist begins to work in the marble. The cast and the marble are placed on two blocks, called scale- stools, exactly alike ; a vertical rod with a sliding needle attached—so adapted by a movable joint as to be set at any angle and then fastened—is then fixed to the block on which the cast stands, and the needle is adjusted until it touches a certain point of the cast. The rod is then removed to the block on which the rough marble stands, and the marble is cut away until the needle touches it as it did the model. A mark is made on the two corresponding points of the model and block. This operation , which is called pointing, is repeated until all the different surfaces of the future work from the outside of the marble are ascertained, when workmen rough -out the figure or group, the artist himself adding the finishing touches. It is said that Michelangelo worked out some of his statues from the marble without any previous model or design. The Egyptians, the Assyrians, and later the Indians, carved figures in their temples from the living rock. In making Bronze Statues similar preliminary steps are taken. Instead of plaster of Paris, loam or sand is used for making the mould , and molten metal is poured into it. To prevent a too great weight of metal, the interior of the mould is usually partly filled with cores of sand, which leave room for only a thin coating of the metal. When the cast is cold, the surface is perfected by means of a graving tool. Another method (more frequently adopted in later times, but not un known to the ancients) is that called by the French cire perdue ; which consists in enclosing the wax model in clay or plaster of Paris, and then letting in the molten metal, which melts the wax and takes its place. Sometimes a bas- relief is beaten out without previous casting : in that case the form is obtained simply by beating or hammering until the proper form is required : iron and bronze are sometimes beaten when hot ; silver and gold when cold. In modern times zinc, iron, and even tin, have been used for statues ; 1 SUBJECTS. 177 but they require a coating of some other substance to protect them from the action of the weather. For this purpose a thin layer of bronze has a good effect, and can easily be applied by the process of electro -plating. The art of carving figures in relief on metal is called chasing : the term toreutic ( from a Greek word signifying to carve) has been applied to all kinds of metal work. Carving in Wood, Stone, and Ivory is performed by hand without the aid of any previous process. For Gem -engraving, splintered diamonds, fixed into iron instruments, are used ; the work is executed by the hand. A drill is employed for cutting out the larger and deeper portions of the work, which , when finished , is polished with emery powder. Gems cut in relief are called cameos ; those which are hollowed out intaglios. The term cameo is, however, especially used to denote the very small pieces of sculpture in stones having two layers of different colours ; the upper colour being used for the object to be represented, the under serving as background . Die -sinking is the art of engraving the die or stamp used for coining, and for stamping thin plates of metal with designs of various kinds. The blank die is engraved in intaglio with the device required , by the aid of small steel tools. The face of the die is then hardened by heat, after which it is ready for use. Electro-plating is a modern method of depositing by means of electricity a thin layer of metal upon a model. Many valuable works of art are by this means successfully reproduced. The subjects suitable for representation in sculpture are necessarily limited . Except as an accessory, vegetable life is almost excluded from its sphere. The infinite variety and richness of the details of foliage, fruit, and flowers, and the way in which, when grouped together, they intertwine and hide one another, render it impossible that they should be accurately represented in an art to which exact imitation is for bidden. It is only plants with prominent characteristics that can be used as architectural accessories. Such was the deeply- indented acanthus leaf so largely employed by the Greeks and Romans. The noblest study of the sculptor is man, “ the human form divine,” > HHA N 178 SCULPTURE. and to produce a perfect statue is his highest task. The human figure चिनTout 1/201301/30 ........ yt2 TT/17 1/10 JOI 10


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120. —The Proportions of the Human Figure. As handed down to us by Vitruvius and described by Joseph Bonomi. is made up of an infinite variety of curves and sinuous lines , and the sculptor can find nothing more perfect to imitate than fine types of SUBJECTS. 179 humanity, in the prime of youth and vigour; but he must not be content with mere copying, —he must aspire to the embodiment of ideal conceptions. Beauty of form is plastic —that is to say, it may be represented by modelling in an infinity of form. Freely drawn curves, and the oval, are the materials for all fine outline, and one of the most beautiful forms in which such outline is to be found is the human body. The nude figure is the most suitable for sculpture ; where drapery is employed, it should follow the lines of the body, and indicate, not conceal, its contour, The ancients frequently represented mythological figures, and also combinations of these with the brute form, such as centaurs, satyrs, minotaurs, etc. Next to man, the most highly organised animals, such as the horse and the dog, are the finest subjects for the sculptor. Groups, in which the figures do not stand out separately, but partly hide each other, afford scope for the highest artistic genius, and should form a rhythmic whole, with all the parts well balanced - producing a pleasing effect of variety in unity. As sculpture deals with plastic form alone, it has generally been supposed to disdain the aid of colour ; yet the Egyptians, and probably also the Assyrians, invariably coloured their sculpture, except perhaps those statues which were of hard basalt or highly -polished granite. It is known that the Greeks also tinted their statues, but it is difficult to ascertain how far they carried it in imitation of nature. In our own day, the celebrated John Gibson tinted parts of several of his statues. It was essential that sculptors should be fully acquainted with the just proportions of the human frame. The Egyptians therefore drew up a canon of proportions which was, it is believed, adopted by the Greeks and especially insisted on by Polycleitus. His version, as transmitted to us by Vitruvius, has, with few exceptions such as those of Leonardo da Vinci, been adopted ever since. He says, “ Nature has so composed the human body that the face from the chin to the top of the forehead and the roots of the hair should be a tenth part ; also the palm of the hand from the wrist- joint to the tip of the middle finger ; the head from the chin to the highest point an eighth ; from the top of the chest to the roots of the hair, a sixth " (Eng. 120) . N 2 MERN -PTAH MENEPH THES STA WI Restoration . 121. — MENEPHTAH. Supposed to be Pharaoh of the Exodus. Bas -relief. About B.C. 1490 . Egypt.log Famos EGYPTIAN sculpture may be divided into three periods : The Old Empire, or Mem phian Egypt, 3645 to 2668 B.C. , the new Empire, to 332 B.C. , and the Ptolemean Em pire, to 30 B.C. It is prin cipally of a religious char acter , and the mythology of the country should be studie in connection with it . The chief characteristics of Egyptian art of every kind are massive grandeur and solidity ; the constant strug. gles with the power of nature in which the inhabitants of the banks of the Nile were engaged precluded dreamy contemplation, and engend ered an energy and self-re liance which were reflected in the monuments erected. The earliest works of Egyptian sculpture ( Eng. 122) are remarkable for a freedom from restraint and a power of idealising nature which is wanting in later productions ; for they were executed before the hierarchy gained the upper hand in Egypt, and eg20 A o and arrested all 122.- Egyptian Statue in black basalt. Heroic size. In the British Museum . 182 SCULPTURE, progress in art by condemning it to unchangeable laws, and by imposing models which artists were condemned to reproduce in monotonous repetition. The result of this was a sameness in the works produced which would have rendered it extremely difficult to fix their dates, if it were not that the name of the reigning sovereign is con stantly introduced. A striking proof of the excellence of early Egyptian sculpture was afforded in the Paris Exhibition of 1867. A wooden statue was there exhibited—lent by the late M. Mariette and now in the Museum at Boulac, near Cairo-of a certain Ra - em --Kè (sometimes called the School master ). Although much injured this statue is even now a fine work of art : the body is well modelled, and the head lifelike and natural; the lips are parted by a slight smile, and expression is given to the eyes by the insertion of rounded bits of rock- crystal to represent pupils, in eyeballs of quartz shaded by bronze lids. A bright nail beneath each crystal marks the visual point ( Eng. 123) . The bas-reliefs of the tombs of Mem phis, soine of which are in the Berlin Museum, are among the earliest of Egyptian works of sculpture ( Eng. 124) . The figures are but slightly raised from the surface ; they still retain the vivid 123.-Ra- em-Kè . colours with which they were painted . In the Museum at Boulac . The ignorance of the laws of perspective, which were unknown till the fifteenth century, betrayed in these groups, somewhat mars their beauty ; but they are finely cararved , and have a great historical value, as they are pictorial annals of the lives of the deceased, in which figures of the presiding deities are introduced. EGYPTIAN. 183 A very accurate notion of the appearance of these bas- reliefs may be obtained from the admirable reproductions in the Egyptian court at the Crystal Palace, executed by a band of trained mechanics under the direction of Bonomi, who studied in the best schools of Egyptian art the temples and the tombs. These bas-reliefs occupy an intermediate position between the art of the old Empire and that of the Ptolemaic period. oro 21 النا fron f A +{14}}+ }++* + * +*!!! tttt** +++ 124.- Egyptian bas-relief. Rameses III . between Thoth and Horus. Found at Luxor. The great Sphins of Memphis ( see Eng. 2) is a remarkable work, dating from the earliest times, probably earlier than the earliest pyramid ; it is hewn from a spur of the living rock. It is 172 feet long by 56 feet high. The sphinxes were of various kinds — man headed, woman-headed, and ram- headed, with the body of a lion or dog. Considerable portions of the avenues of colossal granite sphinxes leading up to the temples are still to be seen at Karnak and elsewhere ; 184 SCULPTURE . the grand seated figures of the Pharaohs guarding the entrances at Karnak, Ipsambul, etc. , are in good preservation ( Eng. 125 ) . The colossal seated figures ( 70 feet high) erected by Amenhotep III. , at Medinet- Abou, one of which is the world - famed statue of Memnon ; the still larger statue of Rameses II. — which was broken by Cambyses —the fragments of which remain in the court of the temple at Medinet Abou ; and the four huge seated figures ( 65 feet high) of the same king carved out of the rock at Ipsambul, are the most gigantic specimens of sculpture that were ever executed . * A statue of this R ST 125.—Sculptors at Work. From an Egyptian Wall-painting. monarch in black granite, in the Turin Museum, is one of the best works of art of this period. It would be impossible in a work like the present merely to enumerate the various Egyptian antiquities contained in the British Museum , the Louvre, and the Berlin Museum. The principal are colossal statues , in which the arms are generally fixed to the chest and the legs connected together ; small statues of kings, divinities, and priests ; bas- reliefs either from tombs or temples ; stelo or tablets engraved with historical inscriptions either in relief or in intaglio ;

  • Reproductions on a small scale of many of these works may be studied at the Crystal Palace.

EGYPTIAN. 185 sarcophagi, boxes of granite, basalt, or stone, constructed to contain mummies, and covered with hieroglyphics ; pottery of different kinds, such as amphorce (wine-vessels) , canopi ( funereal vases) , delicately carved, etc. Baked earthenware ( terra cotta) vases were in use in Egypt in the most remote ages. The Egyptians manufactured a red ware, a pale red or yellow ware, and a shining or polished red ware. The finest Egyptian pottery was, however, the porcelain , made of a very fine sand, loosely fused, and covered with a thick silicious glaze of various colours. A beautiful blue tint was sometimes given to this ware by the use of oxide of copper. We may add that the most valuable relic of Egyptian colossal sculpture known to exist is the head of the young Memnon, taken from the Temple of Memnon, and now in the British Museum. In the Berlin Museum, in addition to the bas-reliefs already men tioned, the chief Egyptian object is a tomb, discovered in 1823 in the necropolis of Thebes, and removed exactly as it was found. A quadrangular tomb rises in the centre, covered with hieroglyphics, round which are grouped boats, containing figures representing the mummy's escort to Hades, amphoræ, etc. Owen Jones called it the most perfect specimen of Egyptian Art he remembered to have seen. In 1881 , Herr Emil Brugsch discovered a cave near the temple of Deir - el - Bahari, about four miles from Thebes, in which the mummies of several of the most celebrated of the Theban sovereigns were found -including King Amenhotep, 1666 B.C. ; Thotmes I., II., and III. ; and Rameses I. and II. ( the Great). There were also found in the same cave several illuminated papyri, and numerous mortuary statues. BRONZE STATUES, with a leaden or other core, are supposed to have been first cast in Egypt ; and it was from the Egyptians that the Greeks learnt the art. Specimens may be seen in the British Museum and other collections of Egyptian antiquities. > . Babylon and Nineveh. In the chapter on Assyrian architecture we have already alluded to the important discoveries of ruins at Mosul, on the right bank of the 186 SCULPTURE. Tigris, with which the names of the French consuls, MM. Botta and Place, and the English traveller, Sir Henry Austin Layard, are in separably connected. These bas-reliefs resemble those of Egypt in many respects ; but they have an even greater historical value, for they are more varied and lifelike, and less loaded with figures of the deities. The same ignor ance of perspective is be SASA BENE trayed in them as in the reliefs at Memphis : fishes and boats are seen piled one above the other, and human figures in profile, with both eyes and shoul ders visible ( Eng. 126 ) . But for this flaw , the Assyrian bas-reliefs would be fine works of art. They are in very low relief, and are well carved and finely polished. The subjects are very varied. Battles, sieges, and hunting incidents abound. Our illustration ( Eng. 127) is part of a lion-hunt in the British Museum — from the north -west palace of Nim rud. In every scene the 126. — Assyrian bas- relief on a wall. king is the principal figure. He is always followed by an umbrella -bearer and a fly - flapper, or by musicians, and above his head hovers the Ferouher, the winged symbol of divinity. Among the monarchs who figure in the various bas-reliefs are Shalmaneser, Sennacherib , and Nebuchadnezzar. Single statues are rare ; there is a statue of a Priest larger than life ( Eng. 128) in the British Museum ; but the nude human figure does now ز ASSYRIAN. 187 127. - Assyrian bas- relief. Part of a Lion - hunt, from Nimrud. BEL RUTROS RAMIN not appear to have been studied in the East to any extent ; although many different animals are ren dered with surprising fidelity. A marvellous ex ample of this early sculpture is the Wounded Lioness ( Eng. 129 ) . In addition to numerous sculptured Assyrian slabs and tablets, the British Museum possesses a small four-sided obelisk of black marble about six feet high - engraved with ten lines of the cuneiform character, and sculptured with twenty bas-reliefs, representing the offering of tribute to the king by conquered races—which was discovered near Kalah Shergat. It is hoped that this obelisk may aid in the thorough deciphering of the cuneiform * character, as the Rosetta stone, also preserved in the British Museum , did of the hieroglyphic. The Louvre contains many extremely fine

  • There are three kinds of cuneiform writing .: the Persian ,

the Median, and the Assyrian. The letters are shaped like arrows, wedges, or nails. The meaning of many of the signs has been discovered by Niebuhr, Grotefend, Rask, Lassen, Burnouf, Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppert, Ménaut, and others ; 128. - Statue of a but much still remains to be done before the numerous in Priest. scriptions in the cuneiform character can be fully deciphered. In the British Museum . 188 SCULPTURE. specimens of Assyrian sculpture, the principal being the four colossal winged bulls at the entrance of the palace of Khorsabad , already described. The Assyrian man-bull, like the Egyptian sphinx, was the symbol of wisdom and strength combined. Assyrian gems, many of which may be seen at the British Museum, are of great value. The earliest are of serpentine, and are of a cylindrical shape ; those of later date are of agate, jasper, quartz , or syenite, either cylindrical in form or oval ; they are engraved with figures of the gods and the names of the owner in the cuneiform character. Vuin 129. — Wounded Lioness. Assyrian. In the British Museum . Persia, There are but few remains of Persian sculpture extant, and these few consist almost entirely of bas-reliefs on the walls of the palaces and the fronts of the rock - cut tombs. The principal, from the royal palace of Persepolis (Eng. 130) , date from about 521–467 B.C. , the golden age of the Persian monarchy. In these bas-reliefs the working of Assyrian and Egyptian influence can be distinctly traced, combined with a character peculiarly their own. In Persian works, historical PERSIAN. 189 events are frequently represented ; but scenes of the chase or of war, so common amongst the Assyrians and Egyptians, are almost entirely unknown. Everywhere we see the king in an attitude of dignified repose, attended by his court and receiving the homage of ambassadors, bringing tribute in the form of horses, camels, or costly raiment and vessels. These groups are probably faithful representations of actual scenes in the time of Darius or Xerxes. They are remarkable for the lifelike rendering of the animals and the graceful flowing drapery with Qran 130. — Persian bas-relief, from Persepolis. which the human figures are clothed , suggesting Greek influence, and contrasting favourably with the close and heavy Egyptian and Assyrian garments. A noteworthy exception to what we have said of the repose of Persian bas- reliefs, is a large group, hewn out of a steep and lofty rock at Behistan in Kurdistan, which represents a Persian king placing his foot on a prostrate enemy, with one hand holding a bowand the other raised as if about to strike . Nine prisoners bound together await a 190 SCULPTURE. their doom at a little distance from the victorious monarch, who is supposed to be Darius Hystaspes, after he had quelled the Babylonian rebellion in 516 B.C. Human- headed and winged hulls and unicorns are of frequent occur rence in Persian sculptures. The king is sometimes seen contending with some huge symbolic creature ; but even in the thick of the struggle he retains his calm self-possession and dignified expression of unruffled serenity. On the facades of the rock -cut tombs, the king is generally repre sented worshipping Ormuzd, the god of light, the Ferouher or protect ing spirit hovering above his head in the form of a man with the wings and tail of a bird. The Persians greatly improved the art of gem- cutting. They adopted the cylindrical form of the Assyrians, but quickly abandoned it for the conical, employing chalcedony, which they engraved with figures of their gods, etc. The cylinder signet of Darius I. has been preserved. It represents two warriors in a chariot, one directing the steed, the other standing behind the driver drawing a bow. A lion reared on its hind -legs appears calmly to await the discharge of the arrow, and above the group hovers the Ferouher. Asia Minor and Syria. The sculptures of Asia Minor and Syria betray the influence of all the neighbouring nations, and cannot be said to have any distinctive character of their own. The most ancient monuments of Asia Minor are the rock - cut bas reliefs at the town of Bogas Koei, in Galatia. They consist of two processions ; and the general style of the grouping and costumes is a combination of the Babylonian and Persian. We see the working of Assyrian influence in a marble chair, discovered in the same place, which has lions chiselled in relief upon it much resembling those of the portals of Nimrud. At the village of Nymphi, near Smyrra, there is a colossal bas-relief figure of a king, cut in a wall of rock, wearing the INDIAN. 191 Egyptian pechent (a conical cap or crown with a spiral ornament in front). In Syria there are also many relics of Egyptian and Assyrian art : on a wall of rock, north of Beyrout, there are bas-reliefs in honour of the victory of Rameses the Great, side by side with others commemor ating Assyrian triumphs. The Hebrews no doubt employed some sculpture — for we read of Jacob erecting a pillar over the grave of Rachel — but it was principally in engraving and cutting gems and precious metals that the chosen people excelled. The golden Calf, the brazen serpent, the plate of gold for the high-priest's mitre, the engraved stones of the breastplate, etc. , the cherubim and ornaments for the tabernacle, were works of this class. The Phænicians appear to have excelled in all the mechanical arts. Homer alludes to a chased silver goblet of exquisite workmanship, made by a native of Sidon ; and Solomon invited workmen from Tyre when engaged upon the temple of Jerusalem. We read that the king of Tyre sent him a workman " skilful to work in gold, silver, brass, etc. , • . also to grave any manner of graving ” ( 2 Chron. ii . 14) , “ who made an altar of brass, and a molten sea supported by twelve cast oxen ," etc. ( 2 Chron. iv. 1-22) . In the ruins of Carthage, which was a colony of Phænicia , Phænician coins and medals have been frequently found. India and the neighbouring Countries. Sculpture in India is chiefly accessory to architecture, and the subjects represented are almost exclusively religious. The earliest monuments of sculpture, as of architecture, in India, date from the rise into power of Asoka, about 250 B.C. They consist principally of reliefs on the outsides of pagodas, rock temples, and topes ; groups or figures in the round being almost unknown. 192 SCULPTURE. In the ruined city of Mahabalipooram , near Madras, there still stand ancient Hindoo temples on which are fine groups of Indian Gods and Goddesses carved out of the living rock in high and low relief . On the walls of a pagoda at Perwuttum there are some remarkable bas-reliefs representing a tiger- hunt, in which mounted horsemen are charging at full gallop. The reliefs on the entrance of the great Dagoba or Tope of Sanchi are animated battle-scenes, in which armed men are seen on foot, or riding on elephants or horses. * Huge images of Buddha, and of Hindoo divinities, abound in every part of India and the neighbouring islands. In Bamiyan, in the west, is a statue 120 ft. high, and in Ceylon there are several 90 ft. high. In the temple of Boro- Buddor, in Java, there are no less than 400 small images of Buddha in the external niches. All are alike remark able for repose of attitude, and dreamy passiveness of expression . Representations of life in action, such as the bas -reliefs mentioned above, are rare. Siva, the Destroyer, whose work forbids repose, is, however, generally depicted with his six arms in violent agitation. In many of the sculptured female figures of India we see evidence of the want of energy and character which is the result of the systematic oppression of the women of the East. Symmetry of form is replaced by a soft voluptuousness, and the only expression is a graceful simper, or a vague, dreamy smile. The goddess of Beauty, in the Pagoda of Bangalore, and the female divinity seated on an elephant in the cave temple of Ellora are instances of this. China and Japan. We cannot leave the East without a few words on the art of the Chinese and Japanese, although they never produced either statues or groups in stone or marble of any important size. There are many colossal bronzes of Buddha in Japan. There is one now at the South Kensington Museum, where may also be seen a fine Eagle with out spread wings, of Japanese workmanship, in hammered iron. Both A cast of this gateway is in the India section of the South Kensington Museum , together with a small model of the Dagoba itself.

PERUVIAN AND MEXICAN . 193 nations have always been proficient in carving wood, ivory, tortoise shell, etc. : they are wanting in imagination, but their power of imita tion and proficiency in colouring are alike marvellous. Peru and Mexico, Of the sculptured figures and groups of the early races of the New World there is little to be said ; they are remarkable rather for size than beauty, and consist of rude idols or coarse bas- reliefs on the temples and palaces. The pottery is of a different character ; some of the Mexican and Peruvian ware which has been preserved is well modelled and coloured, and ornamented with peculiar taste . The oldest Peruvian terra- cotta objects are indeed equal to anything of the same age produced in Europe ; but glazing was never attempted. Mr. Stephens, the celebrated American traveller , discovered a number of vases of various shapes, carved or indented with curious patterns, in the Tombs of the Incas in Peru. And later M. Charnay has traced a fancied resemblance between the decorative design of the Toltecs of Central America, and that of the Chinese. нНА . O Greek . It was in Greece that sculpture first became an ideal art. Oriental arts were fettered by dogmatic rules. The chief aim of sculpture and painting in Assyria was the glorification of the reigning monarch ; and in Egypt, sculpture, though religious as well as monumental, did not advance beyond conventional types. It was far otherwise with the Greeks, who early threw off the yoke of the old monarchies, and broke loose from the trammels of routine. It is true that they owed much to the Egyptians and Assyrians, but they borrowed chiefly the technical and mechanical rules of art, and , emancipating themselves from the old narrow traditions, rapidly worked out an independent style which was purely their own. In Greece, as elsewhere, sculpture was connected with the religion of the country ; the mythology of the Greeks, rightly understood, is an exquisite poem, and Greek art is a translation of that poem into visible forms of beauty. The imagination of the free -born Greek was un fettered by priestly dogma, and he peopled his land with deities , embodying the elements in ideal human forms instinct with life and intellect. The Greek realised with exceptional intensity the beauty of nature ; he saw his gods in the earth, the sea and sky, and, ascribing to them all that was best and highest in the noblest human types with which he was familiar, he strove to give expression to his ideal conceptions in ideal impersonations of human attributes. Thus Zeus, the lord of heaven , became the embodiment of strength of will ; Athena, the protective goddess of wisdom and strength combined ; Aphrodite, born of the waves , the goddess of female love and beauty. In studying the sculpture of Greece, this double impersonation of the powers of nature and of human attributes must never be lost sight of, and we would urge those of our readers who are unfamiliar with Greek mythology, to acquaint themselves with the meaning of the principal legends of gods and heroes, upon which a flood of light has been poured by the researches of modern philologists, who have GREEK. 195 taught us to read the inward thoughts of untaught races in the outward forms assumed by their language and their art. * The relics of Greek sculpture which have been preserved are far too numerous for detailed description. A summary of the principal schools of sculpture, with a brief notice of the greatest masters and their most famous works, is all we can attempt. Greek sculpture may be divided into four periods. The first, to which the general name of archaic has been given, lasted until the Persian wars ; the second, from the Persian wars, about 490 B.C. , to 400 B.C. , during which time Athens was the leading power in Greece ; the third, from 400 B.C. to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 B.C. , in which period Sparta became the ruling city ; and the fourth, from the death of Alexander to the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 146 B.C. First Period . on The earliest sculptures of Greece of which we have any knowledge date from the eighth century B.C. They are a colossal statue of Niobe Mount Sipylus, men tioned in the Iliad, and the famous Lion gate of Mycence ( Eng. 131 ) , supposed to be still older : in the reliefs of this gate Assyrian influence can be distinctly traced. The carved Chest of Cypselus -- a work dating from 650 B.C. made at Corinth-had reliefs partly cut in cedar -wood, and partly 131 .-- Sculpture on the top of the Lion gate at Mycenæ. laid on in gold and ivory , representing heroic myths. It was noticeable as being probably the Two small volumes, by the Rev. W. Cox—' Tales of the Gods and Heroes ,' and * Tales of Thebes and Argos, ' will be found useful as an introduction to the study of the more advanced works of Max Müller, Grote, and others. A NW a 02 196 SCULPTURE. u 1 earliest attempt to give visible form to the word pictures of Homer and Hesiod. Pausanias (about A.D. 176) saw this chest and described it. The earliest names of artists which have come down to us are those of a Samian family : Rhæcus, his son Telecles, and his grandson Theodorus, to whom the invention of the arts of modelling in clay, engraving on metals, and gem- cutting has been attributed . Glaucus of Chios, who is said to have invented the art of smelting iron, was a famous bronze caster of the beginning of the seventh century B.C. Dipenus and Scyllis of Crete ( about 580 B.C. ) were more famous than any of their predecessors. They worked at Sicyon ; their school spread throughout Greece, and even to Italy ( Magna Græcia ), and many statues of gods found in the Peloponnesus and else where have been attributed to it . A group discovered in the Temple of the Dioscuri ( Castor and Pollux) at Argos is remarkable as showing the transition from wood to more costly materials. It represented the Dioscuri on horseback, and was carved in ebony, inlaid with ivory. Spartan artists took up the work begun by these Cretans, and developed the wood and ivory work into the chryselephantine UMA (i.e. gold and ivory) statuary which sub sequently became so famous. A group in cedar wood by the Spartan artists Hecyles 132.—Mercury carrying a Ram. By Calamis. At Wilton House, and Theocles, representing the adventure of Hercules with the Hesperides ( the guardians of the golden apples) , was found in the treasure- house of the Epidam nians at Olympia. To Canachus of Sicyon, who flourished about 500 B.C. , is attributed the celebrated colossal statue of Apollo, made for the sanctuary of GREEK. 197 Didyma near Miletus, which was carried away by the fugitive Xerxes. Ageladas of Argos was famous for his statues of athletes ; one of Cleosthenes of Epidamnus, on a chariot with four horses, was, we we are told, the admiration of all Greece. Calamis, Pythagoras, and Myron, the immediate fore-run ners of Pheidias, may be looked upon as artists of a transition period. Calamis represented a greater diversity of subjects than any previous sculptor ; his horses were especially lifelike, but his human figures were not so good . A marble copy of one of his works -Mercury carrying a Ram ( Eng. 132 ) —is in the collection of Lord Pembroke, at Wilton House. Pythagoras was truer to nature than Calamis ; his works were remarkable for delicacy of execu tion ; his statue of the lame Philoctetes at Syracuse, a statue of an Athlete at Delphi, and his group of Europa on Bull at Tarentum, were especially admired . Myron, the third and greatest 133. —The Discobolus, after Myron. In the Palazzo Massimi, at Rome . of this group of artists, was ( with Pheidias and Polycloitus) a pupil of Ageladas. He generally employed bronze for his works, which comprised a vast variety of subjects, although he especially delighted in representing athletes in vigorous action. His Marsyas in the Lateran at Rome, and his Discobolus ( disc thrower) ( Eng. 133) , are among his most success ful statues. They are full of life and animation, and give proof of consummate knowledge of anatomy. The famous Cow of Myron, a 198 SCULPTURE. which formerly stood on the Acropolis of Athens, must also be mentioned, but of this work we have no authentic trace. Of the now- existing monuments belonging to the first period of Greek sculpture, we must name the sculptures from the temple at A8808, now in the Louvre ; the metopes from the temples of Selinus in Sicily, now in the museum at Palermo ; the Harpy, Chimaera, and Lion tombs, from Xanthus in ancient Lycia, large portions of which are in the British Museum ; and above all, the sculptures from the Temple of Ægina . PEL OG CAT Livinhidal 134.–Bas-relief from the Harpy tomb. In the British Museum . The remains of six temples were discovered in Selinus in 1823. They consist principally of metopes * of limestone, adorned with sculptures in very high relief, one of which represented a struggle between an Amazon or a goddess, and a warrior, and another a dying warrior with a female figure placing her foot on his prostrate body. They are all lifelike, and full of promise, and their chief interest consists in their being among the earliest works in which an attempt was made to shake off the influence of Eastern art, and to produce freely-arranged groups and ideal forms. We may add that they have

  • A metope, it will be remembered, is the square space between two trigylphs in the entablature of a Doric temple.

GREEK . much colour remaining , and are supposed to date from about 650 B.C. Casts may be seen in the British Museum . The most remarkable of the monuments from Xanthus is the famous Harpy tomb ( Eng. 134) , in the Archaic room of the British Museum , discovered with many other relics by Sir Charles Fellowes in 1838. It is supposed to date from the sixth or seventh century B.C. , and alike in arrangement and execution is purely Greek ( though bearing evidence of Assyrian in fluence ), representing in an artistic form the myth of the carrying off of children by Harpies, who appear as winged female figures. The sculptures of the Temple of Ægina were discovered in the year 1811. They are at least a century later than those of Selinus or Xanthus , above mentioned . Amongst heaps of broken fragments seven teen nearly perfect statues were dug out , which belonged to the eastern and western pediments of the Temple dedicated to Athena . The original statues , which were carefully restored by Thorwaldsen , are now in the Glyptothek at Munich . Complete casts of them , properly arranged as a pediment , are to be seen in the British Museum . The meaning of the sculptures has been very differently interpreted ; they are , however , evidently memorials of vic tories . Those on the western pediment , of which we give an illustration , are supposed to represent the Greeks and Romans fight ing around the body of Achilles, who lies at 135. —The Western pediment ofthe Temple Ægina . а Restoration . 200 SCULPTURE. the feet of Athena ( Eng. 135 ) . They are of Parian marble, and are so carefully executed, that even the wrinkles of the nude portions are rendered. The limbs are delicately moulded, and full of energy ; the attitudes graceful and expressive ; but the heads are of the Eastern rather than the Greek type and there is the same smile depicted on them all ; the oblique eyes and sharp chins reminding us of Assyrian bas-reliefs. Quintilian tells us that Callon and Hegesias were the sculptors of these fine works. In archaic sculpture the arrangement of the draperies and hair is eminently conventional and artificial ; the pose of the figures is often stiff and constrained, and a foolish smile is not unfrequently to be found on the faces. As art made progress, its gradual emancipation from the trammels of conventionalism may be traced ; and the best works executed towards the close of the period we have been reviewing, retain no more of the artificial in pose and the conventional in treat ment, than serves to give increased value to the sense of beauty which breathes through the whole --- struggling, so to speak, to find a means of expression. Before closing our review of the first period of Greek sculpture, we must name two fine statues of Apollo, found one at Tenea ( between Corinth and Argos) , the other in the island of Thera. The former is in the Glyptothek of Munich ; the latter in the Temple of Theseus at Athens. Both are supposed to date from a very early age. Mention must also be made of the fragments of sculpture found by General Cesnola in Cyprus, which are of Greco - Phænician origin , and which bear some resemblance to the remains found at Mycenæ, Xanthus, and Miletus, already spoken of. Second Period, 490-400 B.C. We now come to the age of the final development of Greek art, with which the name of Pheidias is inseparably connected. The Persian wars destroyed the last remnants of Oriental despotism, and ushered in, alike in politics, literature, and art, the golden age of Greece. The GREEK. 201 great statesmen Cimon and Pericles encouraged genius of every kind ; the tragic poets Æschylus and Sophocles refined the public taste, and inspired sculptors and architects with their glowing fancies ;; and for a ES a LASILARINDAN BRUN பார் ENT SANCHE BLENDECTAN Durad how OY SUMCN GRATUIT MENTAHDEN WE ATOPNIOS ALUT SHRIRESERVAS 1 J.PRENECEK Restoration . 136.— Interior of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Statue of Zeus by Pheidias. time Greece, with Athens for its capital, became the leading country of the world. Pheidias, the master-artist of this golden age, was born about 500 B.C. He learnt the rudiments of his favourite art of Hegesias of Athens, and completed his studies under Ageladas. When Pericles 202 SCULPTURE. assumed the reins of government, Pheidias was about thirty- seven years old, in the prime of his genius, and he became the chief co operator of that great statesman in his restoration of Athens. Under Cimon , the predecessor of Pericles, Pheidias sculptured the colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachus ( the defender) , which stood as late as 395 A. D. on the most prominent part of the Acropolis ( see Eng. 36). It was upwards of 50 feet high, and was probably gilt . It is seen copied on the coins of Athens. As superintendent of public works in Athens, Pheidias had under him a whole army of architects, sculptors, workers in bronze, stone -cutters, gold and ivory beaters, and other artists, and although he may not have had any personal share in sculpturing the famous marbles of the Parthenon, he probably designed many of them, and it cannot be doubted that he exercised control over them . The chrys elephantine statue of Athena, within the temple, which must have been a mag nificent work of art , was certainly from his own hand. This, and the colossal chryselephantine seated statue of Zeus for the Temple of Olympia ( Eng. 136) , were his most famous works : the former was an ideal impersonation of calmness and wisdom- of which the colossal marble figure of the Pallas of Velletri , in the 137.— The Venus of Melos. Louvre, is supposed to be a late Roman In the Lourre. copy , -- and the latter, now only known to us from copies on coins, was a realisation of Homer's descrip tion of Zeus, " shaking his ambrosial locks, and making Olympus tremble at his nod ” —and an embodiment of the national idea of the supreme God, instinct with power tempered by mercy, a human forin GREEK. 203 was divine of such surpassing beauty, that it became henceforth the type of masculine perfection. As late as the fourth century it was an object of veneration at Olympia, but it is believed to have been taken to Constantinople and to have perished there. The principal pupils of Pheidias were Alcamenes, Agoracritus, and Colotes. They executed the Battle of the Centaurs and the Lapiths for the western pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olym pia, and many statues of gods. That of Hephaestus ( Vulcan ) at Athens was especially admired, because the lameness characteristic of the god indicated without loss of dignity to the figure. The famous Venus of Melos in the Louvre ( Eng. 137) , found in 1820 in the island of Melos, is thought to be a copy after Alcamenes. In this exquisite female figure, human maturity and beauty are combined with divine majesty and self-sufficiency. The most famous work of Agora 138.— Head of Juno, after Polycleitus. Marble. critus was his marble In the Villa Ludovisi, Rome. statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus ; and that of Colotes, a statue of Athena at Elis. Paeonius sculptured at this time the eastern pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia with the Contest between Pelops and Oinomaus. At Argos, in the Peloponnesus, a school arose, second only in import ance to that of Athens, the ruling spirit of which was Polycleitus of Sicyon, a fellow -pupil of Pheidias in the workshop of Ageladas. His 204 SCULPTURE. principal works were statues of athletes ; his celebrated Doryphoros (standard -bearer ), of which the museum of Naples contains a supposed copy, was called the canon of Polycleitus, to which reference has already been made, and served as a model of the beautiful proportions of the human body. The colossal chryselephantine image of Juno, for her temple at Argos, by Polycleitus - a marble copy of the head of which is in the Villa Ludovisi .at Rome—was considered his finest work ( Eng. 138) . In the British Museum are two statues of an athlete and a youth, each binding a fillet round his head, which are thought to be copies of the Diadumenos of Polycleitus. ! 139.-Group from the Eastern frieze of the Parthenon . Our limits will admit of only a few words on the numerous monu ments of Greece belonging to this age. The sculptures of friezes and metopes of the Theseium, or Temple of Theseus at Athens, represent incidents in the life of Theseus, treated with the greatest boldness and freedom, which led the way for the sculptures of the Parthenon. Closely resembling them are the friezes of the Ionic Temple of Nike-apteros ( Victory, wingless), on the Acropolis, the first reliefs executed in the white marble of Pentelicus. Portions of them are in the British Museum, and casts of and of an exquisite figure of Winged Victory, which adorned a parapet between the little temple of Nikè-apteros and the ascent to the Propylæa, are in the Crystal Palace collection. The sculptures of the Parthenon, which were brought to England by Lord Elgin in the year 1816, are preserved in the room bearing his GREEK. 205 name in the British Museum, where may also be seen two small models of the temple, one in its present condition, and one as it was in the time of Pericles. The bas-reliefs sculptured on the frieze of the Parthenon are among the very grandest works of ancient art ; they represent the procession at the Panathenaic festival which was held at Athens in honour of Athena every fifth year ; and more especially that portion of it which consisted in the presentation of a veil , or peplos, to the goddess, and the sacrifice of animals at her shrine. 140. - Bas -relief from the Parthenon Frieze, The frieze occupies the four sides of the entablature of the outer walls of the cella, and is viewed from below by the light which comes between the fifty columns which form the peristyle or outer colonnade. On the eastern frieze is represented the delivery of the peplos in the presence of twelve deities ( Eng. 139 ) . Towards this point two processions converge. Both start from the western end one goes along the northern side, the other along the southern, and they meet at the eastern end over the entrance. The procession includes chariots, horses and riders, foot-soldiers, grave citizens bearing SCULPTURE . From the drawing byJacques Carrey ,made in1674 . olive-branches, flute -players, and young and lovely maidens carrying graceful jars, with infinite beauty of action. The groups on the northern are disposed with greater freedom than the corresponding groups on the southern side, and in the wonderful grace and power with which they move onward with rhythmic motion there is the very epitome of “ order in disorder." Among all the hundred and twenty- five mounted figures ( Eng. 140) who are con trolling their steeds in every variety of action, although there is an intentional gense of crowding - hurrying onward — yet there is no confusion, and each detail is distinct and clear. The groups on the southern side represent the more formal and regular part of the procession which was charged with the office of conveying the sacrificial victims, attended and preceded by horsemen who, from their ordered progress, are supposed to represent the trained cavalry of Athens. On the eastern pediment of the temple was a magnificent group representing the Birth of Athena, and on the western pediment ( Eng. 141 ) , the contest between Poseidon and Athena for the city of Athens. These are both in ruins, and are now in the British Museum. These two portions, especially the Theseus, the three Fates and Ceres and Proserpine from the eastern and the Ilissus from the western pediment, are admitted to be the finest of the entire series, and to be the grandest works of sculpture ever executed. If Pheidias worked on one part Parthenon .pediment ofthe 141.- The Western GREEK. 207 more than another, it was probably on the pediments. The bas- reliefs of tie Metopes, on the exterior of the temple, represent conflicts of the Centaurs and the Lapiths, and the Greeks and Amazons, and the Gods and Giants (Eng. 142 ). Of the ninety -two original sculptures, fifteen are in the British Museum, where there are casts of many of the others. Alcamenes is said to have been the author of many of the finest of these groups, which should be carefully studied in the original sculptures and the casts in the British Museum , for they belong to the culminating time of the greatest age of Greece, when the purity of the earlier period was combined with the science, grace , and vigour of a maturer epoch, without any admixture of the faults of the rapidly approaching decadence. The eastern pediment was much mutilated when the Parthenon was in early Byzantine times turned into a Christian Church , by a hole being worked through to light the apse ; but the great est damage was done at the siege of 1687, by the Venetians, when a bomb shell exploded a powder magazine placed in the temple. 142.—One of the Metopes of the Parthenon. а The beautiful statues of antiquity now remaining, which are generally supposed to date from the golden age of Greece, cannot be ascribed with certainty to any of the masters above-mentioned . The Venus of Dione Townley) in the British Museum , the Venus Genetrix in the Louvre, and the Mars or Achilles of the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, are believed to be of this date. It is not easy in a few words to sum up the peculiarities of this the best age of Greek Sculpture : to do so would be to epitomise all excellences of sculpture. We may, however, point out the high degree SCULPTURE. 208 of vitality and energy which was thrown into such sculptures as those of the Parthenon without in the least sacrificing dignity or anatomical correctness or beauty of arrangement. The artistic perfection in balance and grouping evinced, in the highest degree, the union of genius and skill. The draperies, which are most care fully studied , fall in a multitude of crisp folds. The faces are idealised , and share but slightly the passion often expressed by the actions of the figures. The execution of the work is extremely bold, combining a disregard of the most formidable technical difficulties with perfect mastery over effects of light and shade, modelling and composition. Next to the sculptures of the Parthenon we must name those of the Propylæa ; the reliefs of the parapet of the Temple of Nikè-apteros ; the Frieze of the Erechtheium ; and the Frieze of the Temple of Apollo at Bassæ, near Phigalia in Arcadia ; this last was discovered in 1812 by a party of English and German travellers, and is now in the British Museum ; it represents the battles of the Greeks, aided by Apollo and Artemis, with the Amazons and the Centaurs with the Lapiths ; these figures are remarkable for their life and energy, but are wanting in the technical finish and correctness characteristic of the marbles of the Parthenon . Third Period, 400—323 B.C. One of the principal masters of the later Attic school was Scopas of Paros, who built the Temple of Athena in Tegea, and sculptured for the pediments the marble groups representing the Combat of Achilles with Telephus, and the Pursuit of the Calydonian boar. Scopas also designed, if he did not execute, the reliefs for the eastern side of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus : the group of Niobe and her Children ( Eng. 143), in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, has been ascribed both to him and to Praxiteles. It has been said that the central figure of this group — the bereaved mother gazing up to Heaven with eyes full of reproachful appeal - expresses mental agony better than any other work of art ever produced. Timotheus, Bryaxis, and Leochares were the chief colleagues of Scopas, especially in the Mausoleum . The second great master of sculpture of this period was Praxiteles, GREEK. 209 who flourished at Athens about the year 364 B.C. His most famous works were the nude Venus of Cnidus, which was visited by his admirers from all parts of Greece (it is said that the Cnidians valued > ! 143. - Niobe and her Children . (Central group . ) In the Uffizi, Florence. 144. —The Faun. By Praxiteles. In the Capitol, Rome. it more highly than the discharge of their public debt, which Nicomedes offered in exchange for this statue) ; the Apollo Sauroctonos or Lizard Slayer ; the Faun of the Capitol ( Eng. 144) ; the Venus of Capua, the Venus Callipyge, both at Naples; and Hermes carrying the infant HHA P 210 SCULPTURE. Dionysus, recently discovered at Olympia ( Eng. 145 ) . The frieze around the Choragic monument of Lysicrates ( see Eng. 32) was also by Praxiteles. The work of Cephisodotus (son of Praxiteles, and pupil of Alcamenes) A.Clof Xi by Michallygen 145. — Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus. By Praxiteles. Casts are in B. M. and S. K. 146.—The Apoxyomenos. After Lysippus. In the Vatican. represents the transition between the grand and simple style of Pheidias and the vigour of Scopas and Praxiteles. His group of Irene with the boy Plutus - a marble copy of which is in the Glyptothek of Munich-is a typical work, in which we see a touch of human weakness GREEK. 211 modifying the stern grandeur of the goddess. The Wrestlers, in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, has been ascribed to Cephisodotus. In the Peloponnesus, Lysippus was the founder of a school. He was especially successful with iconic (i. e. portrait) statues ; and, adopt ing the canon of Polycleitus, he introduced a new mode of treating the human figure, representing men rather as they ought to appear than as they were. His most famous works were a statue of the Apoxyo menos ( Eng. 146) , an athlete scraping his arm with a strigil, a copy of which is in the Vatican, and his Sophocles ( Eng. 147 ) , of which the Lateran possesses a fine marble copy. Lysippus shared with Apelles the painter the privilege of representing Alexander the Great. Chares was the most famous master of the school of Lysippus ; and Aris todemus and Boethus must be named as late artists of the same epoch. The famous Drunken Faun at Munich, and the Thorn Extractor of the Capitol at Rome, evidently date from this time. In the works of this third period, art is seen running its usual course. The self-restraint of the best time is visibly thrown off, and a correspond 147.- Statue of Sophocles. After ing loss of dignity and ideal beauty Lysippus. In the Lateran , Rome. follows. More that is individual, less that is divine, appears in the statues ; the faces are less conventional, the draperies less beautiful, and the whole art, while retaining an astonishing degree of technical excellence, has left behind it the lofty P 2 212 SCULPTURE. aims and the perfect attainment of such aims which it possessed in the time of Pheidias. Fourth Period, 323–146 B.C. The school of Rhodes occupies the first position in this epoch. AR 1 111 yan SUBS !!! 148. —The Laocoon. By Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, In the Vatican. Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, a group of Rhodian masters, produced the Laocoon (Eng. 148) of the Vatican, which is said to GREEK. 213 express physical pain and passion better than any other existing group of statuary. The Laocoon * was said by Pliny to be one block of marble ; if so, we have not the original, as the Laocoon of the Vatican is hewn out of three pieces. The Farnese Bull (or Toro Farnese), in the Museum at Naples, is another famous work of this period, by Apollonius and Tauriscus, of Tralles in Caria, foreign artists who worked at Rhodes. The subject is the punishment of Dircè, wife of Lycus king of Thebes, by the sons of Antiope for her 1 TI 149.—The Dying Gladiator. In the Capitol, at Roine. cruelty to their mother. Like the Laocoon, it is full of dramatic life and pathos. The famous head of the Dying Alexander in the Uffizi at Florence is supposed to be the work of Rhodian artists, and The Wrestlers men tioned above in connection with Cephisodotus is often attributed to a similar source. • The school of Pergamus produced many great artists , of whom Isigonus, Pyromachus, Stratonicus, and Antigonus were the chief. Laocoon, a priest in a temple of Apollo, while sacrfiicing aa bull , saw two enormous serpents coiling themselves round his two sons. He rushed to their assistance, became entangled in the folds of the serpents, and all three died. 214 SCULPTURE. The great general Attalus celebrated his victory over the Gauls ( 239 B.C. ) by presenting groups of sculpture to Athens, Pergamus, and other cities, many of which statues have been preserved. The most famous is that called the Dying Gladiator (Eng. 149 ) , in the Capitol at Rome, which is evidently an original work by an artist of Pergamus. It represents a Gaul at the point of death ; his head sinks forward, his eye is dim with pain, his lips are half parted by a sigh, and the shadow of death clouds his brow. In this period, the art of sculpture is still pursuing a downward course ; difficulties are courted for the sake of showing with what ease they can be overcome, and unrivalled technical skill is the highest and most self-evident merit, in place of being one of the last qualities to force itself on our attention. Many of the works of this age, like the Dirce already quoted, manifestly overstep the proper bounds of the art of sculpture, and represent scenes of a complexity and extent which can only be properly rendered by the art of the painter. At Sidon there has been a recent discovery of a series of very fine marble sarcophagi, three of which are of Phænician and seven of Greek design. Two of the latter are of the Lydian form . They are all richly sculptured and show traces of colouring. One, eleven feet long, has reliefs illustrative of the chase and battle, recalling the mosaic at Pompeii of the “ Battle of Darius and Alexander, ” and also of the friezes of the Parthenon. No certain date has yet been decided on for these, the latest contributions to the history of Ancient Sculpture. Etruscan Sculpture. ! As we have seen in speaking of their architecture, the Etruscans were an Asiatic race who settled in Italy at a very early date, but never became assimilated with their neighbours. They excelled in all the mechanical arts-such as the chasing of gold and silver, the casting of bronze statues, the manufacture of armour, altars, tripods, etc. , for which great industry and power of imitation alone were 5 5 ال م ت 150.- Relief from an Etruscan tomb. i required ; but they were wanting in the imagination and force of character indispensable to the working out of a national style . The earliest Etruscan works of sculpture which have come down to us are the stone reliefs of tombstones ( Eng. 150) , in which the figures are treated in the realistic manner characteristic of Assyrian art. In many cases the upper part of the body is seen in full, whilst the head and legs are represented in profile. The low receding fore heads, flat skulls, and projecting chins, are of an essentially Eastern type. In somewhat later works we see the same archaic style SCULPTURE. 216 combined with greater animation and more lifelike expression . This is the case with a figure of a bearded warrior in low relief, from a tombstone, now in the Volterra Museum. The strange black vases of unburnt clay, found in the tombs at Chiusi (the Clusium of the Romans) , must also be reckoned amongst the earliest Etruscan sculptures. The lids of many of them represent human heads of an Egyptian type, and some have grotesque figures on the sides and handles. The Campana collection , in the Louvre, zaru WWV VAN VNVNVI INVAVAY 151.-The Lydian Tomb. Etruscan . In the Louvre. and that of the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, contain many curious specimens. Terra-cotta objects are also very numerous. Perhaps the most interesting is that called the Lydian Tomb, found at Care (the modern Cervetri, a corruption of Cære Vetere), and now in the Louvre ( Eng. 151). It represents a married couple in a semi- recumbent position upon an Assyrian couch . The attitudes are stiff, the treat ment of the figures betrays ignorance of anatomy, and the drapery is wanting in grace ; but with all these faults the group is pleasing and characteristic. The pediments of Etruscan temples appear to have ETRUSCAN . 217 been adorned with terra - cotta reliefs, and the images of the gods were often of the same material. In Rome, before Greek influence became predominant, Etruscan terra - cotta was largely employed. The pediment of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol was adorned with a group in terra -cotta, and surmounted by a quadriga ( a chariot with four horses) of the same material. Many of the Etruscan bronze works still existing are very ancient. Amongst them , the famous Chimæra at Florence, and the She-Wolf * in the Capitoline Museum, Rome, are probably the earliest. The finest 152. — The She-Wolf of the Capitol. Etruscan . examples of large bronze statues are the Orator in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, the Boy with the Goose in the Museum of Leyden, and the statue of the Young Warrior, erroneously called Mars, found at Todi , and now in the Museum of the Vatican. The Museum of Florence also contains several small bronze Etruscan works of great value; of these the Idolino, probably a Mercury, and a group of two warriors carrying a wounded comrade, are the chief. Many sarcophagi and urns, in alabaster, terra- cotta, or stone, belonging to a later period when Greek influence was sensibly felt in every part of Italy, are preserved in different museums. Figures of

  • A cast is in the South Kensington Museum .

218 SCULPTURE . the deceased repose upon the lids, and the sides are adorned with high reliefs, representing the fate of the soul in the other world , or the festive scenes in which the departed figured in life. Some of these groups are of real artistic beauty, and may almost be called ideal conceptions. The exquisite symmetry of the shape of the Etruscan vetri antichi (antique glass objects) entitles them to notice . They consist of vases of every description-amphore, flagons, goblets, chased and enamelled glasses, etc. *

Most of these glasses, having been buried for centuries, are stained with a thin film , the result of partial mineral decomposition of the surface, which produces beautiful variegated colours. The Italians call this coating patina . Roman Sculpture. The Romans were not, strictly speaking, an artistic people—that is to say, they created no ideal or original forms in art ; but they were well able to appreciate the beauty of the works of others, and to their liberal patronage we owe many fine works by Greek artists produced after the subjugation of Greece by the Romans, and second only in beauty to those which came from the hand of Pheidias, Scopas, or Praxiteles. The most important of these works are reproductions of the great masterpieces of the golden age of Greece ; of which we must name the famous Apollo Belvedere in the Vatican (Eng. 154 ) -- found early in the six teenth century at Porto d'Anzo, and supposed to be a copy after Alcamenes ; a model of manly beauty : Diana with the Stag ( Eng. 155 ) , in the Louvre, the best existing repre sentation of the fair - limbed goddess ; and above all, the white marble statue of Her cules in repose ( Eng. 153 ) , so 153.—The Farnese Hercules ( Colossal ) . remarkable for its combination Found in 1540 in the Baths of Caracalla . of energy, grace, strength, In the Naples Museum . and pliability, that it is said to have been studied from by Michelang ulo. Z CAYKOJN AONNAIO eno16) .ANTUR PANNE MKER the Vatican .InBelvedere Apollo 151. —The Stag .InLouvre 155. -Diana wth the ROMAN. 223 To the same period belong two marble reliefs found in S. Vitale, Ravenna, one of which represented a bull being led to sacrifice by six men wearing garlands ; and the other figures of Augustus, Livia and Tiberius. To the custom which prevailed in Rome of erecting monuments in memory of victories we owe many very beautiful statues and bas- reliefs. Of this class were the fourteen statues of subject tribes, by the Roman sculptor Coponius, in the portico of Pompey's theatre, which were life like portraits of barharians, accurately rendering their strongly-marked features, and the tragic sadness of their expressions. The altar erected in honour of Augustus at Lyons was adorned with sixty figures of Gauls . Second Period , A.D. 14 to A.D. 138. The emperors who succeeded Augustus did much to encourage the new Roman school of sculpture. Under their rule, sculpture was largely employed as an accessory to architecture in the magnificent buildings everywhere erected, and the art of portraiture was carried to the greatest perfection. The most finished technical skill was dis played in the cutting of marble and precious stones, and the working of all kinds of metal, but this mechanical proficiency very inadequately atoned for the simultaneous decline of the Greek school — the school of ideal conceptions and unfettered freedom of imagination . After a long period, during which nothing of any great artistic value was produced, a partially successful attempt was made by Hadrian to revive Greek art ; but the cold imitations produced of the master pieces of antiquity served but to prove the futility of any attempt to revive a school after the spirit which animated it is extinct. Among the number of works belonging to this age are the monu ments found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. Of these the fine bronze statues of Hermes, the Sleeping Faun, and the Dancing Girls, all in the Museum of Naples, are considered the best . The famous Centaurs in black marble found in the villa of Hadrian, and now in the Capitoline Museum , are evidently copies of Greek originals. Some of the iconic statues excavated are also very fine and of great historic value. 224 SCULPTURE. an museums The Vatican contains an extremely fine statue, worthy of being called ideal work, of Antinous ( the favourite of Hadrian ), who was drowned in the Nile, and enrolled by his regretful master amongst the gods. The of Europe contain many fine groups supposed to date from this time of exceptional artis tic activity Of these the most famous the colossal marble Tiber and Nile, the former in the Louvre, the latter in the Vatican ( Eng. 158), in which the rivers are represented by two old men with flowing beards resting on theurns from which their waters flow , and surrounded by em blems and small symbolic figures : and the marble group of Cupid and Psyche in the Vatican. .Vatican the inmarble Colossal .Nile The —158. are ROMAN . 225 > It was, however, in the monuments erected in honour of the emperors during the period under discussion that Roman sculpture attained to its highest excellence. We have spoken of the triumphal arches as works of architecture, and must now say a few words on the distinctive character of the reliefs with which they were covered. These were partly historical and partly symbolical, representing actual victories side by side with allegorical groups, and combined the realism of Oriental pictorial annals with something of the ideal beauty of Greek works of a similar class — differing, however, in one essential particular from anything previously produced . The plan bitherto adopted of HC 159.-Relief from the Trajan Column. giving each figure a clear outline on a flat surface was abandoned , and an attempt was made to introduce a greater variety by means of a graduated background, the figures in the foreground being almost or entirely detached , with figures in lower relief behind them . The result was a crowded effect never met with in Greek works. The Arch of Titus, erected in memory of the conquest of Jerusalem, is especially interesting. On one side is a representation of a procession carrying away the spoils of the Temple, amongst which figure the Ark and the seven- branched candlestick ; and on the other the Emperor Q HHA. 226 SCULPTURE. is seen in his triumphal car, drawn by four horses, and surrounded by Roman warriors. The Trajan Column ( see Eng. 44) —a cast of which is now in the South Kensington Museum-erected before the time of Hadrian, stands on a pedestal covered with bas -reliefs of weapons, etc. , and the pillar itself is inclosed in a spiral of bas-reliefs forming a continuous representation of the triumphs of the Emperor, beginning with the passage of the Danube, and going through all the events of the Dacian war. The scale increases from 2 feet to 4 feet as the sculptures go upwards, so that those at the top may be seen as readily as those below. The column was originally surmounted by a colossal statue of Trajan (replaced in the seventh century by one of St. Peter), and contains no less than 2500 human figures and a great number of horses ( Eng. 159 ). The Column of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus is somewhat similar to that of Trajan, but the sculptures are not so good. Third Period . From the time of Hadrian (A.D. 138) to the Decline of the Roman Empire. After the time of Hadrian, very few fine sculptures of any kind were produced. With the decline of the empire a corresponding decline in all the arts was inevitable. Strange to say, there was for a time an inclination to go back to Eastern types in statuary. Once more the Egyptian Serapis appeared in monuments, whilst the worship of Isis led to the production of numerous statues of that goddess. The liberal patronage of Marcus Aurelius was the cause of a brief revival, when the fine equestrian statue of that emperor on the Capitol was executed, but it was only a late effort of an art doomed to speedy destruction. Before its final decay, however, Roman sculpture pro duced some fine bas- reliefs on sarcophagi, remarkable for artistic conception and fine execution. These bas- reliefs represent scenes in the actual life of the deceased , and allegories relating to the future state , or mythological groups. The Vatican at Rome and the Doge's Palace at Venice contain many fine specimens. Our limits forbid us to attempt even a passing allusion to the ROMAN. 227 countless minor antique art objects in the numerous public and private collections of Europe ; but we must not close our notice of the sculpture of the heathen world without a word on the famous Portland Vase in the British Museum, and the great cameos of antiquity. Ihr 160.– The Gonzaga Cameo. Ptolemy I. and Eurydice. Roman. In the St. Petersburg Museum . The Portland, or Barberini Vase was found in a sarcophagus, in the sixteenth century, in the monument called the Monte del Grano, about two miles from Rome. It was placed in the British Museum by the Q2 228 SCULPTURE. Duke of Portland, and we mention it here on account of the beautiful white bas- relief figures with which it is adorned. * The art of cameo-cutting was carried to the greatest perfection by the Greeks and Romans. The finest existing specimen is thought to be the Gonzaga cameo , now at St. Petersburg, which represents the heads of some royal personage and his wife, probably Ptolemy I. and Eurydice, and is six inches long by four broad. The Cabinet of Antiquities at Vienna contains a cameo of almost equal merit, and we must also mention one in the Louvre, which is thirteen inches long by eleven broad ; and that called Cupid and Psyche in the Marlborough collection, by Tryphon, a cameo- cutter of celebrity who lived somewhat later than Alexander. There is now in the British Museum a fine collection of engraved gems, which is as yet compara tively little known. The stones on which these cameos are cut are of very great beauty ; they were probably obtained from the East.

  • The Portland Vase was wantonly broken by a visitor to the British Museum ,

in 1845, but has been so ingeniously joined together, that the fractures are scarcely visible. A small number of facsimile copies were made by Josiah Wedgwood, and are now very valuable. Early Christian Sculpture. ( First to Tenth Century.) CHRISTIANITY in its earliest form was antagonistic to imitative art. The horror of image-worship, and the detestation of the superstitious observances interwoven with the domestic life of every class in the heathen world, led to the discouragement of all attempts at visible representations of Christ, or of His apostles. Moreover, it must be remembered that the first Christians were brought into immediate contact with the unholy rites of Isis and of Pan, and the graceful worship of Venus and Apollo ; and with heathen temples on every side peopled with ideal forms of beauty representing gods and god desses, it would have been impossible for Christian artists to clothe Christ in any human form not already appropriated to some ancient idol. Whilst the Greeks and Romans cultivated physical beauty, look ing upon a perfect body as the only fitting garment of a perfect soul , the stern believers in a spiritual God to be worshipped in spirit and in truth endeavoured in every way to mortify the flesh, regarding it as an encumbrance to be laid aside without a murmur-a prison -house checking the growth of the immortal soul. This was, however, but the natural reaction from the sensuality into which the antique world had fallen ; and with the decline of paganism the abhorrence of pictures l or images of Christ became less intense, the natural yearning of believers for some visible representations of the Object of their love and reverence gradually asserted itself more and more, and Christian art, which reached its highest development in the time of Raphael and Michelangelo, made its first feeble efforts to give a suitable form to the ideal which had so long been latent in the minds of men . The date of the origin of Christian sculpture cannot be fixed with any certainty. The first traces of it are to be found in the catacombs. The sarcophagi of martyrs, confessors, bishops, etc. , were carved or painted with the symbols of Christianity--such as the cross, the monogram of Christ, the lamb, the peacock ( emblem of immortality ), the dove ( emblem of the Spirit) , etc. Sometimes Christ Himself 230 SCULPTURE. era. figures on these tombs, but as yet only in the symbolic form of the Good Shepherd surrounded by his flock, or seeking the lost sheep, or as the heathen Orpheus taming the wild beasts by the music of his lyre. In the time of Constantine ( fourth century) we first meet with historical representations of Christ, and find Him on the sarcophagi in the midst of His disciples, teaching or working miracles. Even at so late a date, however, the antique type of youthful manhood is retained, and only in the latter end of the century was that peculiar form of countenance adopted which has been retained with certain modifications until the present day. Single statues were extremely rare in the first four centuries of our The Emperor Alexander Severus ( 230 A.D. ) is said to have had an image of Christ in his possession, and occasional mention is made of statues erected to Christ by those whom He had cured, but nothing definite is known of any of them. The only really important existing Christian statue of this period, if indeed it be not as some aver late Roman, is a large seated bronze figure of St. Peter in St. Peter's, Rome, which represents the apostle in antique drapery, clasping a huge key in one hand, and raising the other as if in solemn admonition . The Museum of Christian Antiquities in the Lateran contains a marble statue of St. Hippolytus, the lower half of which belongs to the earliest period of Christian art. The Museum of the Lateran also possesses a number of early Christian sarcophagi; others exist in the crypt of St. Peter's, Rome, at Ravenna, and elsewhere. That of Junius Bassus ( Eng. 161 ) , in the vaults of St. Peter's at Rome, dating from 359 A.D. , is one of the best and purest of these works. The reliefs on this sarcophagus represent the gathering in of the grape-harvest by symbolical figures, and a number of historical scenes from the Old and New Testaments. The porphyry Sarcophagus of Constantia , the daughter of Constantine, and that of Helena, mother of the same emperor, may be seen in the Vatican : the latter is a work of powerful conception and brilliant execution. Sarcophagi belonging to a much later date ( sixth to eighth century) are to be found in the churches of S. Appollinare in Classe, and San EARLY CHRISTIAN. 231 Vitale at Ravenna ; in the Franciscan church at Spalatro in Dalmatia , in the crypt of the cathedral of Ancona, and in other towns. At the time of their production, the influence of Byzantine art, which dis couraged the use of sculpture for sacred subjects, was widely felt, and an inclination was manifested once more to prefer symbolic to historical representations. The result of this tendency was a decline in the art of statuary ; and these later works are inferior in style and execution to those of the fourth century. 2 राणायाम्परारारारागारागण्या TV UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU. BRO 161. – Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus. In the crypt of St. Peter's, Rome. After what we have said in speaking of Byzantine architecture of the great services rendered to the cause of art by Byzantine artists, it will be necessary to explain why their influence was the reverse of beneficial at the period under review. Constant intercourse with the East imbued Byzantine Christianity with a spirit of theological subtlety, combined with an aversion to change in all matters connected with religion, and consequently in religious sculpture, which was necessarily fatal to progress ; and although, under the earliest Eastern 232 SCULPTURE. emperors, an attempt was made to adorn the new capital with the sculptures carried away from Rome by Constantine ; and statues of Constantine himself MMACHORUM and, later, of Justinian were erected, it was not until long afterwards, when the freedom loving Teutonic races had gained an ascendancy in Europe, that sculpture, once more breaking loose from the trammels of Eastern conventionalism , be came again an ideal art cap able of producing works which might justly be styled high art. In minor works of sculpture, however, such as the carving of ivory, the casting of bronze vessels, etc. , Byzantine artists always excelled. The principal ivory work belonging to this period which has been preserved is the Episcopal Chair of Maxi mianus (A.D. 546—552 ) , now in the Cathedral of Ravenna. It consists entirely of plates of ivory covered with exquisitely carved arabesques and figures of men and animals in low relief. 162. - Leaf of a carved Ivory Diptych . The early Christians adopted Second Century. In the South Kensington Museum . the use of the ivory consular diptych (i.e. double folding tablets) , the outsides of which were covered with low reliefs . Many fine specimens of Christian and Roman works of the kind may EARLY CHRISTIAN . 233 be seen in the South Kensington Museum ( Eng. 162 ) and else where. As a characteristic work of the ninth century we must name the High Altar of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, which is covered with plates of gold or silver gilt, adorned with embossed reliefs representing scenes from the life of Christ. We have before mentioned the Pala d'Oro, or Golden Altar- piece of St. Mark's at Venice ( see Eng. 54a) , which was made at Constantinople in the tenth century. Sculpture of the Romanesque Period. Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. In the dark ages which succeeded the fall of the Roman Empire, the greater number of the beautiful art works of antiquity, which had hitherto been preserved as things sacred, were wantonly destroyed or injured: Upon the removal of the empire to Byzantium in the fourth century, the production of statuary of any excellence entirely ceased ; the few bas-reliefs executed were altogether wanting in original power or true artistic beauty, and it was not until the beginning of the tenth century that the first faint glimmering of that light which subsequently illuminated all Europe appeared on the horizon. The art of painting, which was more suitable than that of sculpture for the decoration of the flat surfaces of the walls of the basilicas and early Romanesque churches, was the first to revive : the works of sculpture produced during the tenth and eleventh centuries were entirely of a secondary class, such as altars, diptychs, reliquaries, and drinking-horns. Of these we need only name the most remarkable. In the so- called Reliquary of Henry I. in the Castle Church of Quedlinburg, on which the three Marys are represented at the feet of Christ, we see the coarse style of the early part of the tenth century unredeemed by any technical excellence ; in an ivory diptych, dating from A.D. 972, in the Hotel de Cluny, Paris ( Eng. 163) , representing Christ blessing Otto II. and his Greek wife the Princess Theophane, we trace Byzantine influence in the careful finish of the execution and a certain grandeur in the face and figure of the Saviour. Many really fine works of this description, however, date from the eleventh century. Amongst them we must mention a book cover, belonging to an evangelarium, now in the Library of Munich ; an ivory tablet in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, in which Christ appears as Ruler of the earth and sea, with the antique figures of Gaea ( the earth) and Oceanus ( the sea) serving Him as a footstool ; and covers of an evangelarium and a MS. in the monastery of St. Gall. In these ROMANESQUE PERIOD. 235 نیا نور and other productions of the kind we discover indications of the future excellence to be obtained by Teutonic artists : the attitudes of the figures are life- like, and the faces well express passion, energy, and other emotions. In the two centuries under notice some advance was also made in the art of metal casting. The efforts of the enlightened Bishop Bernward of Hil XC deshiem were greatly in -0-00 Simp strumental in this ad PMEN Diors 50 l vance, and to him we are indebted for the large bronze doors of Hildes heim Cathedral, completed OOO in A.D. 1015 , * represent ing sixteen scenes of sacred history, from the SO Creation to the Passion of our Lord-in which the figures, though still rude, are full of life and character, and for the bronze column in the cathedral square of the same town, executed in A.D. 1022, adorned with a series of spiral bas 163.—Ivory Diptych of Otto II. A.D. 972 . reliefs. In the Hotel de Cluny, Paris. illv U MIKUTUMIA DAWA From A.D. 1100 to the beginning of the Thirteenth century. In the twelfth century , at which period the Romanesque style reached its fullest development, sculpture began once more to take a Casts are in the South Kensington Museum .

236 SCULPTURE. 1 high position as an accessory to architecture. The Christian sculptors of this period rapidly freed themselves from Greek and Latin traditions, and working under the direction of the clergy, they illustrated the precepts of religion by the noble productions of their chisel, enriching both the outside and inside of the cathedrals and churches with symbolic or historic sculptures. It is not, of course, to be supposed that the art of statuary sprang at once into the important position it occupied in the completed Romanesque and Gothic styles : the artists of the early middle ages had much both to learn and to unlearn, but the renewal of its natural connection with architecture was a step in the right direction, and in every branch of plastic art a great improve ment was noticeable alike in the treatment of figures, drapery, or foliage. At first there was a certain want of harmony between the buildings and their docorative sculptures, but as time went on, and the sister arts became more fully assimilated, their combination produced an impression of rhythmical beauty such as neither could have acquired without the other. Germany. - Wefind Germany taking the lead in this onward move ment. To the early part of the twelfth century belongs the famous . relief on the Extern Stone, at Horn, in Westphalia, which is a remark able work representing the Descent from the Cross. The composition is full of energy : the attitude of the Virgin supporting the drooping head of her dead Son well expresses mental agony, and the figure of St. John, though stiff, harmonises well with the rest of the group. Saxony is rich in architectural sculptures of this period ; the best are perhaps the figures on the northern portal of the church of St. Godehard at Hildesheim , belonging to the middle of the twelfth century, and the figures of Christ and the Virgin in the choir of the church of St. Michael's, also at Hildesheim. In Bavaria the huge columns in the crypt of Freising Cathedral must be noticed as a specimen of the fancy which prevailed in that district for weird combinations of men and animals. They are covered with reliefs by a certain Master Luitfrecht, which have been variously interpreted. To the middle of the thirteenth century belong many of the finest ROMANESQUE PERIOD . 237 portals of the cathedrals of Germany. The golden gate of the Cathedral of Freiburg in the Erzgebirge deserves special mention, as it is an instance of the faithfulness with which German artists clung to Romanesque forms after they had been laid aside for Gothic in France and other countries. Scenes from the Old and New Testament, set in frameworks of symbolic figures, such as lions and sirens, are depicted in a life-like manner ; and the treatment of the nude portions of the human body shows great knowledge alike of anatomy and of antique models. The stone reliefs on the pulpit and high altar of the church of Wechselburg are equally truthful and vigorous ; our illustra tion ( Eng. 164) is from one of the compart ments of the pulpit, and represents Abel offering his Lamb. Bronze casting also greatly improved in Germany at this 161. - Abel offering his Lamb. period. The school of From the pulpit of Wechselburg Church. Dinant acquired con siderable fame in the early part of the thirteenth century, and many important works were executed by its masters for the various cathedrals of the Rhine provinces. The font of St. Barthélemy, at Liége, is one of the most remarkable. The basin, like the molten sea in Solomon's temple, rests on twelve brazen oxen. France . - From Germany we turn to France, and find a corresponding advance in architectural sculpture. To the early part of the twelfth century belongs the west front of St. Gilles, near Arles in Provence, in 238 SCULPTURE. 1 1 which antique marble columns are introduced, supporting an entabla ture the frieze of which is adorned with reliefs representing scenes from the life of Christ. The ecclesiastical buildings of Burgundy are especially rich in archi tectural sculpture. The pediment of the principal entrance of the Cathedral of Autun is filled with a representation of the Last Judgment, which has a weird and striking effect. Devils are seen tearing the condemned, and St. Michael is introduced protecting a redeemed soul from their fury. The name of the artist of this remarkable group was Gislebertus. The west front of the Cathedral of Chartres is one of the most important works of the late Romanesque school of Central France . In its three portals the architecture and sculpture harmonise with and supplement each other ; the figures, it is true, retain the formal pose of the Byzantine style, but we recognise a new spirit in the heads, which are of the Teutonic type, and full of life and energy. The southern entrance of the Cathedral of Le Mans marks yet another step in advance in the same direction ; the ornaments are copied from antique models, but the heads of the figures are life-like and natural, and that of Christ is full of more than human beauty. The southern entrance of the Cathedral of Bourges, which belongs to the close of the twelfth century, is an equally characteristic work ; and the west front of Notre Dame at Paris, executed about A.D. 1215, is a specimen of the transition from the late Romanesque to the early Gothic style . The sculptures which so profusely adorn the Cathedral of Amiens are of a rather later daće. Among them the statues of the angel Gabriel and the Holy Virgin (Eng. 165) are of the most interest . Italy. The architectural sculptures of Italy, belonging to the early Romanesque period, are inferior to those of France and Germany. The sculptures of the west front of San Zeno, at Verona (about 1139 ), representing the Creation of the World , give promise of future excellence, and are interesting as specimens of the love of symbols characteristic of the age. They have been ascribed to two German masters, Nicolaus and Wilhelm by name. Towards the close of the twelfth century Benedetto Antelami, of Parma, produced a number of works of 7 > > 165. — The Angel Gabriel and the Virgin . Amiens Cathedral. Thirteenth Century. 240 SCULPTURE. considerable excellence, of which the decorations of the Baptistery of Parma, both in marble and bronze, were the principal. The sculptures on the pulpit of S. Ambrogio, in Milan, are good specimens of the rude but life- like symbolic creations of the period. Towards the close of the twelfth century considerable artistic activity was displayed in Pisa . The earliest of the famous series of gates of the Baptistery, begun in 1153, contain a series of sculptures repre senting scenes from the life of Christ, etc. , in which the perfected Romanesque style, freed from Byzantine influence, may be studied ; and the first indications may be recognised of the grace and elegance, combined with technical skill , for which the Pisani, who were the first to direct attention to the remains of ancient art in Italy, became so famous in the thirteenth century. A great advance was made in the art of bronze casting in Italy in the early part of the twelfth century. The bronze gate of the southern transept of Pisa Cathedral, cast by Bonanno in 1180, and that of the Abbey of Beneventum , by Barisanus, the chief master of bronze casting in Italy, belong to a somewhat later date. The Cathedral at Monreale possesses gates by both Bonanno and Barisanus. The former also designed the celebrated Tower of Pisa. England . — The mediaval sculpture will be noticed in the chapter on English sculpture. Sculpture in the Gothic Period. From about A.D. 1223 to A.D. 1400. Ar the end of the twelfth century a marked change was already noticeable in the art of the whole of Western Europe. The Crusa des were drawing to a close ; the working of the new ideas and modes of thought introduced by them was seen on every side ; and with the beginning of the thirteenth century a new style sprang up, which was a kind of reflection of the new spirit of freedom with which European society was imbued . France. In this movement France took the lead. The statues of La Sainte Chapelle at Paris ( 1245—1248) are the first instances of the completed Gothic, in which all traces of the rude earlier style has disappeared, and grace and dignity are admirably blended . It is in the west front of Rheims Cathedral, however, that the full development of Gothic sculpture in France may best be studied. The grandeur of the arrangement and the beauty of the details of the various groups are alike unrivalled, the attitudes of the figures are dignified and graceful, the drapery is simple and natural, and many of the heads are full of individual character. The cathedrals of Bourges, Beauvais, and Blois, also contain fine specimens of Gothic sculpture, and the choir screen of Notre Dame at Paris is an important work of the late Gothic period. The efforts of Philip the Bold did much to promote the cause of art at Dijon, the home of the dukes of Burgundy. He invited the ablest artists of the day to aid in the decoration of the Carthusian monastery. Amongst those who responded to his call was a Dutchman named Claes Sluter, a great master, who founded an important school. His principal works were the monument to Philip the Bold , now in the A cast of part this interesting screen can be seen at the Crystal Palace.

HHA R 242 SCULPTURE . Museum at Dijon , the sculptures of the portal of the chapel , and the Moses fountain in the courtyard of the Carthusian monastery ( Eny. 166) ( 1399 ) ; they are all well executed , and full of character. WÁOTHIS theo han w LIRT DAUN 1420 TV HT 166.-Moses Fountain at Dijon . By Claes Sluter. The monumental sculpture of France of the Gothic period is worthy of deep study ; the most important works of the period are perhaps the series of reliefs on the monuments in the Church of St. Denis. In Germany the Gothic style was not adopted until considerably GOTHIC PERIOD. 243 later than in France. The Liebfrauen Kirche at Treves ( 1237—1243) is one of the earliest Gothic buildings in Germany, and its sculptures are good specimens of the transitional style. In the south- west 167.-- Figures of Virtues and Vices, from the Cathedral of Strasburg. provinces, owing to their near neighbourhood to France, the true home of the Gothic style, there are many extensive works of great beauty ; of these we must name the sculptures of Strasburg Cathedral ( Eng. 167) , the fine tomb of Count Ulrich and his wife (about 1265), R 2 244 SCULPTURE. in the abbey church at Stuttgart, and the sculptures of Freiburg Cathedral. The cathedrals of Bamberg and Nuremberg must also be mentioned : the former, in addition to much architectural sculpture, contains several fine monuments, remarkable for the almost ideal beauty of the heads of some of the figures. The polychrome statues of Christ, Mary, and the Apostles, in the choir of Cologne Cathedral, must take high rank amongst the isolated works of the perfected Gothic style. In the middle of the fourteenth cent:ry flourished the sculptor Sebald Schonhofer of Nuremberg, to whom is ascribed the so - called Beautiful Fountain of Nuremberg, the sculptures of the Frauen Kirche, and other works. The sculptures of the southern portal of the Cathedral of Mayence belong to the fourteenth century, when the decadence had already commenced . Of the bronze works of Germany belonging to the Gothic period we must name the equestrian statue of St. George in the Hradschin Square at Prague, and the tomb of Archbishop Conrad of Hochstaden , in the cathedral of Cologne. Many fine reliques and shrines in precious metals, adorned with embossed reliefs , were produced in Germany in the period under discussion, and the arts of wood and ivory carving were carried to great perfection . Specimens of both may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. The names of Hans Brüggemann and Veit Stoss must be mentioned as master carvers of Germany. To the former is attributed a carved altar in the cathedral of Schleswig, and many similar works of the kind. In mediæval times it was customary both to paint and gild the wood carvings in ecclesiastical buildings. Netherlands. - In this country considerable advance was made in the arts of sculpture and painting in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The school of Dinant was succeeded by that of Tournay. The various sculptures in the porch of Tournay Cathedral are good specimens of Gothic sculpture in the Netherlands ; and many funeral monuments in different towns bear witness to the skill and art- feeling of Netherlandish sculptors and workers in bronze of this period. GOTHIC PERIOD. 245 Italy .-- At the beginning of the thirteenth century a revival of all the arts commenced in Italy, and a school of sculpture arose , the artists of which pursued methods very different from those of their contempor aries in other countries, and worked out a purely individual national style. The leader of this movement was Niccola of Pisa, called Niccola Pisano, who early excelled all his contemporaries. Like most of the artists of his time, Niccola combined the professions of the architect, the sculptor, and the painter. But he was the first to give to sculpture the prominent position to which it was entitled ; and , aided by his son Giovanni, he enriched the cathedrals of Pisa, Orvieto, Pistoja, Siena, and Bologna with statuary, in which grace and true art feeling were combined with truth to nature and simplicity of arrangement. These two artists , zealous converts of the ascetic Franciscan and Dominican form of the Roman Catholic religion, may be said to have translated into stone and marble the spiritual conceptions of Giotto, the great master of sacred painting. Inspired by religious fervour and with a vivid sense of the realities of the spiritual world, they produced figures of good and evil spirits , and idealised human forms full of terrible beauty or suffering. The Descent from the Cross, in the cathedral of Lucca, is one of Niccola's earliest works, and gives promise of the great original power subsequently displayed in his famous marble pulpit * in the Baptistery of Pisa . It was executed in 1260, and is covered with high reliefs ( Eng. 168 ) , representing the Nativity, the Epiphany, Presentation , Crucifixion , and Last Judgment, in which the figures are treated with the freedom, the ease, and the vitality, so to speak, which we noticed as a special characteristic of the works of the best age of Greek art. The cathedral of Siena possesses a marble pulpit from the same masterly band, commenced six years later than that of Pisa . The reliefs are instinct with passionate religious fervour. His Arca di San Domenico at Bologna, of the years 1265-67, is counted one of his best works. Six reliefs relate events in the life of St. Domenic. In it he was assisted by Fra Guglielmo. Later, Lombardi added a base, Niccolo di Bari contributed the canopy, and Tribolo and Michelangelo sculptured statues for it. Niccola's last work was the Fountain at Perugia.

  • A fine cast may be studied in the South Kensington Museum.

246 SCULPTURE . The immediate successors of Niccola were his son Giovanni, his pupil Arnolfo di Cambrio ( famous for his work on the Duomo of Florence ), the brothers Agostino and Agnolo of Siena, Andrea of Pisa, and lastly Andrea Orcagna, whom we shall find mentioned later on amongst the painters. Giovanni Pisano introduced a new style in sculpture which may be characterised as realistic ; the first employment of it was in the 168. —The Adoration of the Kings. From the pulpit in the Baptistery at Pisa . By Niccola Pisano. sculptures of the west front of Orvieto Cathedral, on which all the chief artists of Tuscany were employed. One of Giovanni's most famous isolated works is the Madonna del Fiore of Florence Cathedral : the figure of the holy mother is grand and dignified, and her face full of earnest thought rather than passionate feeling. Giovanni especially excelled in the allegorical sculpture which the writings of Dante did so much to encourage. A symbolical statue of Pisa, in the Campo GOTHIC PERIOD. 247 Santo at Pisa, is a fine work of the kind. The Campo Santo itself , the first cemetery in Italy, was designed by Giovanni ( Eng. 169 ) . 1979 ( WWW.WU படியாயமா ,U9, UGUMU 1 169. -The Campo Savto of Pisa. Designed by Giovanni Pisano. About A.D. 1280 . The High Altar of the Cathedral of Arezzo is an extremely spirited com position by the same master. Giovanni executed a pulpit for Sant' ENERALE 170. — The Central Gates of the Baptistery at Florenc Ghiberti.Theuppersixofthetencompartments. 250 SCULPTURE . Andrea at Pistoja , in which he took his father's Pisan pulpit as a model. DIDATTI IMANINAZADRONOVIA Nim 171.--Capital of one of the columns of the Doge's Palace, Venice. The chief work of Andrea Pisano is the southern bronze gate of GOTHIC PERIOD. 251 the Baptistery of Florence, of which he worked for twenty-two years ; that of Orcagna the magnificent Baldacchino of the high altar of Or San Vichele at Florence, which is , perhaps, the finest piece of decorative sculpture in the world . Venice, Naples, and Rome are rich in monumental sculpture by the various artists mentioned above . The Tombs of the Scaligers at Verona are remarkable works, in which we see the first introduction of secular subjects in ecclesiastical art. Nothing positive is known of the artists employed on them . In Venice a very remarkable civic building was erected , which is called Venetian Gothic, though it is chiefly Byzantine in character, the Doge's Palace. The façade rests on a long arcade of pillars, with carved capitals which are justly famous. As an illustration of their peculiar treatment we give an engraving ( No. 171 ) . At the close of the fourteenth century many of the greatest artists of the Renaissance were rising into notice ; and the new interest in art, awakened by the works of their predecessors, was spreading from end to end of Europe. Enamels.--We must say one word , before we close our review of mediæval sculpture, on the enamels of which every museum and private collection of Europe contains specimens. Enamelling, or the art of producing vitrified or smelted glass ornaments of various colours on a metal ground, occupied a kind of intermediate position between sculpture and painting. It was largely employed throughout the whole of the middle ages for the manufacture of shrines, reliquaries, diptychs, and other church utensils. The South Kensington Museum contains many specimens of different dates, of which a large Byzantine Shrine or Reliquary of the twelfth century, in the form of a Byzantine church with a dome, is the most valuable. England. - The English sculptures of the Gothic period will be noticed in the chapter on sculpture in Great Britain . Sculpture in the Renaissance Period . In Italy in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries. The fifteenth century--the transition time from Gothic to Renais sance architecture, when an attempt was made to combine existing styles with those of ancient Greece and Rone — also witnessed corre sponding advances in Italy in the art of sculpture. The movement begun by Andrea Orcagna, in the fourteenth century, was carried on by Ghiberti, Della Robbia, and Donatello, who were the forerunners of Michelangelo and his school. The fifteenth century was the golden age of sculpture, as the sixteenth was of painting. The chief char acteristics wbich distinguish the statues of this age from those which preceded it were a truer knowledge of the human frame-alike of its anatomy, its motions, and its expressions, -a more thorough grasp of the laws of composition and perspective, and a greater power of accurately imitating antique models. In the early part of the fifteenth century, a preference was mani fested for nature, in the latter part for antique models. In this new movement Tuscany took the lead ; and the first artist to combine something of the easy grace of the best age of Roman sculpture with close imitation of nature, was Jacopo della Quercia of Siena. . His earliest works are marked by a struggle to combine the mediæval style with a more life- like representation of nature. The tomb of Ilaria del Carretto, * in the cathedral of Lucca, is an example of this struggle ; his fountain, known as the Fonta Gaia, in the great square of Siena, which is considered his finest work, is a typical result of his earnest study of nature. Jacopo was, however, surpassed by his great contemporary, Lorenzo Ghiberti, who was successful in the competition, in which the great artists of the day, including Brunellesco, Simone da Colle, and Jacopo della Quercia, took part, for the designs of the bronze gates for the northern side of the Baptistery at Florence. These gates, which

  • A cast may be seen in the Crystal Palace.

. RENAISSANCE PERIOD. 253 were erected in 1424 , and were richly gilt and burnished, were sub sequently followed by the great western or central gates, which are considered Ghiberti's finest work . * The ten reliefs represent scenes in Old Testament history ; and, although the subjects are too complicated for sculpture, the fertility of imagination displayed, the sense of beauty, the easy execution, and the life of the whole, entitle them to the high praise bestowed on them by Vasari, the great art- critic of the sixteenth century, and justify the enthusiastic exclamation of Michel angelo, that they were worthy to be called the Gates of Paradise. Dar illustration ( Eng. 170) gives six of the compartments of this remark able composition, in which is epitomised the story of Isaac, Jacob, and Esau. Of Ghiberti’s isolated works, we must name the bronze statues of St. John the Baptist, St. Matthew , and St. Stephen , in the church of Or San Michele at Florence. St. Matthew is considered the finest ; the firce and pose of the figure admirably express the character of the great Christian preacher. Brunellesco, the great Florentine Renaissance architect, also pro duced several fine works of sculpture. Of these the best is the bronze relief of the Sacrifice of Isaac, in the Bargello Museum , at Florence, which was done in competition for the doors of the Baptistery, in which as we have seen he was beaten by Ghiberti. Donatello was famous for his success in low- relief ; he strongly cultivated naturalism, in contrast alike to the antique and to the traditions of the preceding age, and tended to counteract the too great fondness for pictorial treatment evident in the works of Ghiberti. Amongst his best works are his Head of St. John the Baptist, a wonderful representation of the great forerunner of Christ, emaciated by fasting, but inspired with holy zeal ; the statue of St. George from the church of Or San Michele, Florence, a fine embodiment of the ideal Christian warrior, ready calmly to face suffering and death ( Eng. 172 ) . Better known than any of these, however, is his statue of Gattamelata at Padua, and the so -called Zuccone ( bald -head ), a portrait of Fra Barduccio Cherichini, in one of the niches of the Campanile, Florence. Two beautiful original carvings in marble, in very low relief, by Donatello, A cast of these gates is in the South Kensington Museum . 234 SCULPTURE. of Christ in the Sepulchre, supported by Angels, and the Delivering of the keys to St. Peter, as well as casts of the St. George, are in the South Kensington Museum. Luca della Robbia, another great Florentine sculptor, who is supposed to have invented the process of enamelling terra cotta, flourished at this period. His glaze was composed of litharge, antimony, and other minerals. He is principally known for his works in terra cotta, in high or low relief many specimens of which are to be studied in the South Kensington Museum, —and for the groups of Singers ( Eng. 173) in marble, executed for the cathedral of Florence, and now in the National Museum of that city. ( Part of the frieze of the interior of the Renaissance Court at the Crystal Palace is a cast of this famous work. ) Both Della Robbia and Ghiberti adhered to some extent to the mediaval style ; but they combined it with a simplicity of feeling, a dignity of execution, and a truth of conception peculiarly their own. The illustration 172.—Saint George. By Donatello . ( Eng. 174) is from an altar. In Or S. Michele, Florence. piece by Luca deila Robbia , representing the Virgin worshipping her Divine Son . Several members RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 255 of Lcca's family followed his profession. His chief pupil was his so DO JAVU 173. — The Singers. Bas-relief in marble . By Luca della Robbia. Novo in the National Museum , Florence. nephew Andrea, whose five sons also devoted themselves to the art, ApartakNAVAZIK . kismalacaksaktlar ༡.དངོས་ སུ དཀུ། 10690 YAY CAPE THAT THEPLANETA பாபாபாபாபாவ THIN SOLO GLORIA INEXCELS DEO VERBVMCARO FATTVEST DEVIRGINEM 174.— The Nativity . Bas-relief. By Luca della Robbia. In Florence. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 257 a a so that it is difficult to assign the works of the Della Robbia family to their real authors. Two of Andrea's sons migrated to France and worked in glazed terra - cotta for François I. Benedetto da Majano commenced life as a worker in tarsia, but aban doned it for sculpture, in which he was very successful. One of his best works is the altar of San Bartolo in the church of Sant'Agostino in San Gemignano, which is both altar and tomb, rich in design and highly finished . He also executed the pulpit and the reliefs of the sacristy of Santa Croce, Florence. His elder brother Giovanni was likewise a sculptor. Of Donatello's numerous followers , Andrea del Verrocchio, whom we shall afterwards notice amongst the painters, was the chief. His most famous work , which bears evidence of a close study of the antique, is the horse of the bronze statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni ( Eng. 175 ) , in the piazza of the church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo at Venice. The figure of Coleoni was added by Leopardo after Verrocchio's death. At the close of the fifteenth century ornamental sculpture was carried to great perfection in Tuscany ; and many beautiful monuments were erected in the churches of Florence and other towns . Mino da Fiesole introduced the Florentine Renaissance style into Rome. His principal works are the monuments of Bernardo Giugni ( 1466 ) , in the church of the Badia, Florence, and the monument of Pope Paul II. ( 1471 ) , in the crypt of St. Peter's, Rome. Antonio Rossellino, the most famous of five brothers who were all sculptors, produced the splendid monument of the Cardinal Jacopo of Portugal, in San Miniato, Florence, which was so much admired by the Duke of Amalfi, that he commissioned Rossellino to execute a similar one in memory of his wife. A circular relief of the Madonna adoring the Holy Infant in the Florence Gallery of Sculpture, is considered to be one of his finest works. The only Italian school of the fifteenth century which approached at all in importance to that of Florence, was the Venetian. Bartolommeo Buono paved the way for the family of the Lombardi * and Alessandro Leopardo, to whom Venice owes her finest monuments. The principal works of all these artists are the monuments of the Doges of Venice, in Pietro Lombardo and his sons Tullio and Antonio . >

HHA s 258 SCULPTURE. the church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo. That of Doge Pietro Mocenigo, by the Lombardi, completed in 1488, is a splendid composition, surpassed , however, in grandeur of conception and delicacy of execution, by that 175. — Statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni. At Venice. Horse by Andrea del Verrocchio. Figure by Leopardo. of the Doge Andrea Vendramin in the same church, by Leopardo, in which sculptures in the round and reliefs are admirably combined. Matteo Civitali, of Lucca, learned his art it is thought in Florence. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 259 NVNDVS LANDVLFI His best works are still to be found in his native place. In the Cathedral are the tomb of Pietro da Noceto, the sculptures for the choir, now in the sacristy, and his masterpiece, an octagonal marble temple containing the “ Volto Santo," with a statue of St. Sebastian . The fame of Vittore Pisano, well-known as a painter, rests chiefly on his medals, which were the finest executed since the best days of the Romans. He made medallion portraits of most contemporary princes of Italy, Lionello d'Este, Malatesta ( Eng. 176 ) , Alfonso V. of Aragon, Francesco Sforza, and three of the Gonzagas. After Pisano, many artists devoted them selves to the art of design ing medals. The school of Milan at tained to a distinctive posi tion in Italy, in consequence of the activity promoted by the works of the Duomo, and the Certosa or Carthusian monastery, near Pavia. The most celebrated sculptors employed there were Fusina, Solari, Amadeo, Sacchi, and greatest of all, Agostino Busti, better Bambaja. 176.–Bronze Medal of Sigismondi Malatesta. The decoration of the By Vittore Pisano. marble facade of the Cer tosa * was commenced about 1473. The architectural sculptures of the principal portal have been ascribed to Busti. They are remarkable for the great technical skill displayed, and for the absence of the realism charac istic of most of the works of this period. The decorative sculpture of the interior of the monastery is even more worthy of study than that of the exterior. The pietd † of the high DESIGISMVA SPANTO known as

  • A reproduction of one of the large windows of the Certosa is in the South Kensington Museum .

† A Pietà is the name given to representations of the Virgin embracing her dead Son. S 2 260 SCULPTURE. age of the altar, ascribed to Solari, is especially beautiful : the agony of the Virgin is expressed in every line of her face and figure, contrasting admirably with the peaceful repose in death of her Divine Son, and the confident hope in the uplifted eyes of the angels. Rome can scarcely be said to have possessed a Renaissance school of sculpture, although the liberal patron popes and princes frequently attracted the great est masters to their capital. The only Neapo litan sculptor of eminence in the fifteenth century was Angelo Aniello Fiore, who executed several fine monu ments in the church of San Domenico Maggiore at Naples. In the sixteenth century we find Florence still taking the lead in all the arts, and it was to 177.—The Baptism of Christ. Relief from the Baptistery of Florence. By Andrea Sansovino. her own sons, that she owe this great pre-eminence. Unfortunately the colossal bronze equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza which Leonardo da Vinci undertook to execute for Milan was never cast, and even the clay model was destroyed by the Gascon archers, who used it as a target when Milan was occupied by the French in 1499 . Andrea Sansovino attained great eminence in the early part of the RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 261 sixteenth century. His marble group of the Baptism of Christ ( Eng. 177) for the eastern gate of the Baptistery of Florence is considered one of his finest works ( it was finished nearly a century later by Vincenzo Danti) , and his group of the Virgin and St. Anna in Sant' Agostino at Rome is not inferior to it. Michelangelo Buonarroti, during a long and active life, produced the finest masterpieces of modern sculpture and greatly influenced all the arts. His paintings, which will be spoken of in the next division of our work, are no less remarkable than the productions of his chisel. The chief characteristics of Michelangelo were his intimate knowledge of the anatomy of the human form, and the power and fire which he was able to throw into his works. The great sculptor was one of the first to be admitted into the Academy of Art founded at Florence by Lorenzo de' Medici. The mask of a Faun's head hewn in marble when Buonarroti was quite a child is still preserved in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. The work which first made his name known beyond his native town was a statue of Cupid : his fame soon spread to Rome, to which city he was invited by one of the cardinals. His Pietà, in St. Peter's, was produced soon after his arrival, and is by many critics considered his finest work. A kneeling figure of Cupil, now at South Kensington, and a group of the Madonna and the Holy Child, now in the church of Notre Dame at Bruges, were among his next works. In 1504 he undertook his celebrated statue of David, which formerly stood in the Piazza del Gran' Duca at Florence, but is now removed to one of the courts of the Accademia . Yet more famous is the colossal figure of Moses ( Eng. 178 ) in the old basilica of San Pietro in Vincolo, outside the gates of Rome. Westmacott characterised this figure as one of the grandest efforts of genius, as original in conception as it is masterly in execution. This colossal Moses is seated, holding in one hand the tables of the law, and with the other playing with his long beard. From his clustering curls spring the horns ascribed to him by tradition , typical of power and light ; his brow and eyes are full of power and majesty, his whole pose expresses the strength of will and severity of the stern law- giver of Israel . This marvellous figure was to have formed part of a huge monument to Julius II. , the design for which, by Michelangelo, is still preserved. It was to have consisted of MA 178.-Statue of Moses. By Michelangelo. In the Church of San Pietro in Vincolo, Rome. nt, with the figures prence. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 265 hand ; and the Elijah in the same place is said to be after his design by the Florentine Lorenzetto. Two imitators of Michelangelo, who endeavoured to copy his force without the feeling that inspired it , were Baccio Bandinelli, and Bartolommeo Ammanati, who both worked chiefly for Duke Cosimo 180.—The Entombment of Christ. By Jacopo Tatti. From the Sacristy of St. Mark. gave T. of Florence. Bandinelli's most important works, though by no means withont faults, are the Hercules and Cacus, the monument to Giovanni delle Bande Nere, and the reliefs round the choir of the cathedral at Florence. In all his work, the muscles are too promi nent, life is lacking, and there is an absence of true feeling. The attribi Marie inth:Sh. 266 SCULPTURE. marble copy of The Laocoon in the corridor of the Uffizi was also by him. Ammanati's best productions were the series of allegoric figures on the tomb of Marco Benavides, in the church of the Eremitani at Padua, and a monument to the Duke Francesco Maria in the church of Santa Chiara at Urbino. His Neptune on the fountain at Florence is 181.— The Diana of Fontainebleau. By Benvenuto Cellini. wanting in grace and dignity, and has all the faults of Baccio's Hercules and Cacus. Another imitator of Michelangelo was a pupil of Sansovino named Niccolò de Pericoli, known as Tribolo, because he was always whining and in tribulation. One of his first independent commissions was for Matteo Strozzi, who employed him to make a marble conduit for his villa at San Casciano, which he adorned with boys and dolphins. He afterwards sculptured two figures of Sibyls and some bas-reliefs for one of the doors of San Petronio, at Bologna. After the siege of Rome, RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 267 a Tribolo was appointed sculptor to the Pope, and finished the fine bas- reliefs of the Marriage of the Virgin , which Sansovino had begun in the shrine of the Santa Casa at Loreto. He was the designer of several Foun tains, one of which is at Fontaine bleau. Benvenuto Cellini, a native of Florence, was one of the most celebrated workers in metal the world has ever known. Among his patrons were the Pope Clement VII. , Cardinal de' Medici, the Grand Duke Cosimo of Florence, and Francis I. of France. He lived at various times at Florence, Siena, Rome, Milan, Naples, Padua, Ferrara , and Paris. He enriched the Louvre with many fine works, of which the most remarkable is the high -relief figure of Diana ( Eng. 181 ) , called the Nymph of Fontainebleau. * It represents a colossal nude female figure in a semi- recumbent attitude of care less grace, with one arm flung round the neck of a stag, and is a good specimen of the long drawn proportions of the human form , in which Cellini delighted. But his most celebrated work is 182. - Perseus with the head of Medusa. By Benvenuto Cellini . In the Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence.

  • Casts are in the South Kensington

Museum and the Crystal Palace . 268 SCULPTURE. his statue of Perseus with the head of Medusa , in the Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence (cast in 1549) ( Eng. 182 ). Cellini principally excelled , however, in minor works, such as chased vases, etc. A celebrated salt cellar now in the Schatzkamner at Vienna, in embossed gold enriched with enamels and adorned with high- relief figures of Neptune and Cybele, and a frieze of symbolic figures of the Hours and the Winds is really a masterpiece in its way : there is also a magnifi cent shield in Windsor Castle, said to be by the same artist. Cellini was man of great ability, but of such great vanity and such unreasonable temper that he made enemies of his best friends. * After Michelangelo's death , in 1564, not a single sculptor arose in Italy who attained to an individual style. His im mediate successors were little more than imitators of his manner ; and among his later followers, Giovanni da Bologna, known as John of Bologna (born at Douai in

  • A translation of Benvenuto's

celebrated autobiography is pub lished in Bohn's Library. a Mavez 1820 — Mercury. Bronze. By Giovanni da Bologna. In the National Museum , Florence. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 269 France in 1524) , and Stefano Maderno, are the only sculptors whose works entitle them to special notice. Giovanni's masterpiece is the bronze Mercury floating on the Wind, in the National Museum , Florence, a miracle of airy lightness. The messenger of the gods rests one foot on the breath of a bronze zephyr, and is about to launch himself into the air. A fine bronze group of the Rape of the Sabines, in the Palazzo Vecchio, Venice, is scarcely less celebrated : his fountain at Bologna is considered one of his happiest compositions. Maderno's chief work is the fine statue of St. Cecilia in the convent of that saint in Rome, which is remarkable for a simplicity and dignity wanting to his other productions. Both these artists , and still more their followers and imitators, lost sight of the true aims of sculpture and of the distinction which exists between the provinces of painting and statuary. It will be remembered that we had to notice this error in speaking of the decline of Greek art ; and the history of Italian sculpture, from the time of Michelangelo to that of Canova, is a history of a similar decadence of the Renaissance style. Sculpture of the Renaissance Period in France and the rest of Europe. The development of the French Renaissance style of sculpture may be well studied in the Louvre, which contains a series of monuments belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries . The fine marble statues of Peter d'Evreux of Navarre and his wife Catherine d'Alençon, from the Carthusian church in Paris, date from the close of the fifteenth century. It was not until the beginning of the sixteenth, however, that any great artist arose capable of giving an essentially French character to the Renaissance sculpture of the country. The chief French sculptors of the early part of the sixteenth century were Michel Colombe, Jean Juste, and Jean Texier. The Louvre contains an extremely fine bas-relief of the Struggle between St. George and the Dragon , attributed to Colombe, remarkable for delicacy of execution and boldness of conception, produced about the time that Jean Juste was at work on his celebrated tomb of Louis XII. and his wife, Anne of Bretagne, in the church of St. Denis, and Jean Texier was engaged on the forty-one groups and bas- reliefs of the cathedral of Chartres, by which he is principally known. We now come to a trio of great artists who have been justly called the restorers of French sculpture. These were Jean Goujon, Jean Cousin , and Germain Pilon . Jean Goujon was engaged from 1555 to 1562 in the decoration of the Louvre ; portions of his work still remain as specimens of his easy, graceful style . He adopted the tall slim proportions of the human frame, so much favoured by Cellini in sculpture and Primaticcio in painting. The Louvre contains a few choice works of Jean Goujon. The largest and most famous is the marble group of Diana, in which the goddess of hunting reclines on a pedestal adorned with bas- reliefs representing marine animals, with one arm round the neck of a stag. Another work in full relief is a bust-portrait of Henri II. : and of the the bas-reliefs we must name the Descent from the Cross, two recumbent RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE. 271 Nymphs of the Seine, with unnaturally long, supple figures, and a fine group of Tritons and Nereids. The Fontaine des Innocents, in the Vegetable Market, is considered Goujon's masterpiece. The doorways from St. Maclou, at Rouen, are good specimens of his bold treatment of projections and delicate execution in low relief. Goujon was killed in the massacre of St. Bartholomew in 1572. Jean Cousin was the sculptor of the handsome tomb of Pierre de Brézé, at Rouen , as well as the mausoleum of Philippe de Chabot, now in the Louvre ( Eng. 183), which has been praised as the masterpiece of French sculpture of the sixteenth century. Germain Pilon was an industrious and able sculptor, many of whose finest works were monuments of kings and dignitaries in the cathedral of St. Denis. Of these we must name the tomb of lenri 11. * They bear witness to great vigour and knowledge of anatomy, and the female figures are full of grace and elegance. The Louvre contains the double tomb, by Pilon , of René Dirague and his wife, justly cele brated for the beauty of the bas-reliefs ;' a group of three female figures supporting a gilt vase ; bust - portraits of several monarchs; and a stone bas-relief of the Sermon of St. Paul at Athens. In the Netherlands but few works of importance were produced in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The famous Chimneypiece of carved wood, in the Palais de Justice at Bruges, a cast of which is in the South Kensington Museum , designed by Lancelot Blondeel and Guyot de Beaugrant, dating from the year 1529, is an extremely fine specimen of the completed Renaissance style of decorative sculp ture ; but there are no isolated statues or bas- reliefs in marble to be enumerated. Spain . — Until Torrigiano and Starnina wert from Italy, the art of Spain was mainly confined to the fine decorative work of the Moorish artists. Alonzo Berruguete and Jaspar Becerra, who were both influenced by the art of Italy, were the only sculptors of eminence in the Renaissance period. To the former are assigned the marble group of the Transfiguration on the archbishop's throne, in the

  • Casts of the upper range of the sculptures are in the Crystal Palace.

Sculpture in the Renaissance Period . In Italy in the Fifteenth anil Sixteenth Centuries. The fifteenth century--the transition time from Gothic to Renais sance architecture, when an attempt was made to combine existing styles with those of ancient Greece and Rone - also witnessed corre sponding advances in Italy in the art of sculpture. The movement begun by Andrea Orcagna, in the fourteenth century, was carried on by Ghiberti, Della Robbia, and Donatello, who were the forerunners of Michelangelo and his school. The fifteenth century was the golden age of sculpture, as the sisteenth was of painting. The chief char acteristics wbich distinguish the statues of this age from those which preceded it were a truer knowledge of the human frame - alike of its anatomy, its motions, and its expressions, -- more thorough grasp of the laws of composition and perspective, and a greater power of accurately imitating antique models. In the early part of the fifteenth century, a preference was mani fested for nature, in the latter part for antique models. In this new movement Tuscany took the lead ; and the first artist to combine something of the easy grace of the best age of Roman sculpture with close imitation of nature, was Jacopo della Quercia of Siena. His earliest works are marked by a struggle to combine the mediæval style with a more life -like representation of nature. The tomb of Ilaria del Carretto, * in the cathedral of Lucca, is an example of this struggle ; his fountain, known as the Fonta Gaia, in the great square of Siena, which is considered his finest work, is a typical result of his earnest study of nature. Jacopo was, however, surpassed by his great contemporary, Lorenzo Ghiberti, who was successful in the competition, in which the great artists of the day, including Brunellesco, Simone da Colle, and Jacopo della Quercia, took part, for the designs of the bronze gates for the northern 'side of the Baptistery at Florence. These gates, which

  • A cast may be seen in the Crystal Palace.

. RENAISSANCE PERIOD. 233 were erected in 1424, and were richly gilt and burnished, were sub sequently followed by the great western or central gates, which are considered Ghiberti's finest work . * The ten reliefs represent scenes in Old Testament history ; and, although the subjects are too complicated for sculpture, the fertility of imagination displayed , the sense of beauty, the easy execution, and the life of the whole, entitle them to the high praise bestowed on them by Vasari, the great art- critic of the sixteenth century , and justify the enthusiastic exclamation of Michel angelo, that they were worthy to be called the Gates of Paradise. Dar illustration ( Eng. 170) gives six of the compartments of this remark able composition, in which is epitomised the story of Isaac, Jacob, and Esau. Of Ghiberti's isolated works, we must name the bronze statues of St. John the Baptist, St. Matthew , and St. Stephen , in the church of Or San Michele at Florence. St. Matthew is considered the finest ; the firce and pose of the figure admirably express the character of the great Christian preacher. Brunellesco, the great Florentine Renaissance architect, also pro duced several fine works of sculpture. Of these the best is the bronze relief of the Sacrifice of Isaac, in the Bargello Museum , at Florence, which was done in competition for the doors of the Baptistery, in which as we have seen he was beaten by Ghiberti. Donatello was famous for his success in low-relief ; he strongly cultivated naturalism , in contrast alike to the antique and to the traditions of the preceding age, and tended to counteract the too great fondness for pictorial treatment evident in the works of Ghiberti. Amongst bis best works are his Head of St. John the Baptist, a wonderful representation of the great forerunner of Christ, emaciated by fasting, but iuspired with holy zeal ; the statue of St. George from the church of Or San Michele, Florence, a fine embodiment of the ideal Christian warrior, ready calmly to face suffering and death ( Eng. 172) . Better known than any of these, however, is his statue of Gattamelata at Padua, and the so - called Zuccone ( bald -head ), a portrait of Fra Barduecio Cherichini, in one of the niches of the Campanile, Florence. Two beautiful original carvings in marble , in very low relief, by Donatello, A cast these gates is in the South Kensington Museum . 254 SCULPTURE. ELE of Christ in the Sepulchre, supported by Angels, and the Delivering of the Keys to St. Peter, as well as casts of the St. George, are in the South Kensington Museum . Luca della Robbia, another great Florentine sculptor, who is supposed to have invented the process of enamelling terra cotta, flourished at this period. His glaze was composed of litharge, antimony, and other minerals. He is principally known for his works in terra cotta, in high or low relief many specimens of which are to be studied in the South Kensington Museum ,-and for the groups of Singers ( Eng. 173) in marble, executed for the cathedral of Florence, and now in the National Museum of that city . ( Part of the frieze of the interior of the Renaissance Court at the Crystal Palace is a cast of this famous work. ) Both Della Robbia and Ghiberti adhered to some extent to the mediaval style ; but they combined it with a simplicity of feeling, a dignity of execution, and a truth of conception peculiarly their own. The illustration 172.—Saint George. By Donatello. ( Eng. 174) is from an altar In Or S. Michele, Florence. piece by Luca deila Robbia , representing the Virgin worshipping her Divine Son. Several members RENAISSANCE IN ITALY, 235 of Lcca's family followed his profession. His chief pupil was his TOTO AVAL 173. — The Singers. Bas- relief in marble. By Luca della Robbia. Now in the National Museum , Florence. nephew Andrea , whose five sons also devoted themselves to the art, Kaia RAWALPINDAXR Wahl desdelcalenta alkaen kmalu IN MIRA MA OUC ÜVUJU $ 0.9.2013 YVAN EUR TIIMIDOLULUTE GLORIA INEXCELS DEO VERBVMCARO-FATTVEST DEVIRGINEM 174.-The Nativity. Bas-relief. By Luca della Robbia. In Florence. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 257 so that it is difficult to assign the works of the Della Robbia family to their real authors. Two of Andrea's sons migrated to France and worked in glazed terra - cotta for François I. Benedetto da Majano commenced life as a worker in tarsia, but aban doned it for sculpture, in which he was very successful. One of his best works is the altar of San Bartolo in the church of Sant'Agostino in San Gemignano, which is both altar and tomb, rich in design and highly finished . He also executed the pulpit and the reliefs of the sacristy of Santa Croce, Florence. His elder brother Giovanni was likewise a sculptor. Of Donatello's numerous followers , Andrea del Verrocchio, whom we shall afterwards notice amongst the painters, was the chief. His most famous work , which bears evidence of a close study of the antique, is the horse of the bronze statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni ( Eng. 175 ) , in the piazza of the church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo at Venice. The figure of Coleoni was added by Leopardo after Verrocchio's death. At the close of the fifteenth century ornamental sculpture was carried to great perfection in Tuscany ; and many beautiful monuments were erected in the churches of Florence and other towns . Mino da Fiesole introduced the Florentine Renaissance style into Rome. His principal works are the monuments of Bernardo Giugni ( 1466 ) , in the church of the Badia, Florence, and the monument of Pope Paul II. ( 1471 ) , in the crypt of St. Peter's, Rome. Antonio Rossellino, the most famous of five brothers who were all sculptors, produced the splendid monument of the Cardinal Jacopo of Portugal, in San Miniato, Florence, which was so much admired by the Duke of Amalfi, that he commissioned Rossellino to execute a similar one in memory of his wife. A circular relief of the Madonna adoring the Holy Infant in the Florence Gallery of Sculpture, is considered to be one of his finest works. The only Italian school of the fifteenth century which approached at all in importance to that of Florence, was the Venetian. Bartolommeo Buono paved the way for the family of the Lombardi * and Alessandro Leopardo, to whom Venice owes her finest monuments . The principal works of all these artists are the monuments of the Doges of Venice, in

  • Pietro Lombardo and his sons Tullio and Antonio.

HHA S 258 SCULPTURE. the church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo. That of Doge Pietro Mocenigo, by the Lombardi, completed in 1488, is a splendid composition, surpassed , however, in grandeur of conception and delicacy of execution, by that 1175.—Statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni. At Vénice. Horse by Andrea del Verrocchio. Figure by Leopardo. of the Doge Andrea Vendramin in the same church , by Leopardo, in which sculptures in the round and reliefs are admirably combined. Matteo Civitali, of Lucca, learned his art it is thought in Florence. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 259 VNDVOTANOVLFI His best works are still to be found in his native place. In the Cathedral are the tomb of Pietro da Noceto, the sculptures for the choir, now in the sacristy, and his masterpiece, an octagonal marble temple containing the “ Volto Santo ," with a statue of St. Sebastian. The fame of Vittore Pisano, well known as a painter, rests chiefly on his medals, which were the finest executed since the best days of the Romans. He made medallion portraits of most contemporary princes of Italy, Lionello d'Este, Malatesta ( Eng. 176 ), Alfonso V. of Aragon, Francesco Sforza, and three of the Gonzagas. After Pisano, many artists devoted them selves to the art of design ing medals. The school of Milan at tained to a distinctive posi tion in Italy, in consequence of the activity promoted by the works of the Duomo, and the Certosa or Carthusian monastery, near Pavia. The most celebrated sculptors employed there were Fusina, Solari, Amadeo, Sacchi, and greatest of all , Agostino Busti, better known Bambaja. 176.–Bronze Medal of Sigismondi Malatesta. The decoration of the By Vittore Pisano. marble façade of the Cer tosa was commenced about 1473. The architectural sculptures of the principal portal have been ascribed to Busti. They are remarkable for the great technical skill displayed, and for the absence of the realism characteristic of most of the works of this period. The decorative sculpture of the interior of the monastery is even more worthy of study than that of the exterior. The pieta † of the high A reproduction of one of the large windows of the Certosa is in the South Kensington Museum . † A Pietà is the name given to representations of the Virgin embracing her dead Son. (18) gali File 35 as S 2 260 SCULPTURE. altar, ascribed to Solari, is especially beautiful : the agony of the Virgin is expressed in every line of her face and figure, contrasting admirably with the peaceful repose in death of her Divine Son, and the confident hope in the uplifted eyes of the angels. Rome can scarcely be said to have possessed a Renaissance school of sculpture, although the liberal patron age of the popes and princes frequently attracted the great est masters to their capital. The only Neapo litan sculptor of eminence in the fifteenth century was Angelo Aniello Fiore, who executed several fine monu ments in the church of San Domenico Maggiore at Naples. we In the sixteenth century find Florence still taking the lead in all the arts, and it was to 177. —The Baptism of Christ. Relief from the Baptistery of Florence. By Andrea Sansovino. her own sons, that she owe this great pre-eminence. Unfortunately the colossal bronze equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza which Leonardo da Vinci undertook to execute for Milan was never cast, and even the clay model was destroyed by the Gascon archers, who used it as a target when Milan was occupied by the French in 1499 . Andrea Sansovino attained great eminence in the early part of the RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 261 a sixteenth century. His marble group of the Baptism of Christ ( Eng. 177) for the eastern gate of the Baptistery of Florence is considered one of his finest works ( it was finished nearly a century later by Vincenzo Danti) , and his group of the Virgin and St. Anna in Sant' Agostino at Rome is not inferior to it. Michelangelo Buonarroti, during a long and active life, produced the finest masterpieces of modern sculpture and greatly influenced all the arts. His paintings, which will be spoken of in the next division of our work, are no less remarkable than the productions of his chisel. The chief characteristics of Michelangelo were his intimate knowledge of the anatomy of the human form, and the power and fire which he was able to throw into his works. The great sculptor was one of the first to be admitted into the Academy of Art founded at Florence by Lorenzo de' Medici. The mask of a Faun's head hewn in marble when Buonarroti was quite a child is still preserved in the Uffizi Ga Florence. The work which first made his name known beyond his native town was a statue of Cupid : his fame soon spread to Rome, to which city he was invited by one of the cardinals. His Pietà, in St. Peter's, was produced soon after his arrival, and is by many critics considered his finest work. A kneeling figure of Cupid, now at South Kensington, and a group of the Madonna and the Holy Child , now in the church of Notre Dame at Bruges, were among his next works. In 1504 he undertook his celebrated statue of David , which formerly stood in the Piazza del Gran' Duca at Florence, but is now removed to one of the courts of the Accademia . Yet more famous is the colossal figure of Moses ( Eng. 178 ) in the old basilica of San Pietro in Vincolo, outside the gates of Rome. Westmacott characterised this figure as one of the grandest efforts of genius, as original in conception as it is masterly in execution. This colossal Moses is seated, holding in one hand the tables of the law, and with the other playing with his long beard. From his clustering curls spring the horns ascribed to him by tradition, typical of power and light ; his brow and eyes are full of power and majesty, his whole pose expresses the strength of will and severity of the stern law- giver of Israel. This marvellous figure was to have formed part of a huge monument to Julius II. , the design for which, by Michelangelo, is still preserved. It was to have consisted of 1 178.—Statue of Moses. By Michelangelo. In the Church of San Pietro in Vincolo, Rome. at with the figures Drence. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 265 hand ; and the Elijah in the same place is said to be after his design by the Florentine Lorenzetto . Two imitators of Michelangelo, who endeavoured to copy his force without the feeling that inspired it, were Baccio Bandinelli, and Bartolommeo Ammanati, who both worked chiefly for Duke Cosimo 1 180.—The Entombment of Christ. By Jacopo Tatti. From the Sacristy of St. Mark. TO of Florence. Bandinelli's most important works, though by no means withont faults, are the Hercules and Cacus, the monument to Giovanni delle Bande Nere, and the reliefs round the choir of the cathedral at Florence. In all his work, the muscles are too promi nent, life is lacking, and there is an absence of true feeling. The attribe 1 266 SCULPTURE. marble copy of The Laocoon in the corridor of the Uffizi was also by him. Ammanati's best productions were the series of allegoric figures on the tomb of Marco Benavides, in the church of the Eremitani at Padua , and a monument to the Duke Francesco Maria in the church of Santa Chiara at Urbino. His Neptune on the intain at Florence is 181. — The Diana of Fontainebleau . By Benvenuto Cellini. wanting in grace and dignity, and has all the faults of Baccio's Hercules and Cacus. Another imitator of Michelangelo was a pupil of Sansovino named Niccolò de Pericoli, known as Tribolo, because he was always whining and in tribulation. One of his first independent commissions was for Matteo Strozzi, who employed him to make a marble conduit for his villa at San Casciano, which he adorned with boys and dolphins. He afterwards sculptured two figures of Sibyls and some bas-reliefs for one of the doors of San Petronio, at Bologna. After the siege of Rome, RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 267 Tribolo was appointed sculptor to the Pope, and finished the fine bas- reliefs of the Marriage of the Virgin , which Sansovino had begun in the shrine of the Santa Casa at Loreto. He was the designer of several Foun tains, one of which is at Fontaine bleau. Benvenuto Cellini, a native of Florence, was one of the most celebrated workers in metal the world has ever known. Among his patrons the Pope Clement VII. , Cardinal de' Medici, the Grand Duke Cosimo of Florence, and Francis I. of France. He lived at various times at Florence, Siena, Rome, Milan, Naples, Padua, Ferrara , and Paris. He enriched the Louvre with many fine works, of which the most remarkable is the high -relief figure of Diana ( Eng. 181 ) , called the Nymph of Fontainebleau. * It represents a colossal nude female figure in a semi-recumbent attitude of care less grace, with one arm flung round the neck of a stag, and is a good specimen of the long drawn proportions of the human form , in which Cellini delighted. But his most celebrated work is were 182. — Perseus with the head of Medusa . By Benvenuto Cellini. In the Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence.

  • Casts are in the South Kensington

Museum and the Crystal Palace. 268 SCULPTURE. a his statue of Perseus with the head of Medusa , in the Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence (cast in 1549) ( Eng. 182 ) . Cellini principally excelled, however, in minor works, such as chased vases, etc. A celebrated salt cellar now in the Schatzkamner at Vienna, in embossed gold enriched with enamels and adorned with high- relief figures of Neptune and Cybele, and a frieze of symbolic figures of the Hours and the Winds is really a masterpiece in its way : there is also a magnifi cent shield in Windsor Castle, said to be by the same artist. Cellini was a man of great ability, but of sưch great vanity and such unreasonable temper that he made enemies of his best friends. * After Michelangelo's death, in 1564, not a single sculptor arose in Italy who attained to an individual style. His im mediate successors were little more than imitators of his manner ; and among his later followers, Giovanni da Bologna, known as John of Bologna ( born at Douai in Morale

  • A translation of Benvenuto's

celebrated autobiography is pub lished in Bohn's Library. 182a.—Mercury. Bronze. By Giovanni da Bologna. In the National Museum , Florence. RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. 269 France in 1524) , and Stefano Maderno, are the only sculptors whose works entitle them to special notice. Giovanni's masterpiece is the bronze Mercury floating on the Wind, in the National Museum , Florence, a miracle of airy lightness. The messenger of the gods rests one foot on the breath of a bronze zephyr, and is about to launch himself into the air. A fine bronze group of the Rape of the Sabines, in the Palazzo Vecchio, Venice, is scarcely less celebrated : his fountain at Bologna is considered one of his happiest compositions. Maderno's chief work is the fine statue of St. Cecilia in the convent of that saint in Rome, which is remarkable for a simplicity and dignity wanting to his other productions. Both these artists, and still more their followers and imitators, lost sight of the true aims of sculpture and of the distinction which exists between the provinces of painting and statuary. It will be remembered that we had to notice this error in speaking of the decline of Greek art ; and the history of Italian sculpture, from the time of Michelangelo to that of Canova, is a history of a similar decadence of the Renaissance style. Sculpture of the Renaissance Period in France and the rest of Europe. The development of the French Renaissance style of sculpture may be well studied in the Louvre, which contains a series of monuments belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The fine marble statues of Peter d'Evreux of Navarre and his wife Catherine d'Alençon, from the Carthusian church in Paris, date from the close of the fifteenth century. It was not until the beginning of the sixteenth, however, that any great artist arose capable of giving an essentially French character to the Renaissance sculpture of the country. The chief French sculptors of the early part of the sixteenth century were Michel Colombe, Jean Juste, and Jean Texier. The Louvre contains an extremely fine bas- relief of the Struggle between St. George and the Dragon, attributed to Colombe, remarkable for delicacy of execution and boldness of conception, produced about the time that Jean Juste was at work on his celebrated tomb of Louis XII. and his wife, Anne of Bretagre, in the church of St. Denis, and Jean Texier was engaged on the forty -one groups and bas- reliefs of the cathedral of Chartres, by which he is principally known. We now come to a trio of great artists who have been justly called the restorers of French sculpture. These were Jean Goujon, Jean Cousin, and Germain Pilon. Jean Goujon was engaged from 1555 to 1562 in the decoration of the Louvre; portions of his work still remain as specimens of his easy, graceful style. He adopted the tall slim proportions of the human frame, so much favoured by Cellini in sculpture and Primaticcio in painting. The Louvre contains a few choice works of Jean Goujon. The largest and most famous is the marble group of Diana, in which the goddess of hunting reclines on a pedestal adorned with bas-reliefs representing marine animals, with one arm round the neck of a stag. Another work in full relief is a bust- portrait of Henri II. : and of the the bas- reliefs we must name the Descent from the Cross, two recumbent . RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE. 271 Nymphs of the Seine, with unnaturally long, supple figures, and a fine group of Tritons and Nereids. The Fontaine des Innocents, in the Vegetable Market, is considered Goujon's masterpiece. The doorways from St. Maclou, at Rouen, are good specimens of his bold treatment of projections and delicate execution in low relief. Goujon was killed in the massacre of St. Bartholomew in 1572. Jean Cousin was the sculptor of the handsome tomb of Pierre de Brézé, at Rouen, as well as the mausoleum of Philippe de Chabot, now in the Louvre ( Eng. 183 ), which has been praised as the masterpiece of French sculpture of the sixteenth century, Germain Pilon was an industrious and able sculptor, many of whose finest works were monuments of kings and dignitaries in the cathedral of St. Denis. Of these we must name the tomb of llenri 11. * They bear witness to great vigour and knowledge of anatomy, and the female figures are full of grace and elegance. The Louvre contains the double tomb, by Pilon , of René Dirague and his wife, justly cele brated for the beauty of the bas-reliefs ; a group of three female figures supporting a gilt vase ; bust - portraits of several monarchs ; and a stone bas-relief of the Sermon of St. Paul at Athens. In the Netherlands but few works of importance were produced in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The famous Chimneypiece of carved wood, in the Palais de Justice at Bruges, a cast of which is in the South Kensington Museum , designed by Lancelot Blondeel and Guyot de Beaugrant, dating from the year 1529, is an extremely fine specimen of the completed Renaissance style of decorative sculp ture ; but there are no isolated statues or bas- reliefs in marble to be enumerated. Spain. —Until Torrigiano and Starnina wert from Italy, the art of Spain was mainly confined to the fine decorative work of the Moorish artists. Alonzo Berruguete and Jaspar Becerra, who were both influenced by the art of Italy, were the only sculptors of eminence in the Renaissance period. To the former are assigned the marble group of the Transfiguration on the archbishop's throne, in the Casts of the upper range of the sculptures are in the Crystal Palace .

பபொடு ப DEAVOIDDHDal வார் EUTID HRITAMINIPAUTHAIAHI 183.-- Monument to Admiral Chabot . By Jean Cousin. In the Louvre. RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY. 273 cathedral of Toledo, and the Triumphs of Charles V. in the Alhambra ; and to the latter a very beautiful statue of Our Lady of Solitude, formerly in the chapel of a Franciscan convent at Madrid, now disappeared. In Germany the principal works produced in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were wood carvings in cathedrals and other ecclesi astical buildings. The stern realism which distinguished Italian work of the fifteenth century is equally noticeable in the productions of German artists. The Swabian school was the first to adopt the new style, and in the work of its masters accurate imitation of nature was combined with a genuine feeling for beauty. Jörg Syrlin of Ulm was the greatest wood -carver of Swabia . He disdained the aid of painting, and raised his art to an independent position. Ulm Cathedral contains many fine specimens of his skill ; of these the Choir - stalls, superior to everything of the kind previously produced, deserve special mention. The carved figures representing heroes of the heathen world, of Judæa, and of Christendom, are graceful, dignified, and lifelike ; the lower ones are finished with the greatest care, and display thorough know ledge of anatomy. The stone fountain in the market - place at Ulm, which was enriched with colour, is the only work by this great master in any other material than wood. Jörg Syrlin the younger, trained in his father's school, appears to have been a worthy successor. It would require a volume merely to enumerate the fine carvings in the various churches and cathedrals of Germany belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. We must only pause to notice a few works of the kind by the great Albrecht Dürer, such as the carved Altar- shrine ( 1511 ) in the Landauer Monastery, which is in Renaissance style, and represents Christ as the Judge of the world, with Mary and St. John in earnest supplication at His feet. The Gotha collection of art- objects contains several statuettes in wood by Albrecht Dürer ; in the museum at Carlsruhe there is an exquisite little group in ivory, in high relief, of three nude female figures from the same great hand ; and in the print-room of the British Museum there is a remarkable carving, in hone- stone, of the Naming of St. John the Baptist. HHA T 274 SCULPTURE. The greatest German sculptor in stone of the Renaissance period was Adam Kraft of Nuremberg. His works, although somewhat overloaded, are remarkable for great power of expression. The Seven uno ») 491 ( Sta Dit als.11 FIT 184. — Relief. Over the door of “ The Public Scales,” Nuremberg. By Adam Kraft. Stations of the Cross, on the road to the cemetery of St. John at Nuremberg, are among his most famous compositions. The tradition of our Saviour having fallen seven times on His way to death will be remembered. RENAISSANCE IN GERMANY. 275 Although the artist has not adhered strictly to tradition, he has given us a powerful and most touching realisation of the great closing drama of our Saviour's life. His Golgotha is scarcely less beautiful. anom 18 SERIUSDINLATAN 185. — Bronze Shrine of St. Sebald, Nuremberg. By Peter Vischer.

There is no attempt to produce effect by artificial means ; the head of the Saviour droops with human exhaustion ; the thieves are natural and lifelike. The reliefs of the Schreyer monument * and the Passion Scene above the altar in St. Sebald's Church, Nuremberg, well merit Casts are in the South Kensington Museum .

T2 276 SCULPTURE. study ; and the streets and houses of Nuremberg are enriched with many beautiful reliefs by this great master, in some of which there is an amusing touch of humour. Our illustration ( Eng. 184) is one of the latter class, and is taken from above the doorway of the Public Scales of Nuremberg. At Nuremberg alone was the art of bronze casting practised to any extent in Germany in the Renaissance period ; and the only great master in this branch of statuary was Peter Vischer. His principal work is the Tomb of St. Sebald at Nuremberg ( Eng. 185 ) -enriched with a number of figures of saints, apostles, and angels, amongst which the artist has introduced his own portrait. Some of the scenes are representations of marvellous miracles, —a few bold touches suffice to tell the tale ; for example, we see St. Seba! d warming himself at a fire of icicles , and almost fancy we can feel the chilling breath of the white flames . The canopy of the monument combines the rich decoration of the Romanesque with the pointed arches of the Gothic style. The only marble work of importance of the German Renaissance period is the Monument of Frederick III., in the cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna . Sculpture in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries. * As we have seen, Italian sculpture rapidly declined from the time of Michelangelo. At the beginning of the seventeenth century a new school arose, founded by Lorenzo Bernini, who has been proudly called the second Michelangelo. The faults to which we alluded in speaking of the Italian artists of the decadence were shared by this master, whose works have been too much vaunted. In the works of Bernini, and in those of his followers, every thing is sacrificed to effect ; and, as in the graceful pro ductions of the successors of Pheidias, difficulties courted for the sake of dis playing skill in overcoming them. Bernini's famous group of Apollo and Daphne ( Eng. 186), in the Villa Borghese, executed when he was only eighteen years old , is a marvel of dexterous execution , —but that is all . In his Rape of Error. Proserpine, a much later work 186.- Apollo and Daphne. By Bernini. in the same gallery, we see all In the Villa Borghese. the faults of his style exagger Puuro ANO PROSERPINE

  • Casts of a great many statues of this period may be studied in the South

Kensington Museum and the Crystal Palace. were 278 SCULPTURE. sTenus,uya's mThus, corsalstaHINI.ce, an emait, firlastlyfromtume pepandeMaced bthewhichso,we ated : truth is sacrificed to theatrical passion ; whilst the greatest ignorance of anatomy and of the true limits of sculpture is manifested. His Pietà, in the basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano, at Rome, is one of the best examples of his style. Italian sculpture did not again attain to the position of a great art until the time of Antonio Canova , —the contemporary of the great Englishman Flaxman, whose works stand out in striking contrast to those of his predecessors. Canova was born of peasant parents at Possagno, near Venice, and early gained the first prize for sculpture, and in 1774 was sent to Rome with a pension of 300 ducats. In 1802 he visited Paris, and in 1815 he travelled through France on a mission from the Pope, and came to England, where he executed several fine works, and confirmed the opinion of Flaxman and others as to the great value of the Elgin marbles. On his return to Italy he became a convert to the advanced religious views of the day, and spent much time and money on the erection and decoration of a church in his native village ; and was made Marquis of Ischia by the Pope. He afterwards executed a colossal statue of Religion for St. Peter's at Rome, but the cardinals objected to its being placed there, and the sculptor in high wrath left the Papal States for Venice, where he died in 1822. Canova's works are remarkable for the purity and beauty of the figures, the simplicity of the composition , and the finished execution of every detail. To him and to Flaxman -- whose life and works will be noticed in a future chapter—is due the honour of raising the public taste, and teaching it what to admire. No other sculptors of the day so fully entered into the spirit of antique art, or realised the beauty of the simplicity and truth to nature of the best artists of the Renaissance. It is impossible to enumerate Canova's numerous works. Casts of many of them may be studied at the Crystal Palace : amongst others, of the Three Graces, in the possession of the Duke of Bedford ; the Endymion, in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire, at Chatsworth ; the statue of Paris, at Munich ; Venus leaving the Bath, in the Pitti Palace ; Hebe, one of Canova's most beautiful works, in the possession of the Albrizzi family of Venice, which he repeated four times. Psyche, another very favourite work, in the possession of Mr. Blundell ; Mars ndalus dulce, ODciest wcMariaAustria,atTich thdeniablyTheseus, centaur,ien at viA most dige of Sayed, a ajantrying Louva best weCanovaPork to b lilst the greatest riking contrast to @re near Venice, and 177+ was sent to ited Paris, and in om the Pope, and ks, and confirmed alue of the Elgin t to the advanced nd money on the village ; and was tards executed a but the cardinals a high wrath left SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. 279 ure is manifested. 0 , at Rome, is one and Venus, in Buckingham Palace ( Eng. 187 ) ; the Magdalene, one of Canova's most admired works, full of pathetic beauty ; the famous ion of a great art Perseus, conqueror of the Gorgon , in the Vatican ; the head of the rary of the great colossal statue of Pope Cle ment XIII. in St. Peter's, Rome, an extremely good portrait, finely executed ; and lastly , the Sleeping Lion from the tomb of the same pope, considered the grandest work ever produced by Canova . Of the groups , etc. , of which we have no casts, we must name the Dædalus and Icarus at Venice, one of Canova's earliest works ; the Tomb of Maria Christina of Austria , at Vienna, a very beautiful composition, in which the figures are ising the public admirably grouped : the Theseus, conqueror of the Centaur, in the Volks- gar ten at Vienna, in which the most thorough know ledge of anatomy is dis played, and strength in action admirably dered ; and the Zephyrus 137. — Mars and Venus. By Canova. carrying away Psyche, in the Louvre. In Buckinghun Purace. Several of his best works, including a colossal bust of Napoleon , are at Chatsworth . Canova was the first sculptor to use clay models of the size of t ? - work to be executed in marble. nd beauty of the shei execution of nd works will be Iptors of the day ved the beauty of the Renaissance . works. Casts of amongst others, of Bedford

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ren MB 280 SCULPTURE. In France, in the middle of the seventeenth century, we find a remarkable artist rising into notice. Pierre Puget, who was a pro ficient alike in architecture, painting, and sculpture, has been called the Rubens of sculpture, and the French Michelangelo. Unfortunately, however, his education was deficient, and his works, though full of power and promise, are wanting in refinement and finish. As instances of this we may name the groups of Milo of Crotona and the Lion , Perseus delirering Andromeda , and the Hercules in Repose, -all in the Louvre. In the first -named , the agony of the victim in the claws of the lion is almost too vividly expressed ; and although the action of the muscles is admirably rendered, the effect of the whole is too painfully real. Other celebrated French sculptors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were Antoine Coysevox, author of the Mausoleum of Cardinal Mazarin in the Louvre : -François Girardon , of the colossal groups of Pluto carrying away Proserpine and Apollo coming down to Thetis, in the gardens of Versailles : -Nicolas Coustou, of the group of the Junction of the Seine and Marne, in the Garden of the Tuileries : Guillaume Coustou, of the famous Chevaux de Marli in the Champs Elysées, Paris :-Edmé Bouchardon , of the charming group of Psyche and Cupid in the Louvre, and fine statues Christ, Mary, and the Apostles, in the church of St. Sulpice, Paris : -Jean- Antoine Houdon, of the Flayed Man , in the Louvre (well known in Schools of Art) , the statue of St. Bruno in the Certosa at Rome, and the portrait statues of Rousseau in the Louvre, of Molière in the Théâtre Français, Paris ; and of Washington at Philadelphia , in which the ideal and real are well combined. In Germany, in the seventeenth century , a marked decline took place in sculpture. The Thirty Years' War, which lasted from 1618 to 1648, checked all artistic effort ; and it was not until the close of the century that any great German master arose, although several fine monuments -such as those of the Emperor Maximilian at Innspruck , and the Elector Moritz at Freiburg — were erected by Dutch artists. Andreas Schlüter was the first to give to Berlin the artistic position it still occupies. His principal work is the bronze equestrian statue ury, we find a ho was a pro as been called Jnfortunately, hough full of As instances and the Lion, ? , —all in the in the claws

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whole is too d eighteenth 2 of Cardinal ossal groups on to Thetis, group of the Tuileries : the Champs ip of Psyche ry, and the ne Houdon, f Art), the iit statues ais, Paris ; 1 real are ne took 1 1618 lose of al fine pruck , sts. position in statue SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. 281 of the Great Elector of Saxony at Berlin ( Eng. 188 ) , justly considered a masterpiece of art. At the beginning of the eighteenth century came Georg Raphael Donner, a master famous for his true sense of the beautiful, and power of conception. His principal works are the figures of Provilence, 188.- Equestrian Statue of the Elector. By Schlüter. At Burlin . and of the Four Chief Rivers of Austria, on the fountain in the market- place of Vienna. In Spain , in the seventeenth century, the celebrated painter Alonzo Cano gained considerable celebrity by his beautiful altar for the church of Lebrija, Granada, which he designed and carved himself. It is considered one of the finest existing works of the kind : the Virgin holding the Infant Jesus, in the centre of the reredos, is especially well executed. Sculpture in the Nineteenth Century. The influence of Canova was felt throughout the length and breadth of Europe. He and Flaxman revived the art of sculpture at the time of its deepest humiliation ; and their lessons, combined with the liberal encouragement they were ever ready to give to true genius, had most important results. Foremost amongst the immediate followers of Canova we must name the celebrated Dane, Bertel Thorwaldsen, who produced many beautiful statues and bas-reliefs . His talent received early recognition from Canova, who was at the zenith of his reputation when Thorwaldsen came to Rome 189. –Part of the Triumphal Entrance of Alexander into Babylon. By Thorwaldsen. an unknown man. Thorwaldsen's first work of importance was a statue of Jason, which excited universal admiration . He appears to have had a special predilection for mythological subjects, as is proved by his groups of Cupid and Pysche, Achilles and Briseis, Ganymede carried away by the Eagle, etc. ; but that he was also able to do justice to the ideals of Christianity is seen in his great works in the cathedral of Copenhagen , --- Christ and the Twelve Apostles, St. John preaching in the Wilderness, The Procession to Golgotha, etc. The series of bas-reliefs representing the Triumphal Entrance of Alexander into Babylon ( Eng. 189 ) , in the villa of Count Somariva on the lake of Como ( repeated for the Christianburg Palace at Copenhagen ), is con si lered one of his finest works : in it he combined the severe simplicity

  • Casts of many statues of this period may be studied in the South Kensington Museum and the Crystal Palace.

IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN GERMANY. 285 of Germany, and the Tomb of Queen Louise, in the royal Mausoleum at Charlottenburg ( Eng. 191 ), are instances of his faithful portraiture. Numerous other monuments attest his skill in more complicated works ; the greatest of these is without doubt that of Frederick the Great in Berlin , a small model of wbich is in the South Kensington Museum . Friedrich Drake is another famous master of the Berlin school. His principal works aré a Madonna and Child, belonging to the Empress of Russia ; the eight colossal allegorical figures of the Pro vinces of Prussia , in the Royal Palace of Berlin ; the marble group on the Palace bridge at Berlin, of a Warrior crowned by Victory, considered one of the masterpieces of Prussian sculpture ; the monument to Frederick William III., in the Thiergarten at Berlin , the reliefs of which are powerfully conceived ; and above all , the statues of Schinkel, the Humboldts, Rauch , Möser, and other celebrities, all alike full of nervous life and energy. Ernst Rietschel, of Dresden, was a sculptor of great power, who closely followed the example of Rauch. He studied sculpture under him at Munich, and was remarkable for his vivid imagination and refined feeling for beauty. His best works are his double monument to Schiller and Goethe at Weimar ; his statue of Lessing at Brunswick , in which the influence of his great master may be distinctly traced ; his Pietà in the Friedenskirche at Sans Souci, in which ideal beauty and pathetic feeling are combined ; his sculptures for the pediments of the Opera -house at Berlin , and the Theatre and Museum of Munich. Ludwig Schwanthaler was a sculptor of great original power, who treated the worn- out subjects of Greek mythology and of Christian legend in a fresh and truly poetical spirit . He imbued everything he undertook with something of his own energy, but he was unfortunately careless about finished execution , and his works have all a certain appearance of incompleteness. His principal productions are the sculptures of the pediments of the Walhalla , Munich ; a colossal ideal figure of Bavaria ; and the statues of Tilly and Wrede in the Generals' Hall, Munich. August Kiss made a world-wide reputation by his Amazon on Horseback attacked by a Lion, exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851 , in Hyde Park, and now in front of the Museum of Berlin. 286 SCULPTURE, Ernst von Bandel is famous for his gigantic hammered copper figure, 45ft. high, of Arminius, which stands on a pedestal of sandstone 90ft. in height, on the top of the Grotenberg, near Detmold, where it was erected in 1875, 192.-Cupid . By Chaudet. In France towards the close of the 18th century a new impulse was given to sculpture by Antoine Chaudet, who followed the classical style, and produced several fine works, such as his charming statue of Cupid ( Eng. 192) , a group of the Shepherd Phorbas carrying away the IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN FRANCE. 287 .

young Edipus. His principal followers . were François Bosio, who executed the reliefs for the famous Vendôme Column, and designed the Quadriga of the Triumphal Arch of the Place Carrousel : -Jean Pierre Cortot, author of the group of Marie Antoinette supported by Religion, in the “ Chapelle Expiatoire," Paris, of the group in the pediment of the Palais de Justice, and the reliefs on the Arc de l'Etoile, representing Napoleon crowned by Victory. Jacques Pradier, of Geneva, was especially successful in the treat ment of the female figure, particularly in his Phryne ( exhibited in the Great Exhibition of 1851 ) , and his Psyche, Atalanta, anil Niobe group in the Louvre. His power of representing force as well as beauty is well illustrated by his Prometheus chained. Among the few who have been able, whilst retaining the correctness of the classical style, to combine it with boldness and freedom , François Rude, of Dijon, is one of the foremost. His bronze Mercury, in the Louvre, is full of energy and spirit, as are also his Young Fisher man playing with a Tortoise, in the same gallery, and the group in high -relief of the Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile, known as the Marseil laise, or the Departure ( Eng. 193 ). Another great master of the same school is Francisque Duret, author of the Young Neapolitan Dancer, and the Neapolitan Improvisatore, both in the Louvre. As an upholder of the realistic style when most of his contemporaries had abandoned it , we must name Pierre Jean David, of Angers, author of the fine groups on the pediment of the Pantheon of Paris, which offer a remarkable contrast to the French sculpture of his day. General Buonaparte and the stern heroes of the Republic are represented in a natural and life -like manner on either side of a solemn ideal figure of their native land. David was especially successful with portrait-statues ; the most famous are perhaps those of Philopoemen in the Tuileries, of Conile at Versailles, of Corneille at Rouen , and of La Fayette at Washington. Our limits forbid us to do more than name Jouffroy, Charles Simart, Foyatier (author of the celebrated Spartacus of the Tuileries), Ottin, and Cavelier, who have all produced fine ideal works of sculpture in the last few years. Antoine Barye, who revived the art of bronze casting from a single 288 SCULPTURE. 13 un 193.—The Marseillaise. Group by François Rude. On the Arc de l'Etoile, Paris. mould in the early part of this century, was especially skilful in IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY. 289 . rendering animals. The gardens and museums of Paris contain many fine groups by him. Of his best are the Theseus and a Jaguar devouring a hare. In the year 1873 two great sculptors passed away : Amédée Durand, author of the figure of Religion on the tomb of the Duke d'Enghien , at Vincennes , etc. , and Johann Peter Molin, a native of Sweden, well known for his powerful group of The Grapplers, exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862. Jean Baptiste Carpeaux is well known for his group of Dancing, and the statues on the facade of the New Opera House in Paris, and other realistic works. At the recent Paris Exhibitions MM. E. G. Perraud, Crauk, Etex, Falguière, Gumery, Aimé, Millet, Thomas, Paul Dubois, Allar, Chapu, Barrias, Cain, and J. L. Gérome, the painter, exhibited fine works, the chief characteristics of which were freedom from all the old traditions and daring originality, often verging on extravagance. MM. Clésinger and Gruyère have been amongst the few French contributors to the London Exhibitions. The Italian school founded by Canova and Thorwaldsen produced many sculptors of different nationalities, besides those of Italy and Germany already noticed, of whom our own countryman Gibson, the Germans Wagner and Steinhauser, and the Dutchman Kessel, are amongst the chief. We must also mention Maria, Duchess of Wurt emberg, née Princess of Orleans, who executed the statue of Joan of Arc at Versailles, and the group of a “ Peri bringing the Tears of a True Penitent to the Throne of Grace," which now adorns her grave : Karl Voss and Jerichau , a fellow - countryman of Thorwaldsen, who contributed to the Exhibition of 1871 . After the death of Thorwaldsen, the classic revival instituted by him and Canova degenerated into mere lifeless compliance with academic rules, until Lorenzo Bartolini and Giovanni Dupré led the way to the formation of a modern Florentine Naturalistic School. Bartolini's style may be seen in his Three Genië, in the Esterhazy Museum at Vienna, and Dupré's in his Cain and Abel in the Pitti Palace. They were ably followed by Fanelli, Costoli, and others, but of later years a HHA U 290 SCULPTURE. naturalism has become realistically unworthy of the high aims of sculpture. Many undoubtedly clever works have been produced, but they err on the side of too great realism ; such are the Reading Girls; by Pietro Magni, Jenner inoculating his Son, by Monteverde, and 194.-Jenper inoculating his son. By Monteverdé. above all, Forcadi's Dirty Boy, of which more copies have probably been circulated than of any modern statue. Vincenzo Consani is one of a few worthy exceptions to this rule of realism . His Victory in the Pitti Palace, his Tomb of the Countess IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN ITALY. 291 Matilda of Tuscany in Lucca Cathedral, and other works all display classic training and high aims. a Of the future of Continental sculpture it is difficult to predict anything with certainty. Modern sculptors have to contend with difficulties unknown to the ancients. Greek sculpture appealed at every turn to religious associations ; it spoke in a language intelligible to all ; whereas in our own day the subjects traditionally considered the most suitable for representation in sculpture are incomprehensible to any but the educated few, and even those few can only enter into the spirit of symbolic or mythologic art with something of an effort . A wide field lies open for a true artist who will throw aside convention and treat the subjects of the present day nobly and honestly ; but modern costume presents great obstacles to success in such an effort, as but too many monuments of late years testify . Still the podium round the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park may be pointed to as a triumphant answer to those who plead that such obstacles are insuperable. U 2 British Sculpture. Amongst the earliest sculptures of Great Britain must be mentioned the strangely carved stones which abound in many parts of England, in the Isle of Man, Wales, Cornwall, Ireland, and Scotland. They date from the first centuries of Christianity, and on some of them pagan and Christian symbols are combined. The most interesting specimens are in Strathmore ; on some of those of a comparatively late date, centaurs, lions, leopards, deer, and other animals, with processions of men and oxen, etc. , are carved in a spirited style, and afford valuable information on the manners and costumes of the period of their erection. But few specimens of Anglo- Saxon sculpture have been preserved . The Shrine of St. Amphibalus, lately found at St. Alban's Abbey, is among most remarkable. It is finely conceived, and well carved. No sepulchral statue has been found in England older than the time of William the Conqueror ; two nearly destroyed effigies, in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey-one of Vitalis ( died 1087 ) , the other of Crispinus (died 1117) —and those of St. Oswald (of uncertain date) and Bishop Wolstan ( about the end of the eleventh century) , in Worces ter Cathedral, are among the earliest existing relics of monumental art. In Gloucester Cathedral is a monument to Robert Curthose, eldest son of the Conqueror. His effigy in coloured Irish oak is one of the oldest examples in wood in the country ( Eng. 195). English sculpture, properly so called, may be divided into three distinct periods : the ancient, dating from the early part of the thirteenth century to the Reformation ; the mediæval, from the time of Queen Elizabeth to that of Queen Anne ; and the modern, dating from the middle of the eighteenth century. It was at the end of the Crusades, when acquaintance had been made with the masterpieces of Continental art, that English architects were first fired with the ambition of adorning their buildings with sculptured foliage and figures. In the thirteenth century, when Gothic architecture was at the zenith of its beauty in England, many of our finest cathedrals were built or improved, and our best medieval architectural and monumental sculpture was produced. From this period dates Wells Cathedral, the noble sculptures of the west front of BRITISH. 293 which have already been described. In judging of the execution we must consider that they were produced at a time when no school of sculpture existed, and before the laws of optics, perspective, or anatomy had been discovered ,--so that the artist had nothing to trust to but his own powers of observation. Wells Cathedral was finished at the time when Niccolò Pisano was reviving the art of sculpture in Italy, and before the completion of the cathedrals of Chartres, Amiens, and Beauvais ; and has, therefore, the merit of being the very earliest specimen of religious sculpture with a consecutive design. Edward I. erected monumental stone crosses, adorned with statues of his late wife Eleanor, wherever her body rested on its way from Grantham to Westminster Abbey. There were thirteen of these crosses, of which those at Geddington, Northampton, and Waltham CASA 195. - Effigy of Robert of Normandy. In Gloucester Cathedral. now only remain. A modern copy of one by Gilbert Scott is at Charing Cross in the Strand. The earliest specimens of English bronze statues are the recumbent effigies of Henry III. and of Eleanor, wife of Edward I. , on their respective tombs in Westminster Abbey. The figure of. Eleanor, which is very beautiful, and full of simple dignity, was the work of William Torel (or Torelli), a goldsmith, who died about the year 1300. The sculptures of Lincoln Cathedral, of a somewhat later date than those of Wells, are thought to mark a considerable advance in the art of sculpture. They are, unfortunately, much injured. . When the Decorated style of architecture prevailed in England, statues were introduced in buildings wherever it was possible. In a window in Dorchester Church near Oxford , for instance, there are twenty - eight small figures of our Saviour's ancestors ; and the key 294 SCULPTURE.

stones of the Lady Chapel in Norwich Cathedral are all beautifully carved in high- relief with scenes from the Life of the Virgin . Some of the finest sepulchral monuments of England date from this period ; that of Aymer de Valence in Westminster Abbey, and that of the Black Prince in Canterbury Cathedral, * are amongst the best. No works of English medieval sculpture ex cel those remaining in the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey ( Eng. 196) . The small figures carved in the jambs of the entrance doorway, and the statues above the same door, are re markable, —the former for spirit and the latter for beauty and grace ; whilst each is perfectly well suited to its posi tion in the architecture. Three works have been selected by Flax man as illustrative of the state of the art of English sculpture in the

  • Casts are in the Crystal

196.--In the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey Palace . . BRITISH. 295 reign of Edward IV.: the sculptures of the door of All Souls' College, Oxford : those of the arch in Westminster Abbey which passes from the back of Henry V.'s tomb over the steps of Henry VII.'s Chapel ; and the monument to the Earl of Warwick ( 1464) , in St. Mary's Church, Warwick. William Austen is the name of the sculptor of the last named work , which Flaxman considers in no respect inferior to the productions of his Italian contemporaries. The greatest works of English sculpture produced during the reign of Henry VII. were the statues in the Lady Chapel of Westminster, the original number of which is said to have been 3000 : very few now remain, but those few suffice to give an idea of the great talent and fertility of invention of the artists employed. During the reign of Henry VIII. , when the iconoclastic spirit of the Reformation prevailed, many of the finest works of English sculpture were destroyed ; but before his death, the arrival of the Italian Pietro Torriggiano, the contemporary of Michelangelo , gave a new and a different impulse to the art ; and to him we owe the sculptures of the Tomb of Henry VII., which, though superior in execution and accuracy of proportion to those of the chapel itself, are certainly inferior to them in vigour and truth to life. The fine tomb erected to the memory of Queen Elizabeth in West minster Abbey ( Eng. 197 ) is said to have been the work of two foreigners, John de Critz and Maximilian Pontrain ; but recent researches prove that Nicholas Hilliard, the eminent painter of mini atures, executed part of it , besides doing all the enamel work and the gilding. The master-mason of the Tomb of Mary Queen of Scots, which her son James I. placed in the Abbey, was Cornelius Cure. It is almost a copy of Queen Elizabeth's. No English sculptor of eminence arose, after the storm of the Reformation, before the Restoration, although a few isolated works were produced which prove that the artist spirit of England was not dead but sleeping, and with a little encouragement would have revived. The Tomb of Francis de Vere, in Westminster Abbey, and the figures on the Monument of Sir George Hollis, also in the Abbey, by Nicholas Stone, a sculptor who would have become famous under more favour able circumstances, are proofs of the latent power which might have > 296 SCULPTURE. been trained to excellence. The bronze Equestrian Statue of Charles I., now at Charing Cross, is by a foreigner named Hubert le Seur, a pupil of Giovanni da Bologna. The effigy of Cecil Lord Burghley, on DATENEO BEATIPAdria CERT IMAI பாமா UFURU UND EL 2 . man 13 TTTTTT TOLERO 197.—Tomb of Queen Elizabeth . In Westminster Abbey. his tomb at Stamford, may be taken as a good specimen of the monu mental sculpture of the Elizabethan period . - stiff and quaint to a degree, but often, as in this instance, showing great mastery in portraiture. The art of die-sinking both at this period and earlier was carried to BRITISH. 297 great perfection. Many of the Great Seals and Coins that are preserved in the British Museum show us that this branch of the work of the sculptor (of which Vittore Pisano and Cellini were the great fore runners in Italy) was then in an excellent state in England . As an illustration , we give an engraving ( No. 198) of a medal struck when James Duke of York was made Lord High Admiral. It was modelled by Thomas Simon , who succeeded the Frenchman, Briot, as Director of the Mint. PORTPRÆCLA ORD GAR - MILESIGILILLVSTIACOBI DV JINO - Tal RIELL பாட NN VHLIHVIVAH3. TIINFIWINAS

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KOJ •NVO 198. - Medal struck in honour of James Duke of York. By Thomas Simon . > We now come to the men who laid the foundations of our present school of sculpture. The earliest was Grinling Gibbons, a sculptor of considerable merit of the reign of Charles II. , who especially excelled in wood - carving. Fine specimens of his work are preserved in Windsor Castle, at Burleigh, Chatsworth, Petworth, and other residences of the nobility, and in the Choir, and other parts of St. Paul's Cathedral. 298 SCULPTURE. Cajus Gabriel Cibber, a Dane, was the author of the bas-reliefs on the Monument near London Bridge, and two fine allegorical figures of Frenzy and Melancholy designed for the entrance- hall of the Bethlehem Hospital for Lunatics, which are truly terrible embodiments of a poetical conception of fearful madness. Few works of any importance were produced in England during the reigns of James II. , William and Mary, Anne, and George I. John Bushnell executed the statues at Temple Bar, now removed, and Francis Bird the monuments of Dr. Bushy and others in Westminster Abbey, and the figures in the pediment of St. Paul's ; but they are none of them worthy of special notice. In the reign of George II. , however, great activity was displayed by three foreigners, who had settled in London : Roubiliac, a Frenchman, and Scheemakers and Ruysbrack, natives of Holland. Roubiliac was by far the greatest artist of the three. He studied under Bernini, and appears in many respects to have excelled his master, His masterpiece is the statue of Sir Isaac Newton with the prism in his hand, in the library of Cambridge, which is remarkable for life and vigour, but more so for a nobility of pose and dignity of bearing rarely equalled by the best works of a better age. Another famous work of his is Eloquence, one of the figures in the monument of John, Duke of Argyll, in Westmirster Abbey. The Nightingale monument in the same place has been much criticised ; its idea is in keeping with the conceits of the time. The design is “ Death kept away by a human arm ” ; the execution of the skeleton and of the drapery in which it is wrapped are very fine. Roubiliac's title to one of the highest positions among the sculptors of Britain is gained, in spite of such works as this tour de force just alluded to. His modelling of heads and hands, his perfect mastery over his material, and his power of throwing life into all that he touched, are his great characteristics. In no works can these qualities be better traced than in his statue of Shakespeare, now in the vestibule of the British Museum. Ruysbrack's and Scheemakers' principal works in clude busts, statues, and monumental figures, but hardly call for detailed description . Somewhat later than this famous trio, an Englishman, Joseph BRITISH. 299 Wilton, acquired celebrity by his monument of General Wolfe in Westminster Abbey, and many similar works, in which he displayed much skill and talent, but ignorance of the true limits of his art. The monument to Wolfe, for instance, is crowded with figures and symbols mixed together in hopeless confusion. In 1790 he was made Keeper of the Royal Academy. Thomas Banks was the first Englishman who succeeded with ideal or poetic sculpture. He was far in advance of his age, and had he lived later, would perhaps have taken rank amongst the master spirits of Europe. His models exhibited on the foundation of the Royal Academy attracted the notice of Sir Joshua Reynolds. One of his first groups, a bas-relief of Caractacus and his Family in the presence of Claudius, is very grand. In this, and in bis Psyche seizing the Golden Flame, and Love catching a Butterfly, all alike remarkable for symmetry of form and correctness of outline, Banks displayed intimate knowledge of the antique, and appreciation of the true excellence of Greek statu ary ; but he met with no encouragement in England, and accepted an invitation to Russia, where he remained for two years. On his return home he produced his celebrated group of Achilles bewailing the loss of Briseis, considered one of the finest heroic statues of modern times, which established his fame and brought him full employment. Unfortunately, his commissions were confined to sepulchral monuments, in which he did not escape the prevailing error of his time -- striving to combine allegory and portraiture, and to introduce a greater variety of subject than is admissible in statuary. Joseph Nollekens, a contemporary of Banks, although inferior to him in every other respect, excelled bim in portrait -statues and busts, for which there was an extraordinary demand. John Bacon was an industrious and successful sculptor of the same time, who supplied the Court with the porcelain shepherds and shepherdesses so much admired in his day, and executed several fine portrait- statues, of which those of John Howard and Dr. Johnson , in St. Paul's Cathedral, and the monument to Chatham , in Westminster Abbey, are considered the best. The original model for Dr. Johnson is in the Crystal Palace. None of these men-except, perhaps, Banks -are, however, worthy to rank with Flaxman, the restorer of English 300 SCULPTURE. > classic sculpture, who excelled even Canova in boldness of his con ceptions and the beauty of his execution . John Flaxman, the son of a modeller and dealer in plaster figures, was born at York, in 1755. He commenced studying at the Royal Academy when only fifteen, but never received regular lessons from any master. In 1772 he married Miss Denham, a lady whose genuine love of art was of the greatest service to him. In 1787 Flaxman went to Italy, and soon after his return to England, in 1797 , he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy. In 1800 he became an Acade mician, in 1810 was appointed Professor of Sculpture to the Academy, and from that time till his death in 1826 his labours in every branch of his art were unceasing. Flaxman has justly been called the author of modern bas-relief : even Ghiberti's and Canova's reliefs were too much like raised paintings ; but the English master fully recognised the true limits of his art. The study of the relics of antiquity dis covered in Italy at the beginning of the present century brought the contrast between the severe simplicity of Greek reliefs and the affected mannerism of those of his predecessors vividly before him. He was also one of the first to appreciate at their true value the sculptures of Wells, Lincoln, and other cathedrals ; and his Lectures on Sculpture are still the best in the English lauguage. Of his sculptures, the bas-relief monument to Collins at Chichester, the monument to Lord Mansfield, and that of the Barings, in Micheldever Church, Hampshire, a group of the Archangel Michael vanquishing Satan, a figure of Psyche, one of Apollo, statues of Raphael, Michelangelo, Sir Joshua Reynolds, William Pitt, and his model of the Shield of Achilles, are among the most original and valuable. The last -named, taken from the description of the shield of Achilles in the 18th book of the Iliad ( by some sup posed to have been a real shield, by others an ideal founded on various pieces of antique work combined into one united whole by the genius of the poet) , is universally allowed to be a magnificent work of art, full of poetic feeling and imagination. Flaxman was scarcely less famous for his designs of various kinds than for his sculptures ; a fine collection of both are preserved in the Hall of the University College, London. He supplied Wedgwood, the restorer of English pottery to the rank of an art, with designs for many groups, medallions, and bas- reliefs . BRITISH. 303 Samuel Joseph was the author of the fine statue of Wilberforce in Westminster Abbey, and that of Wilkie in the National Gallery. He found his chief employment as a modeller of busts. Musgrave Watson, a sculptor of great promise, was the author of the seated statue of Flaxman in the London University ; of a fine group of Lords Eldon and Stowell, at the University College, Oxford ; and of a bas-relief to Dr. Cameron , which was destroyed in the fire at the Chapel Royal, Savoy, in 1864. Baron Marochetti was an Italian sculptor of merit who settled in England early in his career. His colossal figure of Richard Cour de Lion, in Old Palace Yard, Westminster, is one of his best works in England. His equestrian statue of Emmanuel Philibert, at Turin , the tomb of Bellini in the cemetery of Père Lachaise, the Grand Altar of the Madeleine, Paris, and statues of the Emperor Napoleon III. and the Duke of Orleans, are also very fine. John Thoma ' , who is chiefly known as superintendent of the masons and carvers employed on the ornamentation of the New Houses of Parliament, produced some few independent works, of which the marble group of the Queen of the Britons rousing her Subjects to revenge is the principal. Thomas will always be remembered as the head of that large school of carvers in stone and wood which he helped to form, and in the ranks of which many men of talent and some of genius have appeared. Hardly a church or a mansion has been built since the “ Gothic Revival,” without more or less architectural carving being introduced1 ; and in important works - such , for example, as the Palace of Westminster — the decorations have included statues , many of them of no small merit. He deserves special recognition both for the work that he did and the influence which he exercised over this branch of art. William Behnes, who died in 1864, was very successful with portrait statues : that of Sir Robert Peel in the City, and of George IV . in Dublin, are from his hand. Alfred G. Stevens was the sculptor of the Monument to the Duke of Wellington in St. Paul's Cathedral; one of the grandest efforts of genius of modern times. Some of his studies for this work are in the South Kensington Museum. 304 SCULPTURE. John Henry Foley, a native of Dublin, was one of the most success ful of modern sculptors of poetic feeling. His Ino and Bacchus and Youth at the Stream are among his best works. He also executed the equestrian statues of Lord Hardinge and Sir James Outram for India ; and the group of Asia for the Albert Memorial. Benjamin Spence was an artist of considerable imaginative power. His Highland Mary, Lady of the Lake, Lavinia, Pharaoh's Daughter, and Angel's Whisper, are among his best works. Munro, Macdonald, Lough, Noble, Theed and Philip, and E. B. Stephens, all attained to fame in recent years, but our limits will not allow us to do more than mention their names. Of living English sculptors, whose works we do not propose here to criticise,wemust name H. H. Armstead, R.A. ; Calder Marshall, R.A .; Thomas Woolner, R.A ; J. E. Boehm, R.A.; C. B. Birch , A.R.A. ; Hamo Thornycroft, A.R.A.; Onslow Ford, A.R.A.; Adams Acton, John Bell, and George Tinworth, who is well known for his reliefs of sacred subjects executed in terra-cotta. On the Albert Memorial we have specimens of the best works of several of our greatest living sculptors, and we may fairly point to the high general standard of excellence obtained there as establishing a good position for English sculpture at the present day. Of the future of sculpture in England it is not easy to speak. Its best chance appears to be in its combination with architecture, the growing recognition of its true limits, and the increasing refinement of the public taste. AMERICAN. 307 Of living American sculptors, many of whom reside in Italy, the chief are THOMAS Ball, who lives in Florence, celebrated for his monumental sculpture ; HENRY KIRKE BROWN, whose best work is an equestrian statue of General Scott ; PIERCE CONNELLY, who studied in Florence under Hiram Powers ; W. COUPER ( son-in-law of Thomas Ball) , well known for his charming statues of Psyche, and Coming of Spring ; Moses JACOB EZEKIEL, who lives in Rɔme, the author of the group of Religious Liberty in Fairmont Park, Philadelphia ; FLORENCE FREEMAN, a pupil of Hiram Powers in Florence, whose sculptured friezes for chimney -pieces have been much admired ; DANIEL C. FRENCH, who also resides in Florence, best known for his colossal group, Peace and Ilar ; THOMAS R. GOULD, who studied in Florence, celebrated for his West Mind ; I. S. HARTLEY, the sculptor of The Whirlwind and The Young Samaritan ; HARRIET HOSMER, a pupil of Gibson in Rome, whose statue of Beatrice Cenci has been much admired ; C. B. Ives, also a resident in Rome, who sculptured The Infant Bacchus ; John ADAMS Jackson, who lives in Florence, author of Eve and the dead Abel ; ADMONIA LEWIS of Rome, whose Marriage of Hiawatha is one of her best works ; J. W. A. MACDONALD, celebrated for his portrait busts and statues ; LARKIN MEADE, the sculptor of the fine statue of President Lincoln ; MARTIN MILMORE, the author of The Soldiers' Monument at Boston ; Erastus PALMER, a well-known sculptor of cameos ; John ROGERS, who delights in war subjects, such as The Picket Guard ; RANDOLF ROGERS, of Rome, the author of the fine Bronze Doors of the Capitol at Washington ; AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS, the sculptor of a statue of Hiawatha ; William W. Story, whose Cleopatra and Libyan Sibyl are world -famous; and J. Q. A. WARD, the author of The Freed Man, on the steps of the Capitol at Washington. X 2 MYTHIC GODS AND GODDESSES OF GREECE AND ROME, ROMAN GREEK . ROMAN Mars Mercury Minerva Mors ( Death ) Neptūnus . Pluto Pollux Proserpina Saturn Somnus Æsculapius Aurora Bacchus Ceres Cupīdo or Amor Cyběle Diana Parce (the Fates) Flora Furiæ ( Furies) Gratiæ (Graces) Hercules Juno Jupiter Latona Luna . Asklepios Eos Dionysos Demēter Eros Rhea Artěmis Moirai Chloris Eumenides Charites Herakles He- re Zeus Lēto Sele- ne GREEK Arēs Hermēs Athēna Thanatos Poseidon Hades Polydeukes Persephoné Chronos Hypnos Hēlios Aphrodite Hestia Nikē Hephaistos Odysseus . Sol . Venus Vesta Victoria Vulcan Ulysses . BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. CELEBRATED ARCHITECTS AND SCULPTORS. Am . American. Fi. Flemish. Gr. Greek. Br. British . Fr. French . It. Italian. Dan . Danish . Ger. German. Sp. Spanish. b. born ; d. died ; ab. about ; Gp. Group ; Sc. Sculpture ; St. Statue ; Eq. Equestrian. PAGE ADAM, JAMES, Br. ar. b. at Kirkaldy, 1730 ( ? ) , d. 1794. Designed Portland Place 162 ADAM, ROBERT, Br. ar. b. at Kirkaldy, 1728, d. 1792. Adelphi Terrace, London 162 AGELADOS OF ARGOS, Gr. sc. lived ab. 520 B.C. Chariot group, Olympia 197 AGESANDER, Gr. sc. lived at Rhodes ab. 80 B.C. Gp. , Laocoon 212 AGNOLO OF SIENA, It. sc. lived at Siena ab. 1340. Sc. on Façade, Orvieto Cathedral 245 AGORACRITUS, Gr. sc. lived at Paros ab. 440 B.C. St. , Nemesis, at Rhamnus 203 AGOSTINO OF SIENA , It. sc. lived between 1300 & 1344. Tomb of Bishop, Arezzo 246 AKERS, BENJAMIN ( Paul) , Am. sc. b. in Maine, 1825, d. 1861. Diana & Endymion 305 ALCAMENES, Gr. sc. lived at Athens ab. 444 B.C. St. , Venus of Melos ( ? ) 203 AMMANATI, BARTOLOMMEO, It. sc . b. in Florence, 1511 , d. 1592. Tomb at Urbino 265 ANTELAMI, BENEDETTO, It. sc. worked at Parma ab. 1190. Sc. on Baptistery 238 ANTHEMIOS OF THRALES, Gr. ar. lived ab. A.D. 532. St. Sophia , Constantinople 69 ANTIGONUS, Gr. sc. lived at Athens & Pergamus ab. 240 B.C. Warriors of Attalus 213 APOLLODORUS, Rom . ar. lived ab. A.D. 114. Trajan Column and Forum , Rome 58 APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES, Gr. sc. worked at Rhodes ab. 80 B.C. Gp. , Farnese Bull 213 ARISTODEMUS, Gr. sc. lived at Sicyon ab. 320 B.C. Pupil of Lysippus 211 ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO, Ii. sc. b. Colle de Val d'Elsa, 1232, d. 1310. Sc. , Duomo, Flor. 246 ATHENODORUS, Gr. sc. lived at Rhodes ab. 80 B.C. St. , Laocoon 212 AUSTEN, WILLIAM, Br. sc. worked between 1420 & 1470. Earl of Warwick, Warwick 295 Bacon, John, R.A., Br. sc. b. in Southwark, 1740, d. 1799. Mon. to Pitt, Guildhall 299 BAILEY, E. H. , R. A., Br. sc. b. at Bristol, 1788, d. 1867. Eve at the Fountain , Bristol 301 BANDEL, Ernst von, Ger. sc. b. at Ausbach, 1800, d. 1876. Arminius on Grotenberg 286 BANDINELLI, BACCIO, It. sc. b. in Florence, 1488 , d. 1559. Bas-reliefs, Duomo, Flor. 265 BANKS, TH ., R.A. , Br. sc. b. in Lambeth, 1735, d. 1805. Achilles & Briseis, London 299 BARISANUS, It. sc. worked at Monreale ab. 1180. Bronze Gate, Monreale 240 BARRY, En. M. , R. A. , Br. ar. b. in London, 1830, d . 1880. Charing-Cross Hotel 166 BARRY, SIR C. , R.A. , Br. ar. b. in Westminster, 1795, d . 1860. H. of Parliament 166 BARTHOLOMEW , EDWARD S. , Am . sc. b. in Connecticut, 1822 , d . 1858. Blind Homer 305 BARTOLINI, L. , It. sc. b. nr. Sariguano, 1777, d. 1850.- Cupid & Bacchante, Chatsworth 289 ... ... > > 310 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ... > ... 9 3 PAGE BARYE, ANTOINE, Fr. sc. b. in Paris, 1795, d. 1875. Bronze figures of Animals 287 BEAUGRANT, GUYOT DE, Fl. sc. lived at Bruges, 1529. Chimney- piece, Bruges 271 BECERRA, JASPAR, Sp. sc. b. at Baeza, 1520, d. 1570. Madonna, Madrid 271 BEHNES, WILLIAM, Br. sc. b. in London, 1795, d. 1870. Lord Mansfield's Children 30 :3 BERNINI, Giov. LOR ., It. ar. & sc. b. at Naples, 1599, d. 1680. Colonnade, St. Peter's 121 BERNINO, Giov. LOR. , It. sc . b. at Naples, 1599, d. 1680. Great Altar, St. Peter's 277 BERRUGUETE, A. , Sp. sc. b. at Paredes de Nava, 1480, d. 1561 . Transfig., Toledo 271 Bird, Francis, Br. sc. b. in London, 1667, d. 1731. Conversion of St. Paul, St. Paul's 29S BLONDEEL, LANCELOT, Fl. sc. b. at Bruges, 1495, d. 1560. Chimney -piece, Bruges 271 BOETHUS, Gr. sc. lived at Sicyon ab. 320 B.C. Pupil of Lysippus 211 BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA, It. sc. b. at Douai, 1524, d . 1608. St. of Mercury, Florence 268 BONNANO, It. sc. worked at Pisa ab. 1180. Leaning Tower of Pisa 240 BORROMINI, FRANCESCO, It. ar. & sc. b. at Bissone, 1599, d. 1667. Churches, Rome 121 Bosio, FRANÇOIS, Fr. sc. b. at Monaco, 1759, d. 1845. Vendôme Column, Paris 287 BOUCHARDON EDMÉ, Fr. sc. b. at Chaumont, 1698, d. 1762. Cupid & Psyche, Louvre 280 BRAMANTE, DONATO, It. ar. b. near Urbino, 1444, d. 1514. St. Peter's, Rome 117 BRITTON, J. , Br. ar. b . at Kingston , Wilts, 1771 , d . 1857. • Cathedral Antiq . ,' & c. 167 BRÜGGEMANN, Hans, Ger. sc. b. at Husum , Schleswig, ab. 1480. Altar, Schleswig C. 244 BRUNELLESCHO, It. ar. b. at Florence, 1377, d . 1446. S. Maria del Fiore, Florence 114 BRUNELLESCO, FILIPPO, It. sc. & ar. b. in Florence, 1377, d. 1446. Reliefs, Bargello 253 BRYAXIS, Gr. sc. lived at Rhodes ab. 380 B.C. Sc. on Tomb of Mausolus 208 BUONAROTTI, M. , It. ar. & sc . b. at Castel Caprese, 1475, d. 1564. St. Peter's, Rome 117 Buono, BARTOLOMMEO, It. sc. b. at Venice, 1410, d. 1470. Churches, Venice 257 BURTON, DECIMUS, Br. ar. b. in London, 1800, d. 1881. Athenceum Club, London 165 BUSHNELL, J. , Br. sc. b. ab. 1640 ( ? ) , d. in London, 1701. St. , Kings on Temple Bar 298 BUSTI, AGOSTINO ( BAMBAJA) , It. sc. b. near Pavia, 1480, d. 1550. Sc. , Certosa, Pavia 259 CALAMIS, Gr. sc. lived at Athens ab. 480 B.C. Race -horses for Chariots 197 CALLICRATES, Gr. ar. lived ab. 440 B.C. The Parthenon , Athens 43 CALLON, Gr. sc. lived in Ægina ab. 480 B.C. St. , Temple of Ægina 200 CANACHUS OF SICYON, Gr. sc. lived ab. 500 B.C. St. of Apollo, colossal 196 CANO, ALONZO, Sp. sc. b. at Granada, 1601 , d. 1667. Virgin and Child , Granada 281 CANOVA, ANTONIO, It. sc. b . at Possagno near Venice, 1757 , d. 1822. Hebe, Venice 278 CARPEAUX, J.-B. , Fr. sc. b. at Valenciennes, 1827, d. 1875. Dancing, N. Opera House 289 CELLINI, BENVENUTO, It. sc . b. in Florence, 1500, d. 1571. St. of Perseus, Florence 267 CEPHISODOTUS, Gr. sc . lived at Athens ab. 380 B.C. The Wrestlers, Florence 210 CHALGRIN , JEAN F. T. , Fr. ar. b . in Paris, 1739, d. 1811. Arc de Triomphe, Paris 127 CHAMBERS, SIR WM. , R.A., Br. ar . b. at Stockholm , 1729, d . 1796. Somerset House 162 CHANTREY, Sir F. , Br. sc. b. nr. Sheffield, 1781 , d . 1842. Sleeping Children, Lichfield 301 CHARES, Gr. sc. lived in Rhodes ab. 260 B.C. Colossus of Rhodes 211 CHAUDET, ANTOINE- DENIS, Fr. sc. b. in Paris, 1763, d. 1810. St. of Peace, Tuileries 286 CIBBER, C. G.,Dan.sc. b. at Flensburg, 1630, d. in London, 1700. Madness, S. K. Mus. 298 CIVITALE, MATTEO, It. sc. b. at Lucca, 1435, d. 1501. Tomb of Pietro da Noceto ... 258 CLEOMENES, Gr. sc. lived at Athens ab. 160 B.C. St. , Venus de' Medici ... 221 ... ... ) BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 311 PAGE COCKERELL, C. R. , Br. ar . b. in London , 1788, d. 1863. Taylor Buildings, Oxford 165 COLOMBE, MICHEL, Fr. sc. b. at Tours, 1430, d. 1514. St. , George & Dragon, Louvre 270 COLOTES, Gr. sc . lived at Paros ab. 440 B.C. St. , Athena, at Elis 203 COPONIUS, Rom . sc. lived at Rome ab. 80 B.C. St. , Barbarians 223 CorToT, JEAN- PIERRE, Fr. sc. b. in Paris, 1787, d. 1843. Sc. on Arc d'Etoile, Paris 287 COUSIN, JEAN, Fr. sc . b. near Sens, 1501 , d . 1589. Monument to Philippe de Chabot 271 Coustou, GUILLAUME, Fr. sc. b. in Paris, 1716, d. 1777 . Marli Horscs, Paris 280 Coustou, NICOLAS, Fr. sc. h. at Lyons, 1658, d. 1733. Seine and Marne, Tuileries 280 Coysevox, ANTOINE, Fr. sc. b. at Lyons, 1640, d. 1720. Tomb of Mazarin, Louvre 280 CRAWFORD, THOMAS, Am . sc. b. in New York, 1814, d. 1857. Washington Monument 305 CRONACA, It. ar. b. at Florence, 1453, d . 1508. Strozzi Palace, Florence 114 CURE, CORNELIUS, Br. sc . worked between 1480 & 1520. l'omb of Mary, Q. of Scots 295 DANCE, GEORGE, R.A. , Br. ar. b. in London , 1740, d. 1825. Newgate Prison 163 DANNECKER, JOHANN VON, Ger. sc . b . at Stuttgart, 1758 , d . 1841. Ariadne, Frankfort 283 DAVID, PIERRE- JEAN, Fr. sc. b. at Angers, 1789, d. 1856. Sc. on Pantheon, Paris 287 DE LORME, PHILIBERT, Fr. ar. b. at Lyons, 1500, d. 1577. The Tuilerics, Paris 124 DIPENUS OF CRETE, Gr. sc. lived ab. 580 B.C. Dioscuri, Argos 196 DONATELLO ( DONATO DI BETTI BARDO ), It. sc. b. in Flor., 1386, d . 1466. St. , S. George 253 Donner, G. RAPH ., Ger. sc. b . at Essling, 1695, d . 1741. Perseus & Andromeda, Vienna 281 DRAKE, FRIEDRICH, Ger . sc. b . at Pyrmont, 1805, d . 1882. Warrior crowned, Berlin 285 DUBAX, Felix, Fr. ar . b . in Paris, 1798 , d . 1871. École des Beaux Arts, Paris 127 DU PRÉ , GIOVANNI, It. sc . b. at Siena, 1817, d. 1882. Cirin & Abel, Pitti Palace . 289 DURAND, A MÉDÉE, Fr. sc. b . 1789, d. in Paris, 1873. R ligion, Vincennes 289 DÜRER, A. , Ger . sc. & pa . b. at Nürnberg, 1471 , d. 1528. Altar - shrine, Landauer 273 DURET, FRANCISQU'E , Fr. sc. b . in Paris, 1804, d . 1865. Christ, in La Madeleine 287 ELMES, JAMES, Br. ar. b . in London, 1782, d. 1862. St. George's Hall, Liverpool 165 FIESOLE, VINO DA , It. sc. b . in Florence, 1400, d. 1486. l'omb of Pop : Paul II. ... 257 FILARETE, AN. , It. ar. b . at Florence ab . 1410, d. 1470. Ospedale Maggior ), Milan 113 FIORE, ANGELO, It. sc. b. at Naples ab . 1430 , d. ab. 1500. Tomb, S Domenico, Naples 260 FLAXMAN, J. , R.A., Br. sc. b. at York , 1755, d. 1826. Lord Mansfield, West. Abbey 300 Foley, J. H. , Br. sc. b. in Dublin , 1818 , d. 1874. Eq., Lord Hardinge, Cılcutta 304 Fowke, F. , R.E. , Br. ar . b. at Balysinnin, 1823 , d . 1865. S. Kensington Museum 167 FOYATIER, DENIS, Fr. sc. b. at Bussière, 1793, d. 1863. Spartacus, in Tuileries 287 GARNIER, JEAN Louis, Fr. ar . b . in Paris, 1825. New Opera House, Paris 127 GÄRTNER, FRIEDRICH Von, Ger . ar. b. at Coblenz, 1792. Triumphal Arch , Ratisbon 125 GHIBERTI, LORENZO, It. sc. b. in Florence, 1378 , d. 1455. Gates of the Baptistery 252 GIBBONS, GRINLING, Br. 86. b. at Rotterdam , 1648 ( ? ) , d . 1721 . Wood Carving3 297 GIBBS, JAMES, Br. ar . b. near Aberdeen , 1674, d. 1754. St. Martin's - in - the- Fields 162 Gibson, John , Br. sc. b. near Conway, 1790, d. at Rome, 1866. Venus, Rome 301 GIOCONDA, FRA, It. ar. b. at Verona, 1430, d. 1529. Palazzo del Consiglio, Verona Giorro, It. ar. & pa. b. at Vespignano, 1266, d. 1336. Campanile, Florence 107 GIRARDON, F. , Fr. sc. b. at Troyes, 1630, d . 1715. Pluto and Proserpine, Versailles 280 GISLEBERTUS, Ger. sc. worked at Autun ( Burgundy) ab. 1130. Pediment of Cath . 238 . 121 312 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ... ... PAGE GLAUCUS OF CHIOS, Gr. sc. lived ab. 630 B.C. ( ? ) . Invented bronze casting 196 GOUJON, JEAN, Fr. sc . b. 1535 ( ?) , d. 1572. Sc. on front of the Louvre 270 GREENOUGH, HORATIO, Am. sc. b. in Boston, 1805, d. 1852. St. of Washington 305 GUGLIELMO, FRA, It. sc. b. at Pisa ab. 1238, d. 1312. Reliefs, Bologne 245 HAMILTON, THOMAS, Br. ar. b. in Scotland, 1785, d. 1858. High School, Edinburgh 166 HANSEN, THEo. , Dan. ar. b. at Copenhagen, 1813. Public Buildings, Vienna 127 HARDWICK, P. , R.A. , Br. ar. b. in London, 1792, d. 1870. Goldsmiths' Hall, London 165 HARDWICK, THOMAS, Br. ar. b. at Brentford , 1752, d. 1829. St. Marylebone Church 165 HAWKSMOOR, NICHOLAS, Br. ar. b. in Notts, 1661 , d. 1736. Churches, London 162 HECYLCES OF SPARTA, Gr. sc. lived ab. 550 B.C. St. , Hercules, in wood ... 196 HEGESIAS, Gr. sc. lived at Athens ab. 480 B.C. St. , Temple of Ægina 200 HERRERA, JUAN DE, Sp. ar . b. at Santillana ab. 1530, d. ( ? ). Escurial, Madrid 124 HILLIARD, N. , Br. sc . & pa. b. at Exeter, 1547, d. 1619. Assisted, Tomb of Q. Elizabeth 295 HITTORF, JAKOB, Ger. ar. b. at Cologne, 1792, d. 1867. S. Vincent de Paul, Paris 127 HOLLAND, HENRY, Br. ar. b. ab. 1740, d. 1806. Claremont House, Esher 165 Holt, THOMAS, Br. ar. b. at York , d. at Oxford, 1624. Public Schools, Oxford ... 159 HOUDON, J. - ANTOINE, Fr. sc. b. at Versailles, 1740, d. 1828 . Voltaire, Th. Français 280 HUVÉ, JEAN- JACQUES, Fr. ar. b. at Versailles, 1783, d. 1852. Madeleine, Paris 127 ICTINUS, Gr. ar . lived ab. 440 B.C. The Parthenon , Athens 43 INWOOD, WILLIAM, Br. ar. b. near Highgate, 1771, d. 1843. St. Pancras, London 165 ISIGONUS, Gr. sc. lived at Athens and Pergamus ab. 240 B.C. Warriors of Attalus 213 ISODORUS OF MILETUS, Gr. ar. lived ab. A.D. 532. St. Sophia , Constantinople 69 JERICHAU, J. A. , Dan. sc. b. in Denmark, 1810, d. 1883. Panther Hunter, Copenhagen 289 JONES, INIGO, Br. ar. b. in London ab. 1572, d. 1651. Banqueting House, Whitehall 159 JOSEPH, S. , R.S.A. , Br. sc. b. ab. 1800, d. in London, 1850. Sir D. Wilkie, Nat. Gal. 303 JUSTE, JEAN, Fr. sc. b. ab. 1477, d. after 1548. Tombs, St. Denis 270 KAVE, THEODORE, Ger . ar. b. at Cleves, lived ab. 1560. Caius College, Cambridge 158 Kiss, AUGUST, Ger. sc. b. in Silesia, 1802 , d. 1865. Amazon, Berlin 285 KLENZE, LÉO von, Ger. ar. b. near Hildeshein , 1784, d. 1864. Pinakothek , Munich 125 KRAFFT, ADAM, Ger. sc. b. at Nürnberg, 1450, d. 1507. Altar, S. Lorenzo 274 LE Sæur, HUBERT, Fr. sc. b. in France, d. in England, 1652 ( ? ) . Charles I., Char. Cross 296 LEONARDO DA VINCI, It. sc. & pa . b. at Vinci, 1452, d . at Cloux, 1519. Eq. St. , Sforza 260 LEOPARDO, A. , It. sc. b. at Venice ab. 1480, d. ab. 1540. Tomb, Doge Vendramin 257 LESCOT, PIERRE, Fr. ar . b. in Paris, 1510, d . 1578 . West Front, Louvre 123 LOMBARDO, PIETRO, It. sc. b. at Venice , 1440 ( ?), d. 1512 ( ?) . Tomb of Doge Mocenigo 257 LORENZETTO, It. sc. b. in Florence, 1494, d. 1541. Tombs, Florence and Pistoja 265 Lough, John G. , Br. sc. b. nr. Hexham, 1806, d. 1876. Marquis of Hastings, Malta 304 LUITFRECHT, Ger. sc. lived at Freisung ( Bavaria) ab, 1150. Carvings, Crypt of Cath. 236 LYSIPPUS, Gr. sc. lived at Sicyon ab. 340 B.C. St. , Alexander 211 MACDONALD, LAWRENCE, Br. sc. b. at Perth , 1799, d. 1878. Ulysses and his Dog 304 MACDOWELL, P. , R. A. , Br. sc. b. at Belfast, 1799, d. 1870. Virginius & his Daughter 302 MADERNO, CARLO, It. ar . b. at Bissone, 1556, d. 1629. West Front of St. Peter's 119 MADERNO, STEFANO, It. sc. b . in Lombardy, 1571 , d. 1636. St. of St. Cecilia, Rome 269 > BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 313 PAGE 257 > ... MAJANO, BEN . DA, It. sc. b. at Majano, 1444, d . 1497. Annunciation, M. Oliveto MAJANO, GIULIANO DI NARDO DI, It. ar. b. at Majano, 1432, d. 1491. Palaces, Rome 114 MANSARD, FRANÇOIS, Fr. ar. b. in Paris, 1598, d. 1666. Palace, Versailles 124 MAROCHETTI, B. CH. , R.A., It. sc. b. at Turin , 1805, d . 1867. Richard Cour de Lion 303 MICHELANGELO, It. sc. & pa. b. at C. Caprese, 1475, d. 1564. Il Pensieroso, Florence 261 MONTFERRAND, AUG. DE, Fr. ar. b. at Chaillot, '1786, d . 1854. S. Isaac, St. Petersburg 129 MUNRO, ALEXANDER, Br. sc. b. at Inverness, 1825, d. 1871. Fountain, Berkley Sq. 304 MYRON, Gr. sc . lived at Athens ab. 470 B.C. St. , The Discobolus 197 NASH, JOHN, Br. ar. b. in London, 1752, d. 1835. Designed Regent Street, London 165 NICOLAUS, MEISTER, Ger. sc. worked at Verona ab . 1140. Sc. on San Zeno 238 NOBLE, MAT. , Br. sc. b. at Harkness, 1818, d. 1876. Sir J. Franklin, Waterloo Place 304 NOLLEKENS, J. , R.A. , Br. sc. b. in London, 1737, d. 1823. Monuments, West. Abbey 299 ORCAGNA, ANDREA ( CIONE) , It. sc. b. in Florence, 1329, d. 1376 ( ? ) . Baldacchino 246 ORLEANS, MARIA, PRIN. OF, Fr. sc. b. Palermo, 1813 , d. 1840. Joan of Arc, Versailles 289 PADOVA, GIOVANNI DA (JOHN OF PADUA) , It. ar. lived ab. 1550. Longleat, Wiltshire 158 PAEONIUS, Gr. sc. lived at Sicyon ab. 430 B.C. St. , Temple of Olympia ... 203 PALLADIO, ANDREA, It. ar. b. at Vicenza , 1518, d. 1580. Palaces at Vicenza & Venice 119 PERRAULT, CLAUDE, Fr. ar. b. in Paris, 1613, d . 1688. Eastern Front, Louvre 124 PERUZZI, BALDASSARE, It. ar. b. at Siena, 1481 , d. 1537. Farnesina, Rome 117 PHEIDIAS, Gr. sc. lived at Athens ab. 460 B.C. Friezes of the Parthenon 201 Philip, J. BIRNIE, Br. sc. b. 1827, d. at Chelsea, 1875. St. on Houses of Parliament 304 Pilon, GERMAIN , Fr. sc . b. near Mans, d. 1590. Tomb of Henri II., St. Denis 271 PINTELLI, BACCIO, It. ar. lived at Florence, 1471 to 1491. Palaces, Rome 114 PISANO, ANDREA, It. sc. b. at Pisa ab . 1280, d. 1359 ( ? ) . Sc. , Façade, Florence Cath , 246 Pisano, GIOVANNI, It. sc. b. at Pisa, 1240, d. 1320. Madonna del Fiore, Florence 246 PISANO, NICCOLA, It. sc. b. at Pisa ab. 1206, d. 1278. Pulpit, Baptistery, Pisa 245 PISANO, VITTORE ( PISANELLO) , It. sc. b. at Verona, 1380, d. 1455. Medal, Malatesta 259 POLYCLEITUS, Gr. sc . lived at Argos and Sicyon ab. 460 B.C. St. , The Doryphoros 203 POLYDOROS, Gr. sc. lived at Rhodes ab. 80 B.C. Gp. , Laocoon 212 Porta, GIACOMO DELLA, It. ar. b . at Porlezza, 1539 (?), d . 1604. Villa Aldobrandini 119 Powers, HIRAM , Am . sc. b. in Vermont, 1805, d . 1873. Greek Slave 305 PRADIER, JAC. , Fr. sc. b. in Geneva, 1792, d . 1852. Strasburg, Place de Concorde 287 PRAXITELES, Gr. sc. lived at Athens ab. 364 B.C. St. , Venus of Cnidus ... 208 Puget, PIERRE, Fr. sc. b. near Marseilles, 1622, d. 1694. Milo and Lion, Louvre 280 PUGIN, AUG. , W.N. , Br. ar. b. in London, 1813, d. 1852. Cath ., S. George's -in - Fields 167 PYROMACHUS, Gr. sc . lived at Athens & Pergamus ab. 240 B.C. St. , Dying Gladiator ( ?) 213 PYTHAGORAS, Gr. sc. lived at Rhegium ab. 480 B.C. St. , Philoctetes 197 QUERCIA, JACOPO DELLA, It. sc . b. near Siena, 1371 , d. 1438. Fonta Gaia, Siena 252 RAPHAEL, SANZIO, It. sc. & pa. b. at Urbino, 1483, d. 1520. St. of Jonah 263 RAUCH, CHRISTIAN, Ger. sc. b. at Arolsen, 1777, d. 1857. Frederick the Great, Berlin 284 Rhecus, Gr. sc. lived at Samos ab. 600 B.C. ( ?) . St. , Temple of Artemis 196 RICKMAN, T. , Br. ar. b. at Maidenhead, 1776, d. 1841. St. John's Coll., Cambridge 167 RIETSCHEL, ERNST, Ger. sc. b. at Pulsnitz, 1804, d. 1861. St. of Lessing, Brunswick 285 314 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. PAG RINEHART, W. H., Am . sc. b. in Maryland, 1825, d . 1874. St. , Woman of Samaria 306 ROBBIA, LUCA DELLA, It. sc. b. in Florence, 1400, d. 1482. Bas-reliefs, terra - cotta 254 ROGERS, RANDOLPH, Am. sc . b. in 1825. Bronze doors of the Capitol, Washington 306 ROSSELLINO, ANTONIO, It. sc. b. in Florence, 1427, d . 1473. Tomb, San Miniato .. 257 ROUBILIAC, L. FRANÇOIS, Fr. sc. b. at Lyons, 1703, d. 1762. Shakespeare, Brit. Mus. 298 RUDE, FRANÇOIS, Fr. sc. b. at Dijon , 1785, d . 1855. Marseillaięc, Ars de l'Etoile 287 RUYSBRACK, John, M. Fl. sc. b. at Antwerp, 1693, d. 1770. Monuments, West. Abbey 298 SAN GALLO, ANTONIO DA, It. ar. b. at Mugello, 1482, d. 1546. Farncse Palace, Rome 119 SANSOVINO, A. ( Con. ) , It. sc. b. at Sansovino, 1460, d . 1529. Virgin & S. Anna, Rome 260 SANSOVINO, J. ( TATTI), It. ar. b. in Florence , 1479, d. 1570. Lib. St. Mark's, Venice 119 SANSOVINO, J. ( TATTI) , It. sc. b. in Florence, 1486, d. 1570. Boy Bacchus, Florence 263 SCHADOW , JOHANN G. , Ger. sc. b . at Berlin, 1764, d. 1850. Frederick the Gt. , Stettin 284 SCHEEMAKERS, PETER, Fl. sc . b. at Antwerp, 1691 , d. 1769. Statucs in West. Abbey 298 SCHINKEL, K. FRIEDRICH, Ger. ar. b. at Neusuppen , 1781 , d. 1841. Theatr ”, Berlin 125 SCHLÜTER, ANDREAS, Ger. sc. b. at Hamburg, 1644 , d . 1714. Great Elector, Berlin 280 SCHÖNHOFER, SEBALD, Ger. sc. lived at Nuremberg ab. 1350. Fountain , Nuremberg 244 SCHWANTHALER, LUD. , Ger. sc. b. at Munich, 1802, d . 1848. Sc. at Walhalla , Munich 285 Scopas, Gr. sc. lived at Paros ab. 380 B.C. Gp. , Niobe and Children 208 SCYLLIS OF CRETE, Gr. sc. lived ab. 560 B.C. St. of Artcmis 196 SEMPER, GOTTFRIED , Ger. ar. b . in Altona, 1803, d. 1879. Museum , Dresden 126 Simon , Thomas, Br. med . b. in Guernsey, d. ab. 1674. Coins and Medals 297 SLUTER, CLAES, Fl. sc. worked in France ab. 1400. Tomb of Philip, Dijon 241 SMIRKE, SIR ROBERT. R. A., Br. ar. b. in London, 1780, d . 1867. British Museum 165 SMIRKE, SYDNEY, R.A., Br. ar. b . in London , 1798, d . 1877. Conservative Ciub ... 166 SMITHSON, R. , Br. ar. b. ab. 1560, d. at Wollaton, 1614. Wollaton IIall , Notts 159 SOANE, SIR John, R.A. , Br. ar . b. near Reading, 1752, d . 1837. Bank of England 163 SPENCE, BENJAMIN E. , Br. sc. b. at Liverpool, 1822, d. 1866. Hector 6 Andromache 301 STEPHENS, E. B. , R.A., Br. sc. b . at Exeter, 1817 , d. 1882. Angel of the Resurrection 304 STEVENS, ALFRED G. , Br. sc. b. at Blandford , 1817 , d . 1875. Wel. Mon., St. Paul's 303 STONE, Nic. , Br. sc. b. near Exeter, 1586, d. 1647. Tomb of Ed . Spenser , West. Abbey 295 STORY, WILLIAM W. , Am . sc. b . at Salem, 1819. St. of Cleopatra 306 Sross, Veit, Ger. sc. b. at Cracow ( ? ) ab. 1438, d. 1533. Gp. , Salutalion , Nüremberg 244 STRATONICUS, Gr. sc. lived at Athens & Pergamus ab. 240 B.C. Warriors of Attalus 213 STREET, G. EDM. , R.A. , Br. ar. b. at Woodford , 1824, d. 1881. C. of Justice, London 168 STÜLER , FRIEDR. AUG. , Ger. ar. b . at Miihlhausen, 1800, d . 1865. N. Muscum , Berlin 125 SYRLIN, JÖRG, Ger. sc. lived in Ulm between 1469 & 1482. Choir- stalls, Ulm 273 TAURISCUS OF TRALLES, Gr. sc. worked at Rhodes ab. 80 B.C. Gr. , Farnese Bull 213 Taylor, Sir Robr. , Br. ar. b. in London, 1714, d. 1788. Gorhambury, Hertfordshire 163 TELECLES, Gr. sc. lived at Samos ab. 560 B.C. ( ? ) . St. in Temple of Artomis 196 TENERANI, P. , It. sc. b. near Carrara, 1789, d. 1869. Tomb of Pius VIII., St. Peter's 283 TEXIER , JEAN, Fr. sc. lived in first half of 16th century. N. Spire, Chartres Cath . 270 THEED, WILLIAM, Br. sc. b. at Trentham , 1804. St. of Hallam, St. Paul's 304 THEOCLES OF SPARTA, Gr. sc. lived ab. 550 B.C. St. , Herculcs, in wood 196 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 315 PAGE > THEODORUS, Gr. sc. lived at Samos ab. 560 B.C. ( ? ). Engraved Gems and Scals 196 THOMAS, John, Br. sc. b. at Chalford, Gloucester, 1813, d . 1862. Lady Godira 303 THORPE, JOHN, Br. ar. Jived ab. 1550 to 1617. Holland House and Hatfield House ... 159 THORWALDSEN, B. , Dan . sc. b. at Copenhagen, 1770, d. 1844. Triumph of Alexander 282 TIMOTHEUS, Gr. sc. lived at Athens ab. 380 B.C. Sc. on Tomb of Mausolus 208 TOREL, WILLIAM , Br. sc . worked between 1272 & 1290. Queen Eleanor, West. Abbey 293 TOPRIGGIANO, P., It. sc. b. in Florence, 1470, d . 1522. Tomb of Henry VII., W. Abbey 295 TRIBOLO ( NIC. DE PER . ), It. sc . b. in Florence, 1500, d . 1550. Fountain, Fontainebleau 266 VANBRUGH, Sir John, Br. ar. b. in London, 1666, 1726. Blenheim Palace, Oxford 162 VERROCCHIO, ANDREA DEL, It. sc. b. in Florence, 1432, d. 1488. Eq. St. , Coleoni 257 l'IGNOLA (GIACOMO Barozzio ), It. ar. b . at Vignola, 1507, d. 1573. Villas & Churches 119 Vischer, Peter, Ger. sc. b. at Nürnberg, 1455, d . 1529. Tomb of St. Sebald 276 VISCONTI, LOUIS T. J. , It. ar. b. at Rome, 1791 , d . 1853. Restoration of the Lourre 127 Voss, Karl, Ger . sc. b. at Cologne , 1820. Hebe & Eagle, Cologne 289 VULLIAMY, L. , Br. ar. b. in London, 1796 ( ? ) , d . 1871. Holford Mansion, Park Lane 166 WATSON, MUSGRAVE, Br. sc. b. at Hawksdale, 1804 , d . 1847. Lord Eldon , Oxford WESTMACOTT, Sir R. , R. A. , Br. sc. b. in London, 1775, d . 1856. Monuments, S. Paul's 302 WILHELM, MEISTER, Ger. sc . worked at Verona ab. 1140. Sc . on San Zeno 238 WILKINS, WM ., R. A. , Br. ar. b. at Norwich, 1778, d. 1839. Nat. Gallery, London • 165 WILTON, J. , R.A. , Br. sc . b. in London, 1722, d. 1803. General Wolfe, West. Abbey 299 WOLFF, EMIL, Ger. sc. b. at Berlin, 1802. St. of Judith, Berlin 283 WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER, Br. ar. b . at E. Knoyle, 1632, d . 1723. St. Paul's, London 160 WYATT, R. J. , Br. sc. , b. in London, 1795, d. at Rome, 1850. Flora, Windsor Castle 302 WYATT, Sir Digby, Br. ar. b. near Devizes, 1820, d . 1877. India Office, Whitehall 167 Wyatt, Thomas H. , Br. ar. b . in Ireland , 1807, d . 1880. Exchange, Liverpool . 166 WYATVILLE, SIR J. , Br. ar. b. at Burton , 1766, d . 1840. Additions, Windsor Castle 167 303 > ܕ JourSUCJALI m QAQ F 201. – Marble Font. Seventeenth Century. In the Cathedral at Orvieto .

JOANNESBELLINE DOGE LEONARDO LOREDANO. --- BY GIOVANNI BELLINI. IntheNationalCollow

PAINTING.

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.

IN this little handbook, an attempt is made to give a broad and general outline of the history of painting, pointing out the peculiarities which may be looked for in the arts of different coun tries, and the various climatic, democratic and other causes which have influenced the direction of their aims, attention to which causes are essential for a just estimation of the works of painters. And no pretensions are put forth to invade the realms of æsthetic criticism . Many artists who, if they lived at the present day, would not be able to earn a subsistence by their art, were famous in past times ; and it is not for the historian to ignore them because their work does not meet with present applause. It is only by a careful study of what has gone before that we are able to justly estimate the work of the present, as it is by a consideration of the present that we are able to predict, in some measure, what will be the results in the future. In the study of painting, as in every other subject, individual taste must of necessity assert itself to a certain extent : but the desirability of maintaining an unbiassed and unprejudiced mind can not be too firmly impressed upon the student. Though it is perhaps impossible for any one man to admire all forms of art, yet it is possible for him to endeavour to sympathize with the feelings of those who have produced works which fail to excite his admiration, and to credit them with honesty of purpose, and a true, if perchance misdirected , desire to advance the aims of art. Honest work, if not always worthy of praise, at least deserves attention . Many an artist has been credited with the successful embodiment of ideas which never entered his head, and many a one has been blamed for the non - fulfilment of thoughts which he never dreamed of, or which he perhaps studiously avoided . iv PREFACE. The same country and the same age produced the gentle Fra Bartolommeo and the fiery Michelangelo : Germany saw at one time the mystic Diirer and the natural Holbein. In the Low Countries were produced, side by side, the calm scenes of Van de Velde and Hobbema and the grand representations of storms by Backhuisen and Ruysdael. In Spain what could be more different than the religious fervour of Murillo and the splendid vigour of Velazquez ? It is possible to admire the broad effects of Rembrandt without throwing disparagement on the minute work of Metsu or Mieris. That the simple-minded Overbeck and Delaroche laboured with piety is evident, and we can as readily believe that Paolo Veronese intended no lack of reverence by his naturalistic treatment of religious subjects. Titian in his hilly Cadore country and De Koninck in the flats of Holland — each fulfilled his allotted task in the furtherance of landscape art. The Pre-Raphaelite Brethren, in their representations recalling the angularities and stiff ness of the Italian painters of the early fifteenth century, and the Impressionists, in their hasty transcripts of what nature seems to them, were equally sincere . Truth was the goal of each. But the com parison could be carried on indefinitely ; and who shall take upon himself to say what particular phase of art is or is not the right ? Art is catholic—for all countries and for all time. Let each honest painter's work be judged by the light of Van Eyck's old Flemish proverb— “ As I can, not as I will." A careful study of this book will , it is hoped, enable the student to lay a sure foundation for a further and deeper study into the history and ästhetics of painting in all its branches, and to appreciate the works of painters of all genres. But all the books in the world will not give the knowledge which the student requires, unless he supplements his reading by a careful study of the works of the great masters. And for him who resides in or near London this is no difficult task. The greatest facilities are, of course, offered by the National Gallery , which possesses an advantage over many continental collections, in that the average of merit of the paintings which it contains is higher, PREFACE. V With the exception of the Blenheim Raphael, it possesses nothing, it is true, to compare to some of the masterpieces of the Louvre, the Uffizi, Dresden, Madrid and elsewhere ; but, on the other hard, it has few works of mediocrity, and is therefore less likely to perplex the student. Special stress has been laid in this handbook on the pictures which it contains, as they are more readily accessible to the student, and offer many advantages for the study of technique and individual peculiarities. It must, however, always be borne in mind that a col lection of movable pictures can never do justice to those masters whose fame rests on their fresco paintings. Several works have recently been published which in part supply the want, felt for the last ten years, of an official unabridged catalogue. In the South Kensington Museum, will be found an excellent gallery of paintings of the British school ; a very fine collection of water- colour drawings ; an interesting, if not complete, series of the works of the French and English miniaturists, and above all Raphael's Cartoons. And in the Art Library of the Museum is stored a very large number of photographic reproductions of the paintings of all schools distributed throughout the galleries of Europe, which serve to teach the student the composition of various painters whose works he may seek for in vain in England ; and, moreover, tend far better than any engravings to familiarize him with the masterpieces of all time. The British Museum possesses in its Print Room a priceless collec tion of original drawings by the old masters, engravings and etchings which may profitably be studied in connection with painting. ΑA. gallery hung with Chinese and Japanese drawings of great merit, lately opened, well deserves study. In the Diploma Gallery at Burlington House may be seen examples of the works of the members of the Royal Academy from its foundation, though many of them , it is true, hardly do credit to their authors. And the National Portrait Gallery, professedly collected from a historic and not an artistic standpoint, and on that account interesting rather to the historian and archæologist than the artist, yet contains many an example worthy of notice of the earlier of England's painters. Several of the many private galleries of London, which are so rich in works of painters of all countries and all ages, are, at intervals, vi PREFACE. generously opened by their owners, with but slight restrictions ; and in them many a chapter of the history of Art may be most readily studied. The galleries of Hampton Court Palace and Dulwich College are easily accessible from London, and will well repay a visit from the student. And at the Winter Exhibitions at Burlington House and the Grosvenor Gallery, exceptional advantages are offered for the study of many valuable paintings, and for making acquaintance with carefully selected collections of the works of various individual masters and distinct schools. Upwards of one hundred additional illustrations have been selected with the view not of making this volume appear attractive, but rather to enhance whatever educational value it may possess. Inexpensive forms of engraving have, owing to the low price of the work, been alone possible ; but a mere indication of a painting can go a long way towards training the eye and mind to discriminate between the peculiarities of the various schools. The dates of the many painters mentioned have been carefully revised since the last edition of the book appeared seven years ago : and a biographical index has been appended, which will, it is hoped, prove of use for reference. Chapters have been added on Portuguese art, on the modern school of Spain , on the Barbizon school, on the art of India, China and Japan, and on miniature painting in England ; whilst notices of recently deceased artists have been inserted, and endeavours have been made to point out, in a few words, the present tendencies of art throughout Europe. F. C. SURBITON, October 1888. CONTENTS. - PAINTING PAGE INTRODUCTION — Means and Methods of Painting - 1. Form-II . Colour III . Composition-IV. Materials — V . Subjects 1 Painting in the Classic Period :: EGYPTIAN ASSYRIAN, PERSIAN, ARABIAN AND MOOrish . GREEK-Amphoræ and Vases, Wall Paintings, Mosaics ETRUSCAN—Tomb Paintings, Toilet Casket ROMAN — Mural Pictures, Decoration at Pompeii, Mosaics 13 15 16 21 22 27 Painting in the Far East : PERSIAN AND INDIAN-Illuminated Books, Decorated Tiles, Portraits CHINESE - Buddhistic pictures, Drawings of Birds, &c. JAPANESE - Buddhistic and Secular . 30 31 Painting in the Early Christian and Byzantine Ages, A.D. 50 -A.D. 1300 : EARLY CHRISTIAN, A.D. 50 —- A.D . 900 BYZANTINE, A.D. 50 — A.D. 1300 . . 35 38 Painting in the Middle Ages : IN ITALY_FLORENCE, SIENA, ROME AND VENICE, A.D. 1100 -A.D. 1440 IN FRANCE AND GERMANY–A.D. 1250—A.D . 1470 . 41 50 . . The Renaissance of Painting in Italy : Florentine School, A.D. 1420 - A.D . 1520 Paduan School, A.D. 1420—about A.D. 1520 Venetian School, A.D. 1480-A.D. 1520 Other Schools of Upper Italy, A.D. 1480—A.D. 1530 Umbrian School, A.D. 1460—A.D. 1510 Neapolitan School, XVth Century Later Florentine School, A.D. 1490—A.D. 1510 57 68 71 75 76 80 80 . viii CONTENTS. PAGE Painting in Italy in the XVIth Century : Leonardo da Vinci and his School Michelangelo and his School Florentine School in the XVIth Century Raphael and his School Ferrarese School Lombardic School Venetian School, A.D. 1512-A.D. 1600 Decorative Painting . 83 89 94 96 107 107 112 124 128 . . Painting in the Netherlands : Early Flemish and Dutch Schools, XIIIth and XIVth Centuries School of Bruges, A.D. 1390—A.D. 1520 Early Dutch School, XVth Century Early School of Antwerp, A.D. 1490—A.D. 1530 Italianized Flemings, A.D. 1500—A.D . 1630 Dutch School of the late XVIth Century 128 135 135 137 142 • . Painting in Germany : Suabian School, A.D. 1470—A.D . 1540 Augsburg School, A.D. 1490—A.D. 1545 Franconian School, A.D. 1450—A.D. 1580 School of Saxony Decline of Art in Germany 144 146 150 158 159 . . Painting in Italy in the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries : Eclectic School of Bologna Naturalistic School . Later Venetian School 163 167 169 . Painting in Spain : Valencian School, A.D. 1525—A.D . 1660 Castilian School, A.D. 1500—A.D . 1700 Italian-Spanish Painters of Madrid, A.D. 1600—A. D. 1700 Velazquez and his pupils, A.D. 1620 -A.D. 1690 Andalucian School, A.D. 1520-A.D. 1750 Murillo and his pupils, A.D. 1638—A.D . 1750 Modern Spanish Painters 172 175 179 180 187 192 199 . . Painting in Portugal : Gran Vasco and his School . 204 Painting in the Netherlands in the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries : School of Antwerp, A.D. 1590—A.D. 1720 209 CONTENTS. ix PAGE . 215 220 227 229 Pupils of Rubens Later School of Antwerp, A.D. 1600 —A.D. 1680 Franco-Flemish Painters, A.D. 1620—A.D . 1740 Modern Belgian School, A.D. 1830—A.D. 1886 . Painting in Holland in the XVIIth Century : Frans Hals and his sons Rembrandt and his pupils Later Dutch Painters of Domestic Life Landscapes and Battle Scenes Marine Subjects . Architecture, Still-life and Flowers Modern Dutch Art . 233 234 241 250 258 260 263 9 . . . . Revival of Painting in Germany, A.D. 1810—A.1) . 1880 : Overbeck and his School . School of Munich Genre Painters Modern German Painting 264 266 269 270 . Painting in France : Early Painters of XVth and XVIth Centuries . Poussin and his School Claude le Lorrain Le Sueur and other Painters of the XVIIth Century Painters in Miniature French Painting in the XVIIIth Century French School of the early XIXth Century French School of the later XIXth Century Barbizon School, A.D. 1830 — A . D. 1886 The Impressionists . 274 280 282 286 294 295 304 316 320 324 . Painting in Great Britain : Illuminated MSS., A.D. 600—A.D. 1500 . Miniature Painting, A.D. 1526—A.D. 1680 Painting in England in the XVIth and XVIIth Centuries Rise of a National Art in England, XVIIIth Century Later Miniature Painting, A.D. 1680—A.D. 1860 Early Water- Colour Painters, A.D. 1775—A.D. 1840 . Early Part of the XIXth Century The Norwich School Book Illustrators The Pre - Raphaelites. Later Water- Colour Painters Modern English Art 327 332 339 346 368 371 373 380 397 399 400 403 . X CONTENTS . PAGE Painting in America

Colonial Period , A.D. 1715 — A.D . 1770 Revolutionary Period, A.D. 1770—A.D. 1780 Period of Inner Development, A.D. 1780 — A.1 ). 1870 Period of the Present, A.D. 1870—A. D. 1888 407 408 412 418 .. Biographical Index 421 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAINTING. ENG . PAGE Frontispiece • . 3 13 14 16 17 20 . . . 21 . . . . Portrait of Doge Loredano. Giovanni Bellini 1. Example of Chiaroscuro. Rembrandt 2. Sons of Rameses II . going to battle. Egyptian 3. Hunters bringing home Game. Egyptian . 4. Last Night of Troy. Greek Vase 5. Amphora. Greek 6. Painting of still life. Pompeiian 7. Part of the Ficoronian Cista. Etruscan 8. Wall Decoration. Pompeiian 9. Parting of Achilles and Briseis. Pompeiian 10. Battle of Issus. Pompeiian 11. Feast at Hastinápur. Daswanth and Bhora 12. Wild Goose. Japanese 13. Christ as Orpheus. Early Christian . 14. Christ adored by Justinian. Byzantine 15. Sketch Map of Italy in the sixteenth century 16. Madonna and Child. Cimabue . 17. Obedience. Giotto 18. Preaching of S. Domenic. Andrea da Florentia 19. Wall Painting. German 20. Adoration of the Magi. Stephan Lochner 21. Battle of Sant'Egidio. Paolo Uccelli 22. Expulsion from Paradise. Masaccio 23. S. Lawrence giving alms. Fra Angelico 24. Coronation of the Virgin. Filippo Lippi 25. Portrait of a Young Man. Antonello da Messina 26. Coronation of the Virgin. Botticelli . 27. Birth of the Virgin . Ghirlandajo . . . . . 23 24 26 29 33 36 39 40 43 45 48 51 52 56 57 59 61 62 64 65 . . . a . xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ENG , PAGE • 69 70 72 74 77 78 81 85 88 90 91 93 95 97 99 • . · 101 " 28. Judith with the head of Holofernes. Mantegna 29. Crucifixion . Mantegna 30. Annunciation. Crivelli 31. Preaching of S. Mark . Gentile and Giovanni Bellini 32. Deposition from the Cross. Perugino 33. Pietà. Francia . 34. Salvator Mundi. Fra Bartolommeo . 35. Last Supper. Leonardo da Vinci 36. S. Sebastian. Bazzi 37. PartoftheCartoon of Pisa. Michelangelo 38. Prophet Isaiah . Michelangelo 39. Holy Family. Michelangelo 40. S. Agnes. Andrea del Sarto 41. Vision of a Knight. Raphael 42. Marriage of the Virgin. Raphael 43. La Belle Jardinière. ' Raphael 44. Elymas struck with blindness. Raphael 45. Annunciation to the Virgin. Garofalo 46. Madonna della Cesta. Correggio 47. Madonna della Scodella . Correggio '. 48. “ The Three Philosophers.” Giorgione 49. S. Peter Martyr. Titian 50. “ Bella di Tiziano." Titian 51. Christ borne to the Tomb. Tintoretto 52. Feast in the house of Simon. Paolo Veronese 53. Decoration of the Farnesina Palace. After Raphael's design 54. Madonna and Child . Jan van Eyck . 55. Jean Arnolfini and his wife. Jan van Eyck 56. Entombment. Van der Weyden 57. Virgin and the Holy Infant. Memlinc 58. Sibyl of the Tibur. Lucas van Leyden 59. The Banker and his wife . ' Massys 60. Part of an Altar-piece at Ober- vellach. Jan Schoreel 61. Abraham Grapheus. . Cornelis de Vos 62. River Scene. Jan Brueghel 63. Crucifixion. Schongauer 64. Hubert Morett. Holbein ' . 65. The Pedlar. Holbein 66. Meyer Madonna. Holbein 67. Christ taking leave of His Mother. Dürer 68. Adoration of the Trinity. Dürer . . 102 . 106 . 109 . 110 114 117 . 119 . 121 · 123 125 . 129 131 132 134 136 138 140 141 142 145 147 148 149 151 · 153 . . . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii ENG. PAGE . . • . 155 156 . 158 . 160 . 161 . 164 . 166 . 168 . 169 . 174 · 177 . 183 . 185 . . · 189 . . 69. “ The Knight, Death and the Devil . ” . Dürer 70. Joseph sold by his Brethren. Georg Pencz 71. Young Man. Aldegrever . 72. Princess Sibylla of Saxony. Cranach 73. The Fates. Nemesis, Night and Destiny Carstens . 74. The Three Maries. Annibale Carracci 75. Christ crowned with thorns. Guido Reni 76. Landscape. Salvator Rosa 77. View in Venice. Canaletto 78. Deposition from the Cross. Ribera 79. Isabella, daughter of Philip II. Sanchez - Coello 80. Philip IV. of Spain. Velazquez 81. View of Saragossa. · Martinez del Mazo 82. Franciscan Monk. Zurbaran 83. S. John the Evangelist. Alonso Cano 84. Immaculate Conception. Murillo 85. The Melon Eaters. Murillo 86. A Moor of Tangiers. Fortuny 87. Calvary. Velasco 88. Sketch Map of the Low Countries in the seventeenth century 89. Archbishop Ambrose and the Emperor Theodosius. Rubens 90. Rubens and his second wife, Helena Fourment. Rubens . 91. Three of the Children of Charles I. · Van Dyck 92. Wife of a Burgomaster of Antwerp. Van Dyck 93. The Archery Meeting. Teniers 94. The Knife-grinder. Teniers 95. The Artist, with his master Ryckaert and his Family. Cocx 96. Oliver Cromwell. Lely 97. Cardinal de Richelieu . Philippe de Champaigne 98. Luther as a Choir-boy in the Streets of Eisenach . Leys 99. A Cavalier. Frans Hals 100. Sortie of the Civic Guard. Rembrandt 101. Raising of Lazarus. Rembrandt . 102. Lute Player. Terborch 103. Gerard Dou. Dou 104. The Dancing Dog. Steen . 105. Morning Toilet. De Hooch 106. Landscape with Cattle and Figures : Evening. Cuyp 107. Landscape with Cattle. Berchem 108. A Waterfall. Ruysdael 109. Landscape. Hobbema · 191 . 193 . 196 . 201 205 • 208 . 211 . 213 . 216 218 . 221 223 224 226 228 . 230 233 236 238 242 244 246 219 251 253 255 . 257 . . . . . . . . xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ENG. PAGE . . • 259 265 . 268 . 271 . 273 . 275 . 276 . 277 · 281 . 284 . 286 288 · 291 . 293 . 295 . 296 · 298 . 300 . 302 . 304 306 . 308 . 309 · 311 . 313 . 317 318 . 321 323 325 . 327 . 328 . 329 3 0 . 110. A Gale. Bakhuisen . 111. Christ falling under the Cross. Overbeck 112. Duck -shooting. Peter von Hess 113. Cleopatra. Hans Makart . 114. Section of the “ Bayeux Tapestry. ” French 115. Madonna. King René II. 116. Tullia driving over the dead body of Servius Tullius. Fouquet 117. Mary, Queen of Scots. Clouet . 118. The Shepherds of Arcadia. Nicolas Poussin 119. “ The Ford .” Claude Lorrain 120. S. Paul preaching at Ephesus. Le Sueur . 121. Triumphal Entry of Alexander into Babylon. Le Brun 122. Samuel Bernard. Rigaud . 123. Napoleon in his State Robes. Isabey 124. Flower Piece. Monnoyer . 25. La Finette. Watteau 126. Manhood. Lancret 127. The Industrious Mother. Chardin 128. Girl with Spaniel. Greuze 129. The Sabine Women. David 130. Divine Justice and Vengeance pursuing Crime. Prud'hon 131. Raft of the Medusa.. Géricault . 132. Stratonice. Ingres 133. Part of the “ Hemicycle.” Delaroche 134. Battle of Fontenoy. Horace Vernet . 135. General Prim. Regnault . G 136. Don Quixote's attack on the Windmills. Gustave Doré 137. Forest Road. Corot . 138. Landscape ( La Bucheronne ). Diaz 139. Going to Work. Jean François Millet 140. From " S. Æthelwald's Benedictional.” Godeman 141. King David. English. Eleventh century · 142. S. John. English. Fourteenth century 143. From the “ Shrewsbury Book . ” English. Fifteenth century 144. Edward VI. and his Council. English. Sixteenth century 145. Sir Philip Sidney at Penshurst. Isaac Olivier . 146. Philippe, Duc d'Orléans. Jean Petitot 147. James I. Hoskins, after Van Somer 148. George Monck,Duke of Albemarle. Samuel Cooper 149. Procession of Queen Elizabeth to Blackfriars in 160). Gheeraets . 150. Sir Isaac Newton. Kneller . . . . • . · 331 335 · 336 .. 337 338 · 340 344 . . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV ENG, . . . . . 151. Marriage Contract. Hogarth 152. Age of Innocence. Reynolds 153. Lord Heathfield . Reynolds 154. The Brook. Gainsborough 155. Gainsborough's daughter. Gainsborough 156. The Victors at Olympia. Barry 157. Maria. Wright of Derby 158. Death's Door. Blake 159. The Old Horse. Morland 160. William , fifth Duke of Devonshire. Cosway 161. Nature ( children of Mr. Calmady ). Lawrence . 162. Christian at the Palace Beautiful. Stothard 163. Lake Avernus. Turner 164. Cottages near Norwich. Ou Crome . 165. The Valley Farm. Constable 166. Village Politicians. Wilkie 167. Crossing the Ford . Mulready 168. Uncle Toby and Widow Wadman. Leslie 169. Shoeing. Landseer 170. Regina Cordium . Rossetti. 171. London from Greenwich Park. De Wint Wint 172. The Old Gate. Fred. Walker 173. General Knox. Gilbert Stuart . Trumbull 175. Elizabeth Southgate Bowne. Malbone PAGE 348 352 355 357 358 . 360 . 363 365 . 367 . 370 . 374 . 375 . 377 379 381 386 387 389 394 398 . 401 . 402 409 411 413 . 174. Death of Montgomery in theattack of Quebec. 7 PAINTING. INTRODUCTION : MEANS AND METHODS OF PAINTING. PAIN AINTING is the art of representing on a flat surface, by means ON Times andcolours objectes as theyappearin nature — that is to say, in such a manner that the picture produced shall, within certain limits, affect the eye in the same way as do the objects themselves. To be able to accomplish this, thorough education of the mind, the eye, and the hand is required. The mind must learn the nature of the objects depicted, the eye how they appear, and the hand how to imitate them . I. FORM. In the first place, the painter must study the laws of form, and learn accurately to represent the bulk and figure of objects of every variety, whether organic or inorganic, at rest or in motion ; secondly, he must acquire a knowledge of that portion of the science of optics which embraces the laws of colour, light, and vision , including Linear perspective - i. e. the effect produced upon the apparent form and grouping of objects by the position and distance of the observer ; and aërial perspective -- i. e. the effect produced on the brightness and colour of objects by the various differences in the temperature, atmo sphere, light, etc. Thirdly, the painter must master the laws of light and shade, the right treatment of which is a most important element in painting The term chiaroscuro ( from two Italian words, signifying light and dạrk) has been given to the art of representing light and shadow , HHA-PAINTING B 2 PAINTING. together with their effect on colour. It is, in fact, the expression , in painting, drawing or engraving, of the infinite variety of effects of brightness and shade in nature — the faithful rendering of the sharp contrasts, the subtle combinations and rapid changes which nature exhibits in her ever -varying moods. The greatest masters of chiaroscuro were Titian, Correggio, Rubens, Rembrandt ( Eng. 1 ) and Velazquez ; and, in our own day, Turner. II. COLOUR.

But chiefly, the painter must know the laws of colour ; he must train his eye to recognize the most subtle gradations of tint, as well as the most vividly contrasted colours in nature, and learn not only what will be the result of the use of separate colours, but also the infinitely varied effects of harmony or contrast which may be obtained by their combinations. The three primary colours are red, yellow, and blue, which are the constituents of white light. Every variety of tint produced is a combination of two or more of these three. The secondary colours are mixtures of any two of the primary : thus red and yellow produce orange ; yellow and blue, green ; red and blue, violet or indigo, accord ing to the quantities of each ingredient. The tertiary colours are those fine shades obtained by mingling two or more of the secondary The complementary colour of any given shade or tint is that which will have to be added to it to produce white ; for if the whole of the light which is absorbed by a coloured body were re-united with the whole of the light which it reflects, white light would result. Red is complementary to green , orange to blue, indigo to orange yellow . Contrast of colour is of great importance in heightening in a picture the force of the colours contrasted ; any two of the primary colours are good contrasts to each other. Harmony of colour is the preservation of the same character of colouring in the whole of a picture : to retain it, without producing monotony, requires the greatest skill .. The greatest colourists were ones. 4 The Burgomaster Jan Six . 1.– Example of Chiaroscuro ( light and shade) in one of Rembrandt's etchings. B 2 4 PAINTING. Titian, Tintoretto, Giorgione, Correggio, Paolo Veronese, Rubens, Van Dyck , and Velazquez. The tone of a picture is the general quality of shadow, of light, or of colour prevailing throughout an entire picture. The phrase a “ high " or a “ low ” tone are used to express either a forcible or a subdued rendering of these qualities. III. COMPOSITION. Composition is the assembling together of the different objects to be represented in the picture in such a manner that they shall combine to produce a harmonious impression on the eye as a whole, and shall each engage a suitable share of attention. The terms foreground, middle distance, and background have been given, the first to the portion of a picture nearest to the spectator, the second to that somewhat removed from him, and the third to that farthest off. IV. MATERIALS. Having thus given a slight outline of the leading principles of the theory of painting, we will briefly enumerate the materials and processes employed in its practice. In speaking of the materials we must distinguish between those painted on, and those painted with. For drawing, crayons of different kinds are used ; for painting, a brush to hold the colour. 1. For drawing on paper, parchment, ivory, or other similar sub stances-pencils, chalks, charcoal, and water colours are used. 2. For painting on wood and canvas -tempera or distemper, and oil colours. For painting on wall surfaces, dry colours, tempera, wax colours, and fresco colours. The so- called lead -pencils employed in drawing do not contain any lead ; but are made of graphite or plumbago, an opaque grayish -black mineral with a metallic lustre, somewhat greasy to the touch, which MATERIALS. 5 produces a clear stroke of any thickness required, and peculiarly suitable for rapid sketching on account of the ease with which it may be effaced. Black chalk is a bluish or grayish -black material, used both for drawing and as a colour in painting ; but it is neither easy to work with nor pleasant to handle, and charcoal is preferred to it for all but small sketches. The scarcity of coloured chalks has led to the use of pastel, or chalk mixed with various colours and made into crayons, but though pastel pictures never fade, they are easily destroyed , and if pastel pictures are washed with gum to preserve them, they lose the soft, warm appearance which is their chief charm. Charcoal is well suited for sketching the outlines of large works. produces a broad stroke adhering so slightly to the ground that it may be blown away without leaving a trace. If, however, the ground be washed with lime-water and allowed to dry before the sketch is made, the charcoal will set. Nearly all large cartoons ( i.e. designs on strong paper or paste-board of the full size of the work to be executed ) of modern times are drawn in charcoal, although Kaulbach , the great German fresco painter, sometimes used chalk . Cartoons drawn in charcoal have played an important part in the history of art ever since Michelangelo's cartoons for his frescoes were exhibited at Florence in 1504 ; and some of considerable value have been produced in our own day. In working both with chalks and charcoal, the stump, a bluntly-pointed implement made of leather, is largely used in working the shadows. . In figure painting, the artist uses a living model for the study of the formation of the body and the surface of the flesh. The lay- figure on which to arrange the drapery was, it is said, invented by Fra Bartolommeo : it has been used ever since, but it is now almost super seded by the living model. In water- colour painting, prepared colours, consisting of colouring matter mixed with honey or gum -arabic, are used. Two courses are open to the artist. He may either merely wash- in a drawing in sepia or Indian ink, or he may fully colour it. In both processes, however, 6 PAINTING, the shading would be done with a brush . The light parts are painted first and the shadows put in afterwards. Painting in water - colours is carried to greater perfection in England than in any other country. But the works of modern Dutch water- colour artists prove that they are by no means backward in the art, which also finds favour with many French painters . In drawings of the quality known by the French as gouache, opaque colours are thickly spread over the drawing. They look heavy and massive, but present a favourable opportunity for the development of pure effects of colouring . By this method, which is cxtensively practised at Naples and elsewhere on the Continent, glowing effects of colour can be represented with truth and force . In England, it was practised by Walker, Pinwell and others, but at the present time transparent colo : rs are almost entirely used. In the middle ages, wood was principally employed as the ground for movable pictures ; but, as it was liable to rot and to destruction hy worms, it was supplanted in the fifteenth century by canvas, which was first used, it is said, by Rogier van der Weyden ; it is now almost universally preferred. Many paintings by the old masters have been successfully transferred in modern times from panel to canvas, in order to save them from threatened destruction. Copper has been not upfrequently used as a ground by painters, and a few pictures have been executed on marble, and some even on silver. Before oil painting was adopted, other materials were in use, to which the name of tempera or distemper colours has been given. In tempera-painting the colour is mixed with white of egg, glue or size. A painter's colours are called pigments ; those employed by the ancients appear to have been earths or oxides, mixed with gum or glue instead of oils. Unfortunately, however, colours so obtained are wanting in freshness and soon peel off. They are now only used for scene-painting and staining wall- papers, although the old masters often executed portions of their pictures in distemper, and oiled them after wards. Towards the close of the middle ages, the Italians discovered that by using albumen, or white of egg, instead of size, as a means of MATERIALS. 7 union between the particles of colouring matter, they obtained a better substance for tempera painting and one less liable to be affected by damp than materials dissolved in water. Paintings in this medium, however, dry too quickly for any elaborate working- up, and require some kind of varnish to protect them. Painting in Oils. — As early as A.D. 1000, linseed- oil was used in painting in Italy, and there are records which prove that oil was used as a medium in painting in Germany, in France, and even in England before the time of the Van Eycks ; but it was not until the fifteenth century that the best method of mixing colours with oil was discovered by the brothers Van Eyck , who quickly attained to a skill in colouring perhaps never surpassed. The old method practised by the Italians did not allow of one colour being laid on until the previous coat had dried ; and it was this inconvenience that caused Jan van Eyck to make experiments which resulted in the discovery of a better kind of oil painting, a kind which has practically prevailed until the present day. This new process was first adopted in Italy by Antonello da Messina and the painters of Naples. How or by whom it was introduced to North Italy is not certain. The implements required by a painter in oils are charcoal, chalk, or pencils for drawing his sketch ; hair -pencils or brushes ; a knife to mix, and a palette to hold his colours ; an easel on which to rest bis canvas, and a rod called a maulstick to steady his hand. His colours are mostly mineral earths and oxides , such as ochres ; or organic substances, such as cochineal, mixed with white- lead and worked up with it and oil into a kind of paste, and subsequently diluted in using with what is technically called a medium , consisting generally of a compound of mastic - varnish and boiled linseed -oil, called magilp. Large oil paintings are generally executed on canvas stretched on a frame and coated with whitening or plaster. The colour of the ground-coating varies according to the taste of the artist,-in England light grounds are preferred, —and every artist has his own peculiar methods alike of working and mixing his colours. The ordinary mode of procedure is to sketch the outline on the canvas with charcoal or pencil, and then either the colour which each 8 PAINTING . portion is to exhibit is at once employed and gradually worked -up to a sufficient finish ; or, the entire effect of light and shadow is painted in first in monochrome (one colour) , and then the colours are added in a series of transparent coats, technically called glazes, the highest lights being indicated last of all in opaque colour. Oil painting, from the great range and scope which it affords the painter, and the infinite variety of effects he is able to produce by the means at his command, has for long been the favourite manner of almost all artists, and by far the largest number of important paintings which have been executed since the discovery of this method have been carried out in it ; yet there are certain qualities in which water-colours, on the one hand, and fresco, on the other, surpass it. Easel pictures, as they are called (i. e . movable oil paintings ), occupy an intermediate position between perishable paper drawings and mural paintings. a Fresco painting . — The ancients were acquainted with several modes of painting on wall surfaces, and discovered at a very remote age that any colouring substance mixed with plaster when wet would remain in it when dry . The term fresco - an Italian word, signifying fresh — has been given to paintings made upon plaster still wet or fresh. In fresco painting a design is first sketched the full size of the subject to be represented , and a careful study in colour is made on a small scale. The pigments are generally earths or minerals, as other substances would be injured by the action of lime. The ground painted on is the last coating of plaster, which is laid on just before the artist begins his work . He first transfers the exact outlines of his composition to the wet smooth surface by pricking them through transfer-paper with some sharp instrument. The actual painting has to be done very rapidly, and the greatest skill and decision are necessary, as no subsequent alteration can be made. Any portions of plaster unpainted on when the day's work is done are cut away. The process just described is called fresco buono, to distinguish it from an inferior kind of mural painting paradoxically known as fresco secco , in which the colours mixed with water are laid on to the dry plaster. Pictures in fresco secco are in MATERIALS. 9 every respect inferior to those in fresco buono. A few years ago great importance was attached to the discovery by Dr. Fuchs of a substance called water-glass (soluble alkaline silicate ), which appeared to possess the property of giving brightness and durability to fresco - secco paint ing. Colours mixed with water- glass are called stereo chromatic ( i.e. strong coloured) . Many important works were executed in them , e.g. Maclise's Waterloo and Trafalgar, in the Houses of Parliament, and Kaulbach's mural paintings of the new Berlin Museum, but the two former already show signs of decay. The true fresco is distinguished by a singularly luminous quality of colour ; and the best Italian frescoes exhibit a breadth of effect and simplicity of execution which impart to them a dignity unapproached ( perhaps unapproachable) in oil . Hardly any specimens exist in this country, where the humid atmosphere is so detrimental to their preserv ation ; but the same qualities of dignity, simplicity, and breadth , though not the same brilliancy, may be seen in Raphael's cartoons in the South Kensington Museum, which so closely resemble fresco paint ing that they will serve better than any other accessible examples to give the English art- student a fair idea of this mode of painting as practised by the great Italian masters. Examples, by Pinturicchio and Signorelli, of fresco painting transferred to canvas, and by Domenico Veneziano of fresco in its original state, may be seen in the National Gallery, where is also a specimen of fresco secco, by Giotto Two Apostles, part of a work originally in S. Maria del Carmine, Florence : other portions are in the Liverpool Institution. Another process employed by the ancients for mural painting was that called encaustic , in which wax melted by heat appears to have been the chief ingredient for fixing and melting the colours. Paul Delaroche's large work, the Hemicycle in the Palais des Beaux Arts, Paris, is an important example of modern times. And lastly, there is spirit fresco, invented by Mr. Gambier Parry, who used it in paintings in Highnam Church , and in St. Andrew's Chapel in Gloucester Cathedral; it was also employed by Sir Frederick Leighton in his mural paintings of the Arts of War and Arts of Peace in the South Kensington Museum , and the Wise and Foolish Virgins in Lyndhurst Church. Mr. Madox Brown has likewise used it in his decoration of 10 PAINTING. the Town-ball of Manchester with scenes from the early history of that city. Mosaic painting is the art of producing designs with small square pieces of stone or glass of various colours in such a manner as to give the effect of painting. It was largely employed by the ancient Romans for pavements, and by the early Christians for the ornamenta tion of churches. The mosaics in the Cathedral of Ravenna are world. famous. At the present day it is chiefly an Italian art ; but Russian and British artists have of late years produced some successful specimens of mosaic work. The pieces of glass which go to make up the design are technically called smalts aud tesserce, and are set in cement in the same way as tiles in pavement. The Italians practise two kinds of mosaic work—the Florentine, in which small pieces of stone or shell of their natural colours are used ; and the Roman, in which smalts of every variety of shade are employed. Many of the greatest paintings of the old masters have been admirably reproduced in the latter kind of mosaic. Another kind of mosaic work has been introduced in the decoration of the South Kensington Museum, in which keramic tesseræ are used. The figures in the south court of eminent men connected with the Arts are also executed in mosaic, both vitreous and keramic, from designs by Sir F. Leighton, P.R.A., E. J. Poynter, R.A. , and other well - known artists. Painting on porcelain holds position as a fine art, and has been carried to great perfection in France and England of late years. The processes employed in painting on porcelain, enamelling, and glass staining are very similar. The colours used are principally oxides or salts of metals ground down to impalpable dust, and mixed with borax or some fusing substance ; the mediums used for making them liquid are turpentine, oil of turpentine, or spike oil : formerly each artist mixed his own colours, but now they are most frequently obtained ready prepared in tubes and in fine powder : they are laid on with hair -brushes like oil colours, either on the glazed clay or prepared metal, as the case may be, and fixed by exposure to heat in an enamel SUBJECTS. 11 kiln. In another method of painting on china, called under glaze , the colours are laid on to the unglazed surface of the china : in firing they become embodied in the ground on which they are laid , and the glaze is poured over them. A third kind, known as Majolica painting, is done with coloured glazes all made to fuse together at a special heat. In appearance it somewhat resembles Italian lustre ware. V. SUBJECTS. The subjects which a painter may represent are only limited by his powers of vision . A painter may be a historic, a portrait, a landscape, or what is called a genre painter. The term genre comprehends all pictures with figures which are not historic, especially those in which the figures are smaller than life ; and also architectural, flower, and fruit pieces, and representations of what is called still life ( i.e. dead game, fruit, flowers, etc. ) . And in any or all of these branches of his art two courses are open to the artist. He may adopt what is known as the grand or ideal style, and attempt to express the highest idea conceivable of natural perfection, or he may choose the realistic or naturalistic style, and exhibit things exactly as they are, without alteration or improvement. Even the so - called genre painter has a vast field of selection open to him , and may either degrade his art by recording trivial events or actions better forgotten, or ennoble it by immortalizing scenes which will bring the thoughts and feelings of other times and other classes vividly before the mind of the spectator. In landscape painting, the two phases open to the artist are the epic, when nature is seen in her highest moods, whether of action or repose, such as in the works of Turner and Claude Lorrain ; and the idyllic, when she appears in her simple every-day beauty, as depicted by Constable and Gainsborough. In historic and portrait painting we may perhaps recognize an ideal and a realistic school. For historic painting the suitable subjects are sacred, historic events, or dramatic scenes of stirring interest, in which the noblest human passions are brought into play, and the sight of which will awake noble emotions in the spectator. Greek and Roman Mythology have afforded countless subjects for the painter. 12 PAINTING. The chief masters of the Dutch school, such as Gerard Dou, Cuyp, Metsu, Maas, and Hobbema, may be taken as representative men who adopted the realistic style ; and the three great Italian masters of the golden age of painting-Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci—and Murillo, in Spain, were the chief apostles of the ideal style. The name of Eclectics has been given to those artists who strove to combine the excellences of both idealism and realism : of these the Carracci family were the most eminent. In recent years the term Impressionists has been applied to those artists who, especially in France, depict scenes from nature exactly as they appear to them, without reference to any canons of art, and who ignore details . Effect is their sole aim. 6 We must say one word, before turning to the history of painting, on the symbolic art, to which Ruskin has given the name of Grotesque (see · Modern Painters, ' vol. III. chap. viii. ) , and which, rightly used , exercises a wide influence for good. True grotesque art is the repre sentation, by symbols easily intelligible to all, of truths which could not readily be otherwise expressed . All allegoric pictures are in this sense grotesque. Holbein's Dance of Death, and Albrecht Dürer's Melencolia and his Knight, Death and the Devil, are fine instances of the power with which symbolic representations may bring great truths and their inevitable consequences vividly before the minds of the multitude. Coarse caricature of every variety may be characterized as false grotesque, totally unworthy of cultivation by any true artist. PAINTING IN THE CLASSIC PERIOD. 0902 Egyptian. Although it was in Greece that painting as an independent fine art must really be said to have had its rise, yet we must not pass over without mention the work of the Egyptian painters. Though intimately connected with sculpture, and also entirely sub servient to architecture, painting was largely employed by the Egyptians. The commonest form 113 is the colouring of those sculptures is which are carved in sandstone in relief, but sunk beneath the surface. The face of these sculptures was covered with a fine stucco to receive the colours, which are usually fat tints on white or yellowish ground. The subject is almost always the glorification of the reigning monarch , who is invari ably represented much larger than his followers. He is either repre sented hunting, or driving in war chariots, or cutting off the heads of his enemies, each head being symbolic of some race which he has conquered. The engraving 1 re 1 2. -The Sons of Rameses II. going to battle. In the temple of Ipsambool. presents the sons of King Rameses Time of the nineteenth dynasty. II. following their father, who is storming a mountain fortress. Egyptian painting displays an entire absence of perspective, but the treatment of the subject is systematic. It is, in fact, a combination of ground plan and elevation. The background, whether land or water, is shown as it would appear on a map, but the buildings and figures ESTE 14 PAINTING . are in elevation. Though the face is always in profile, yet the eye is represented in full. In the tombs, the paintings, which were executed on dry plaster, represent what might be called genre subjects—subjects relating to the life of the deceased, which thus give us a full insight into the habits and customs of the Egyptians. It is thought by those who have most studied the subject that it was not a lack of power which prevented the Egyptians from making greater improvement in painting, but that they were held back by “ the determination of the sacerdotal class to restrain their artists within the limits of strictly recording art, from which it might easily wander if they became too enamoured of it for 3. —Hunters bringing home Game. Egyptian Wall - Painting. its own sake.” Fixed rules were laid down for them : the glory of the reigning monarch had to be perpetuated, and it was done in the same way generation after generation. What the Egyptian artist had to do he did well, and we can not but admire the ingenuity with which he showed as much as possible in one picture, and, although trammelled by absurd conventional rules, made a really picturesque effect. Egyp tian paintings must, in fact, be looked upon as picture-writing, and the pictures as nothing more than enlarged hieroglyphics. The British Museum contains a very valuable collection of Egyptian paintings, which are unfortunately rapidly decaying, but they have been carefully copied. Of these, an artist seated at work, a picture ASSYRIAN. 15 of provisions with fruit and flowers, a group of men driving cattle, and several scenes in which birds of various kinds are introduced, are among the most remarkable. Assyrian. Painting in Assyria appears to have been purely accessory to architecture. In the companion volume on Architecture and Sculpture, reference is made to the glazed tiles decorated with coloured designs which lined the walls or formed the pavement, and to the painted bas- reliefs which adorned the palaces. The colouring appears to have been characterized by delicacy, richness, and general harmony of tone, but there is nothing left to us in the shape of pictures. Persian . Two of the galleries of the Louvre have lately been filled with interesting objects of art, brought by M. Dieulafoy from the ruins of the palace of King Darius at Susa in Persia ( B.C. 550 ) . These include, beside the famous frieze of the Archers of the Guard and the frieze of Lions, many examples of decorative art applied to panels of brick , in which alternate bands of palmettes and lotus - flowers are depicted in brilliant colours, orange, green, manganese, purple and grey in a vitreous enamel, the whole forming a mosaic of brilliant tints. Arabian and Moorish. The Arabs and Moors, forbidden as they were by their religions to copy human or animal forms, devoted their energies to the working out of a system of geometric and floral decoration, which for beauty and harmony of colouring and sense of repose has never been surpassed . The decorations of the Mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople ( A.D. 590) , and the Alhambra * ( A.D. 1250 to 1350) , some of which have been reproduced at the Crystal Palace, afford an opportunity for studying the principles of Moorish decoration in their fullest development. But, owing to the limitations to which we have referred, Pictorial Art nerer flourished.

  • See companion volume on ARCHITECTURE and SCULPTURE, P. 90.

16 PAINTING . Greek . It was in Greece that painting first became an independent art. Although we are unfortunately unable to refer to any existing specimens, it is evident from the accounts of various ancient writers that paintings of great excellence were executed in Greece at a very In the early Greek vases we are able to recognize the remote age. 4.-The Last Night of Troy. From a Greek Vase in the Museum at Naples. individual character of the painter, as distinct from the sculptor and architect. The most ancient specimens which have come down to us, and which are preserved in the various museums of Europe, display considerable knowledge of the true proportions of the human figure, and of right balance in action and in repose, combined with a genuine feeling for beauty and grace ; but we find no attempt at subtle combinations or gradations of colour, for the practice of the painter was limited to the use of white, red, yellow, and black ; nor are there any such indications of knowledge of chiaroscuro as is displayed in GREEK. 17 contemporary bas -reliefs , -and, above all , we find no trace of appreci ation of linear or aërial perspective. Nothing, on the other hand, can 202.))) PENCE 90 glasbe2221222 5.-Greek Amphora. Painted with mythological subjects . In the Royal Collection at Munich. HHA-PAINTING С 18 PAINTING. be more beautiful than the system of ornamentation of early Greek vases, in which different surfaces are admirably contrasted with each other ; or more spirited or graceful than the figures represented, in spite of their strictly conventional treatment. Different vases in the British Museum furnish us with illustrations of these remarks : the Meidias vase with the subject of the Rape of the Leucippides, and the Apuleian amphora with the Frenzy of Lycurgus, may be cited as characteristic examples. A fine amphora ( Eng. 5) in the Royal Collection at Munich is richly painted with mythological subjects. Beneath a canopy in the middle are Pluto and Persephone ; on the left is Orpheus with his lyre, and beneath is Hercules restraining Cerberus. Authentic descriptions of the works of the Greek masters prove that movable pictures of great size, representing complicated subjects, were painted for the temples and public buildings of Greece, and were highly prized. The mural paintings appear to have been executed in fresco, and the movable pictures in tempera on wood, the process known as encaustic not having been in use until the golden age of Greek art. The earliest artist of whom we are able to give any detailed account is Polygnotus (living at Athens about 450 B.C. ) , whose principal paint ings were in the celebrated portico at Athens called the Poecile, and in the Lesche or council chamber of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. In the former he represented the Greek princes assembled in council after the taking of Troy, and in the latter a series of scenes from the wars of Troy, and the visit of Ulysses to Hades. Ancient writers agree in ascribing to Polygnotus great command of colouring, and power of depicting multitudes in a spirited and lifelike manner ; but he does not seem to have attempted any but profile figures, or to have painted shadows in anything but a purely rudimentary manner ; and in the paintings at Delphi the figures were apparently arranged like those of the Egyptians in zones and groups one above another, with no assistance from either linear or aërial perspective. The next great name connected with Greek painting is that of Apollodorus of Athens, who flourished towards the close of the fifth century B.C. , and was the first to combine correctness of drawing with a right distribution of light and shade. Certain of his predecessors GREEK. 19 Dionysius of Colophon, for example — attained to some excellence in this respect, but Apollodorus was the first who thoroughly mastered the gradations alike of tints and shadows. He was, however, eclipsed by his pupil Zeuxis of Heracleia, * who lived in the latter part of the fourth century B.C. , and who was one of the first artists to paint movable pictures. His distinctive characteristics were grandeur of form and finish of execution : that he also attained to marvellous power of imitation is proved by the various tales which have been preserved of the rivalry between him and his cotemporary Parrhasius, a native of Ephesus. It is related , amongst other anecdotes,, that at a trial of skill between Zeuxis and Parrhasius, the former painted a bunch of grapes so exactly like the original that on its exhibition the birds came to peck at it, and the latter a picture covered with a fine curtain. When Zeuxis exclaimed, “ Now remove your curtain, and let see this masterpiece," the curtain was found to be the picture ! Among the most celebrated paintings of Zeuxis were his Helen , in the temple of Hera, at Croton, painted from the five most beautiful maidens he could find ; his Infant Hercules strangling Serpents, and his Zeus and Marsyas bound. In the time of Alexander, some such transition took place in Greek painting as we shall have occasion to notice in speaking of the Italian painters of the seventeenth century, when imitative dexterity and great finish was more highly thought of than inventive power. The chief painters of this period — known as the period of refinement " -were Pamphilus of Amphipolis, and his pupils Apelles, Pausias of Sicyon , Protogenes of Camirus, who, however, painted at Rhodes, and who is said to have devoted seven years to the production of his Ialysus ; Nicomachus and his brother Aristeides of Thebes, for one of whose pictures no less than £25,000 is said to have been given by Attalus of Pergamus ; Nicias of Athens, who generally painted in encaustic, and who was celebrated for his female figures ; Euphranor the Isthmian ; and lastly, Theon of Samos, who was one of the first to give impetus to the decline of Greek art. It was, however, Apelles who raised Greek painting to its fullest

  • It has never been definitely decided which of the several towns bearing this name was his birthplace, although it was most probably the Heracleia on the Black Sea.

C 2 20 PAINTING . development. He was, it is supposed, a native of Colophon : he studied first at Ephesus, and afterwards at Amphipolis under Pamphilus. His chief characteristics were his feeling for grace and beauty of form , his skill in portraiture, and the chaste simplicity of his colouring. His masterpieces were his Venus Anadyomene—in which the goddess was seen rising from the waves wringing the water from her hair, the falling drops forming a shimmering veil about her figure, --Calumny, and his portrait of Alexander the Great grasping the thunderbolt of Zeus. After the death of Alexander, painting in Greece sensibly declined. The grand style was still cultivated for several centuries ; but a marked preference was shown for a realistic manner, and for paintings of a secondary class, known as rhopography, such as would now be called genre pictures. The most celebrated Greek genre painter was Pyreicus, who painted shops and still life of every description. Caricature was also in great favour in this 6. –Painting of still life. Rhopograph. degenerate age. On a wall of a house at Pompeii. Greek Mosaics and Wall Decorations.-- Although there are no existing remains of Greek mosaics, * the mosaic art appears to have been known to the Greeks, and to have been employed for pavements and walls. From the slight traces which remain of purely decorative Greek painting-on the ceiling of the Propylæa, for instance-it is evident that the Greeks were thoroughly skilled in the true principles of ornamental art. Much discussion has arisen as to the original appear ance of this famous ceiling, which is, however, generally believed to have been painted in such a manner as to imitate ornaments in relief . At the Crystal Palace, Owen Jones endeavoured to carry out the principles supposed by him to have been in favour amongst the Greeks, and certainly obtained a very beautiful result, although its value as a reproduction has been much questioned. In the same collection an

  • Properly musaic, from opus musicum .

ETRUSCAN. 21 opportunity is afforded of studying coloured and uncoloured Greek architectural sculpture side by side. Etruscan. The entbusiasm with which the Etruscans cultivated the art of painting is manifested in the numerous tomb-paintings which have been discovered in the cemeteries of Tarquinii and at Clusium, in which ci 7.- Part of the Ficoronian Cista. Third century Bc. Found near Palestrina in 1774. Now in the Museo Kircheriano, Rome. the gradual development from the conventional Egyptian style to the perfected Greek may be traced. In the earlier specimens we see the straight lines, oblong faces, stiff limbs, and parallel folds of drapery, with which we have become familiar in our study of Eastern sculpture ; and in the later, the easy grace of Greek art. The Etruscan language not haring yet been fully deciphered, these paintings have great historic value, representing, as they do, incidents from the daily life of the deceased from the cradle to the grave, including dancing, feast ing, racing, wrestling, and, in one instance-in a tomb at Corneto - a death--bed scene. They are mostly sketches vividly coloured, and their 22 PAINTING. generally festive character, especially noticeable in the more modern examples, betrays the conversion of the Etruscans from the gloomy Egyptian creed to the Greek belief in a joyful future for the soul. The vases and urns found in Etruscan tombs are now generally admitted to be of Greek design and workmanship, and do not therefore call for separate notice here. We may, however, mention the Ficoronian Cista , so called from its first owner. It is a bronze toilet casket of cylindrical form, decorated with incised designs of great merit representing the arrival of the Argonauts in Bithynia, and the victory of Polydeuces over King Amycus. It was executed, we are told, by Novius Plautius in the third century B.C., and is undoubtedly due to Greek influence ( Eng. 7) . Roman . و No great national school of painting ever flourished in classic Rome ; the works produced were principally by Greek artists, or reproductions of Greek masterpieces. Three periods are to be distinguished in the history of painting in Rome : the Græco-Roman, dating from the conquest of Greece to the time of Augustus ; the second, from Augustus to Diocletian ; the third, from the birth of Christ to the end of the third century. The pictures found at Pompeii and Herculaneum , and those in the baths of Titus and in the numerous subterranean tombs near Rome, are painted in distemper ( or in water- colours mixed with egg, gum or glue ), — no true fresco picture having yet been dis covered, although some of the plain walls are coloured in fresco. The best and most important of the mural paintings of Pompeii (supposed to date from the first period of Roman painting) are collected in the museum of Naples, and many of them have been admirably reproduced in the Crystal Palace. The house known as that of the Tragic Poet (described in Bulwer's

  • Last Days of Pompeii ' ) , discovered in 1824-6, was especially remark

able for the grace and dignified style of its paintings, most of which represented Homeric subjects : amongst others, the Marriage of Peleus and Thetis, the Parting of Achilles and Briseis ( Eng. 9 ), the De parture of Chryseis, the Fall of Icarus, etc. The frieze of the atrium ROMAN . 23 ( i.e. court) of the Pompeian Court at the Crystal . Palace is copied BEAUA VAATUAUTUA AINAVAVA XX5CXXX BELAXIN was 8. - Wall Decoration at Pompeii. from a cubiculum (i. e. a small room opening from the atrium) of this house : it represents a Battle of the Amazons. The Sacrifice of 24 PAINTING. Iphigenia , the Deserted Ariadne, Leda presenting her first -born child to her husband Tyndareus, and other paintings, adorned the less important rooms of this celebrated residence. The mural decorations of the .مع . 9.-- The Parting of Achilles and Briseis. (Supposed to be from a Greek Painting .) From the House of the Tragic Poet at Pompeii. “ House of the Dioscuri” are even more remarkable than those enumerated above : the figures of the twin sons of Leda reining- in their horses, on one of the walls, are especially fine ; and the groups of Perseus and Andromeda, and Medea and her Children, found on ROMAN. 25 the piers of the great central peristyle, are scarcely less beautiful. The “ House of the Female Dancer " must also be mentioned, on account of the elegance and grandeur of its decorative paintings, several of which are copied in the Pompeian Court of the Crystal Palace. And recent excavations have brought to light a large house with wall decorations of singular beauty -foliage , flowers, birds, animals, fishes ; many of which are represented in violent action . A duck flies into the water with a splash : an octopus has caught a lamprey : a lion is attacking a bull : and a horse is struggling with a leopard. The leading peculiarity of all these paintings is the intensity of their colouring, accounted for by the well- known custom in Italy of darkening rooms in the day-time ; the lower portions of the walls are always painted in the strongest colours, and the upper in white or very faint tints, thus affording a sense of repose to the eye which can be better felt than described. ( Attempts have lately been made to carry out this principle in the wall-papers of modern residences.) The paintings discovered in the Baths of Titus are considered to surpass even those of Pompeii ; they represent scenes from the life of Adonis, and are characterised by severe simplicity and grandeur of composition . These Baths also contain the arabesques from which Raphael took many of his ideas for the decoration of the Vatican ; they are remarkable for imagination and harmony of colouring. Roman painting, properly so called , consisted chiefly of portraiture, in which considerable excellence appears to have been obtained. Marcus Ludius was, we are told , a celebrated portrait and landscape painter and decorator in the time of Augustus, and appears to have combined beauty of composition with truth of character ; but Roman artists never got beyond the simplest effects of light and shade, or the most rudimentary knowledge of perspective. Roman Mosaics. Numerous specimens of Roman mosaic work have come down to Almost every house in Pompeii or Herculaneum contains mosaic pavements or wall-linings. Of these the mosaic of the so-called “ Casa del Fauno " ( House of the Faun ), found in 1831 , and supposed to us. 26 PAINTING. represent one of Alexander's battles ( Eng. 10) , and the circular mosaic of the Lion crowned with Garlands by young Cupids, found in 1828, in the house of the Dioscuri, are among the most interesting. The former displays thorough command of foreshortening and perspec tive, and is thought to be a copy of some famous ancient work. Fine specimens of Roman mosaics have also been excavated in INTRO 110.-The Battle of Issus. Mosaic discovered at Pompeii. ( Supposed to be a copy of an old Greek Painting. ) Africa, France, Spain and England. Those found in London and elsewhere in Great Britain, though inferior in execution, are equal in beauty of composition and power of design to those of any other country. They were probably executed by native Britons under Roman superintendence. The remains of Roman villas with fine mosaic work discovered at Brading and elsewhere are already noticed in the companion volume on Architecture. At Salisbury, a copy of the Battle of Issus, laid as a mosaic pavement, has been lately discovered . ORIENTAL PAINTING. Persian and Indian. We have thought it best to treat of Persian and Indian Art in one chapter, as the latter almost owes its existence to the former. Unlike the followers of the Prophet, the fire-worshipping Persians were allowed to introduce animal forms into their works of art, and many fine specimens exist of paintings on tiles and other materials, in which real and symbolic birds, animals, and even human figures alternate with the elaborate floral designs in which the Persians still delight. Persian artists combine refined feeling for colour and delicate beauty of form with wonderful manual dexterity. At the present day enamelling on metal is carried to great perfection by natives of Persia, who work principally in Cashmere. In the decoration of tiles for wall-linings, ornamental painting on lacquered ware, illuminated books, and other small but rich specimens of colour-decoration, Persian artists excel. They display in these works a delicacy of colouring which surpasses that of any other Oriental nation, while their designs at least equal those of their rivals. Painting in India is chiefly accessory to architecture and sculpture, and is characterized by richness and repose of colouring, exuberance of detail, and careful though not servile imitation of nature. The sculptures of the rock- cut caves and temples, as well as the outsides of private houses, are brilliantly and often most tastefully coloured . Like the Star of Solomon in Moorish decorations, the palm is a constant feature of Indian ornamental art, and appears to have some important symbolic significance. With this exception, elaborately worked- out patterns are rare, foliage being treated in an easy, supple manner, without any adherence to strict rules. In the productions of modern Indian artists the effect obtained by the judicious use of gold is really marvellous. We see combinations of colour with a sense of repose and delight, which, if merely described, we should con sider absolutely incompatible with good taste. Glaring contrasts are neutralized, and glowing colours toned down by meandering lines of gold so subtly interwoven with the design, that, in the words of Racinet, the great French writer on decorative painting, " we see the whole as through a transparent web of gold." 28 PAINTING. One of the best examples of Persian painting is afforded by the illustrations to the copy of the Razm Námah * ( the Persian abridgment from the original Sanskrit of the Mahubharata , one of the two great epic poems of Ancient India, relating the contest between two rival families both descendants of a King Bharata ), which is the greatest treasure of the Royal Library at Jaipur. The Razm Námah owes its origin to the great Akbar, who, being convinced that the fanatical hatred prevailing between the Hindus and the Mussulmans mainly arose from mutual ignorance, endeavoured to make the works of the former accessible to the latter ; and in 1582 selected the Mahábhárata for translation. The Jaipur book, which is thought to have been Akbar's own copy, contains 169 full-page miniatures, well -drawn and illuminated in the highest style of Persian Art. It is said that four lakhs of rupees (then more than equivalent to £40,000) were paid with true Oriental magnificence to the artists, who were the greatest of their time, and included Daswanth and Basáwan, the most cele brated painters at Akbar's court. To Daswanth and Bhora, another famous artist, is ascribed the miniature ( Eng. 11 ) , in which Yudhish thira, Maharajah of Bharata, with Krishna and the Pandavas are szen holding a great feast at Hastinápur before letting loose the White Horse on his year of wandering. This sixteenth century representation of a Royal banquet would serve as a truthful transcript of present customs. It will be noted that the men sit apart from the women. In the libraries of other Rajahs of India are copies of various historic 1Indian works beautifully illuminated . At Ulwar is a copy of the Gúlistún, which is said to have cost over a lakh of rupees. The palaces at Jaipur, at Amber, and elsewhere in the Rajput States, and indeed throughout India, are decorated with hunting- and battle scenes and representations of domestic life, executed in a species of fresco. They all display a marked influence of Persian art, and a strict adherence to old traditions. Specimens of independent paintings by natives of India are rare, but the few which have been exhibited from time to time prove that

  • A description in English with photographic reproductions of the plates has been published by W. Griggs of Peckham .

و با خودش و متن ترانه سربیا می توان در همین و نمره دمنتها این مورد رزن ربه مرکز خرمها شنا کرد این و به، وتی زن نا جو ناس در این مدت بر مرد کی طرن به و در دید یکی با این وجود در کشنده دوباره ی گران کرده و دور می بیده بر که شاه وب سران این شبکه و بار دیگر و مدو زیان برد. بنشست دکن کا نمر وہ ادیان همه ما با زدن درد در روز کی مہم شرمبنت لب دادو من که به جای دنیا انواع میی شالید دانه ازمان دفاع اطر مباشر . وعلاوه بر روند و بعدان مرغ من مناع VINIAI 11.-The Feast at Hastinapur. By Daswanth and Bhora . Sixteenth century. From the copy of the Razm Námah in the Royal Library at Jaipur. 30 PAINTING with a little encouragement and instruction Indian artists might hope to compete successfully with Europeans. As proofs of this , we may instance the small paintings ; the miniature portraits of the Emperor of Delhi and different chiefs ; and a series of architectural drawings which were amongst the Art Treasures at Manchester in 1857, as well as the examples of enamels and paintings sent from Jaipur and other Indian States to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886. , Chinese. The early bistory of pictorial art in China is lost in obscurity. In the first century of the Christian era , it received an impetus by the importation of Buddhistic paintings and statues from India. The first artist whose name is recorded is Tsao Fuh-hing, who painted, in the third century, Buddhistic pictures for the temples. The style of Chang Sang -Yiu, who lived in the middle of the sixth century, was much copied by later artists . Wu Tao- tsz, of the eighth century, we are told, was especially famous for Buddhistic pictures and for portraits. His landscapes, too, are said to have been of extraordinary vigour, and full of picturesque beauty. The oldest Chinese pictures existing date from the tenth to the sixteenth century. In the “ White " wing of the British Museum is arranged a very instructive and interesting series of Chinese and Japanese drawings, from the earliest years to modern times, purchased from Mr. W. Anderson, formerly attaché to the British Legation in Japan. Of the best Chinese pictures we may mention a White Eagle, attributed to the Emperor Hwei-Tsung, who lived in the twelfth century, and was celebrated for his drawings of falcons : Three Rishis * in the Wilderness, by Ngan Hwui of the thirteenth century ; and a Philosopher and Disciples by Si-kin Kü-tsze of the fifteenth century ; the types and costumes of which are distinctly Korean in character : the drawing of the heads is full of individuality. In addition to these, there are several beautifully -executed drawings of geese, eagles, cranes and other birds, dating from the twelfth to the sixteenth century.

  • The Rishis were creations of philosophy and superstition , who play a great part in the mythology of China and Japan.

IN JAPAN . 31 All the pictures mentioned are Kakémonos, * mostly in colours, and all are on silk, except the Philosopher, which is on paper. In the sixteenth century, a decadence set in in the art of China, and Japan then took the precedence, which she has maintained until to-day. > Japanese. Though to most European eyes the art of Japan may appear rudi mentary and undeveloped, yet on more careful study, it will be seen that much which might at first sight be put down to ignorance is the result of intention. Though many schools of art have been formed in the country, no decided evidence of progression can be found, for the disciples of each particular school have continued the traditions of their predecessors through centuries. Thus the works of the Yamato School of to-day bear a strong resemblance to the pro ductions of that school in the eleventh century. More truth to nature is to be observed in all Japanese representations of flowers, animals, birds and fish , than in their pictures of human figures. Japanese pictures may be divided into two classes - the Buddhistic which display richness of effect mainly produced by the free use o gold ; and the secular, which are noted for calligraphic dexterity. The one typifies colouring, and the other draughtsmanship. Of the former, which are somewhat akin to similar works in India, we may note the tale of Raiko and the Shiūten -Doji, which narrates in twenty -four dramatic scenes ( in the British Museum) the destruction in A.D. 947 by Raiko of a man-eating ogre, and dates from the seventeenth century. The artist is unknown. The first painter recorded in the annals of Japanese art is a Chinese immigrant of royal descent, known as Nan-riú (or Shin -ki), who flourished in the fifth century, and one of whose descendants was also celebrated as a painter. In the ninth century arose one of Japan's Chinese and Japanese drawings consist of Makimonos - pictures which are pulled out sideways from rolls often many yards in length , and seldom more than fifteen inches deep : Kakémonos, or hanging pictures, which, when complete, are fitted with borders of coloured silks harmonizing with the tone of the pictures ; and Gakus, or pictures stretched and framed in wooden or metal frames. Both Kakémonos and Makimonos are rolled up when not in use . 32 PAINTING greatest artists, Kosé no Kanaoka, who is said to have taken the works of the Chinese Wu Tao-tsz for his model. He was, we are told, very successful in the delineation of landscapes, figures and horses ; but all that remain of his works are a few Buddhistic pictures, which however bear witness to his merit. His followers were known as the Kosé line . One of the disciples, Kasu.ga Moto -mitsu, founded in the eleventh century the Yamato-Tosa school , to which belonged Mitsu oki, famed for his delicately- painted drawings of quails. This school continues to the present day. A third section adhered to the Chinese style. In earlier times, they gave themselves to the glorification of Buddha and to Chinese landscapes ; latterly they have painted birds, quadrupeds and flowers. The disciples of the Takuma school, founded in the tenth century by Takuma Tamé-uji, devoted themselves to pictures of Buddha and his apostles. In the fifteenth century, a revival took place in the art of Japan, in the form of a return to the early art of the Chinese of the Sung, Yüen and Ming dynasties : and it is the art of this revival which is illustrated in the collection of the British Museum. " A vast number of their pictures, ” says Professor Sidney Colvin, speaking of the Chinese school of Japan, “ are composed from no more ambitious material than a slight reminiscence of vegetable life, such as a limb of bamboo or pine, a peony or orchid, or a flowering branch of plum or peach. Spirited and life - like sketches of birds * * were equally common, and in most cases conveyed to the Chinese and Japanese a poetical or emblematic meaning, that ensured a lasting popularity for the motive . ” The illustration which we give ( Eng. 12) tends to prove that this love of representing birds has continued to the present day. Mammalia, reptiles , and fish were also represented . “ Side by side with these creatures of the natural world, others belonging to supernatural or mythical zoology — monstrous animals and monstrous men of various significance and invention - have abounded in the representations of this school.” They were also famous for their landscapes. “ Cascades, pools, and streams ; towering silicic peaks and rugged headlands; gnarled fantastic pines and plum -trees, side by side with the graceful stem and feathery foliage of the bamboo ; mansions or pavilions crowning the heights or bordering the expanse of an inland

1 IN JAPAN. 33 lake, and straw -thatched cottages nestling in the valleys ; these were elements that the Chinese landscape painter assorted and reconstructed into a thousand pictures.” Of the painters of this Revival, the principal were Shiu -bun, of the fifteenth century, who is represented by a Chinese Landscape : Sesshiu, a 12.— Wild Goose. Japanese drawing. Niueteenth century. a versatile artist of the sixteenth century, by whom are Hotei * and Children ( painted when the artist was eighty - three years of age), and two Landscapes, in which he chiefly excelled. He visited China for inspiration , and was honoured with a command to paint in the Royal Palace, and, on his return to Japan, founded the Sesshiu school :

  • One of the seven gods of good fortune.

HHA - PAINTING D 34 PAINTING. 66 Oi-no -suké, afterwards called “ Motonobu,” the founder of the Kano school , who died at the age of eighty-two in 1559. Of him, we are told that his painted fans were chosen as ceremonial gifts to the Emperor and Shögun. Motonobu's father was Kano Masanobu, a pupil of Shiu-bun ; and his brother and his three sons also excelled in the art—as did his descendants for several generations. The earlier works of the Kano school are executed, frequently in monochrome, but occasionally heightened with washes of colour, with the greatest dexterity : the later paintings display more elaborate workmanship and a free use of gold. Of the Ukiyo -yé-riu, or Popular school of Japan, whose works have been distributed by means of wood engravings in book -illustrations , playing- cards, & c ., the most famous disciple was Hoku - sai, " the most powerful artistic genius of the Japanese race," who belongs to the close of a long line of talented book illustrators of whom the first was Moronobu, who died between 1711 and 1716 . As most of Hoku sai's works were executed for engraving * on wood, and have been thereby destroyed, original sketches by his hand are rare. He died in 1849. In the British Museum is a kakémono on silk by him representing Demons trying the bow of Tamétomo. Before closing this brief sketch of the history of art in Japan, we must mention the Kō-rin school, founded by Ogata Kõ-rin, of the late seventeenth century, who was specially famous for his lacquer work ; the Shijā or naturalistic school of Japan, of which the founder was Maru- yama-ākio, who, born in 1733, created quite a beneficial revo lution in the art of painting, and to which belonged So-sen, the Japanese Landseer, celebrated for his representations of monkeys ; and lastly, the Ganku school, established by Kishi Dö- ko, better known as Gan -ku, who is especially famous for his drawings of tigers (an example of which is in the British Museum).. His followers adopted something of the style of the Shijō School.

  • The art of wood - engraving was practised in Japan in the thirteenth century. Wood- cuts were first printed in colour about the beginning of the eighteenth century.

PAINTING IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE AGES. Early Christian . About A.D. 50—A.D. 1300. The first examples of early Christian painting are to be found in the Catacombs, the walls, recesses, and ceilings of which were decorated with simple frescoes. In the first two centuries, owing to the hatred of everything which could recall the old idolatry, symbols alone were employed, and even these were limited to forms not appropriated to heathen deities. As the power of the Roman Empire declined , and with it its monopoly of art -forms, the love of art-- innate in every native of Greece and Italy-once more asserted its sway ; and in the third and fourth centuries, although still to a certain extent hampered by the dread of reviving idolatry , the early Christians were permitted to adorn the Catacombs with something more than formal signs. We now find Christ represented as The Good Shepherd , or as Orpheus taming the Beasts with his Lyre, etc. Our illustration (Eng. 13) affords an example of this second class of fresco ; it is taken from the catacombs of S. Calisto, on the Via Appia, Rome, beneath the church of S. Sebastiano. This church also contains one of the first portraits of Christ, which is supposed to have been executed at a somewhat later date. In the paintings of the Pontian Catacombs on the Via Portuensis, dating from the fifth century, we note a further advance : the portrait of Christ, especially, differs essentially from the old Greek idea, and is of a purely Christian type. The chief character, istics of early Christian painting as exhibited in the Catacombs, are a simple earnestness and majesty, and a grandeur of composition but little inferior to the frescoes of the best age of the old Empire, combined with what we may call a " spirituality " peculiarly their own. The Chris tian artists had to express their belief in the immortal soul animating even the poorest and most distorted human forms, and it is their spiritual significance which gives importance to these early paintings .

Mosaics. - When Christianity became the religion of the State in the time of Constantine, Christian painting, no longer condemned to a Copies in water- colours and photography of many of the Catacomb paintings may be seen in the South Kensington Museuin .

D 2 36 PAINTING subterranean life, was called upon to decorate the vast basilicas and churches appropriated to the new worship. At first tempera and encaustic colours were exclusively employed by the artists, but these were soon supplanted by mosaics. The only existing Christian mosaics 000000000 LO000 200 000000000 TETER DJ000000000 00000000000 P3 00000000000000 COU000 1000000 13.—Christ as Orpheus. Fresco from the Catacombs of S. Calisto, Rome. Ceiling Painting. The surrounding pictures are scenes from the Old Testament. attributed with any degree of certainty to the fourth century are those on the ceiling of S. Costanza, near Rome, which are of a purely decorative character. The mosaic in the tribune of S. Pudenziana dates, it is thought, perhaps from the fourth century. It represents Christ with S. Praxedis and S. Pudenziana and the Apostles, and above them IN THE CATACOMBS. 37 the emblems of the evangelists ; but it is now so much damaged that its true date cannot be readily assigned. In the fifth and succeeding centuries attempts were made to produce important historic pictures in mosaics ; but the intractability of the material led to a general preference for the simplest subjects. As we advance further and further from the times of persecution , we note an ever -widening difference between the paintings of the Catacombs and the church mosaics. This difference is well illustrated by the mosaics on the Triumphal Arch of the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura, at Rome, dating from the second half of the fifth century, for in them the antique spirit which had unconsciously influenced the artist of the sepulchres is almost extinct : the old Christian symbolism is gone ; and, instead of scenes of suffering and death above which Faith rises triumphant, we have representations of the Saviour enthroned in glory, surrounded by the redeemed . The Virgin does not appear to have been represented until the latter part of the fifth century. In the sixth century were produced the mosaics of SS. Cosmo e Damiano, considered the best in Rome, and deserving special mention as being amongst the last in which the figure of Christ retains the quiet majesty characteristic of the Catacomb portraits, and in which the saints appear in natural groups and attitudes, instead of the stiff parallel rows subsequently adopted. The mosaics of the tribune of S. Agnese in Rome ( 625—638) are good specimens of the transition period, the heads of the Saviour, and the Virgin, being purely conventional, whilst some of the figures are dignified, graceful, and free from Byzantine stiffness . Those in the basilicas of S. Apollinare Nuovo, and S. Vitale, at Ravenna, are of special importance now that the church of S. Paolo at Rome is destroyed, as they are the only existing specimens which give a just idea of the way in which every available space was covered with these brilliant decorations, in the centuries under notice. To the ninth century belong the mosaics of S. Prassede, on the Esquiline Hill, and those above the tribune of the church of S. Maria della Navicella, on the Calian Hill. Of Illuminated Manuscripts, an unbroken series have come down to 38 PAINTING us from early Christian times, many of which give proof of considerable imaginative power and true feeling for all that is best in antique art. To this class belong the Book of Joshua in the Vatican , a parchment roll more than thirty feet long, dating from the seventh or eighth century, but supposed to be a copy of an early Christian work of the period we have been reviewing ; and the celebrated Virgil of the Vatican, an original work of the fourth or fifth century. The time of Charlemagne was the great period for manuscript illuminations ; many fine specimens are preserved in the National Library in Paris, the British Museum, and the Libraries of Treves and Tours. Byzantine. Soon after the conquest of Italy by the Longobards, Christian art branched off into two schools, to which the names of the Late Roman and the Byzantine have been given. The foundations of the latter are supposed to have been laid early at Byzantium ( Constantinople) , the seat of the Eastern Empire ; but it did not attain to importance until the sixth century. Its predominance marks the period of the deepest decline of Italian art—which, however, still retained, though latent, the vital spark which was to be again fanned into flame in the thirteenth century. The leading characteristics of Byzantine painting, which , with Oriental tenacity, it has retained unchanged to the present day, are the use of flat gold grounds instead of the blue hitherto preferred , a stiffness in the treatment of the human figure, -rigid conventional forms utterly devoid of beauty replacing the majestic types of the Late Roman school, -artificially-arranged draperies in long straight folds, and a great neatness and carefulness of execution. The hot controversy as to the personal appearance of Christ, —the Romans maintaining Him to have been the “ fairest of the children of men , " and the Byzantine Greeks that He had no beauty of person , exercised a most important influence on the art both of the East and the West, and accounts in a great measure for the difference in the treatment of sacred subjects by the artists of the two schools. Our limits forbid us to do more than name the most important mosaics of the Byzantine school. Those of S. Sophia at Constantinople, BYZANTINE. 39 although many have been destroyed, still retain much of their original splendour : our illustration ( Eng. 14) is from the porch , and represents the Emperor Justinian doing homage, with truly Oriental servility, to the enthroned Redeemer. Until the thirteenth century, Venice was little more than a Byzantine colony, and in the mosaics of Saint Mark's we have an opportunity of studying the Byzantine style in all its purity. Other Western Byzan tine mosaics, dating from the time of the Normans, may be studied in the cathedral of Monreale, near Palermo ; in the Capella Reale in that TOP EM HNATO TYMINGT ECC KUGA alich B. 14. -Christ adored by Justinian . Sixth Century. Mosaic in the Porch of S. Sophia, Constantinople. city ; and in various buildings of Southern Italy and Sicily. The Monreale mosaics have been admirably illustrated, and deserve study as showing how great a mastery of dramatic power could be attained by artists who yet were fettered by many conventional rules, and whose power of representing the human figure was very rude. As specimens of colouring they are magnificent. The manuscript illuminations of the Byzantine school are principally copies of Roman works, and do not call for any special notice . In their purely decorative painting, Byzantine artists attained to considerable proficiency ; their geometrical mosaics are very ingenious in pattern and always good in colour, but from the thirteenth century Byzantine art gradually declined in both technical and inventive power . ofReve di ladiny отрета all/ Uppa UA I Magbiore .Como Trent Eeliste Capo di Ponte SeniDaniela Belbyr PE Udine Spilimberga Forelende Conegliand saiki Lago Bassano Bergamoseo A Bellougon Serinaer Serhalten Como Zegno Castiglione donna Oggiono Tralis Miland Carpaq Brescia Cerano . N Cart Ufranco hiver Brem Mestre I Treviso Mutung Venice > i Vicenza E Verona Zerto Mantua rozato Crema River N codSSA cckigradua Pavia Cremona ♡ Gorzone lanal River Rurer Po Casalingiore Sostegnaro Rovigonal a M Primaro ADRIATIC SE A Gema Bagnacavallo Faeniat Topola OF GENOA FI ‘LÜCC River Piadenza Mouths Bondeně aufalo of the Po Ferrara Correggopa Parnta Dossa R Volano Reggio Centl Modena Bologna G Cotanola Ravenna otsolarCastiglione Forli Spezzones Carrara Rimini Bicchio delMugeble Pistoja Bergo Santiérento Pesaro Restorca Prato rimtocelle grange the Fiesoleil Cerpet, Florencecompleto H.Arnos Empoli Ancona Figlino Angelo iz Vado PLeghorn , E NATIN BoggoSursepolay Castel San GiovanArg.zod wanted castello San Gimignan Loreto Listinghome Sassoferrate Siena Florentino Costona tabriano Asciano Castit prassignano Campiglia M.Pulciarily PerigiaAssisi Camerino SIENES Crita E della Pieve Foligno Ascoli Perufaogelco Elha Casuglione Bolsé ofi Pitigtasto Viterbo Riptir 脚 たり 時におい What canbe Vrbicastelfo Summodo Slonia R Lavrolterra R.Tsino GUNAI Macerata, S.SeveringFermo Gualdot Indukung oleh Orvietoly Terni Spoleto Fusio TO BRUZZO med Essum odnuti Castelnuova Pri Avezzano Scale of English Miles " Tivoli CivitaVecchini thanol ROME 250 15. — Sketch Map of Italy in the sixteenth century. PAINTING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. In Italy. A.D. 1100-A.D. 1440. 6 Tue publication of Sir Austen Henry Layard's revised edition of Kugler's Handbook of Painting of the Italian Schools ' has done much to familiarize English readers with recent continental criticism on Italian Art. Signor Morelli has of late years called in question, in no measured terms, the ascriptions of some of the well- known masterpieces of Italian Art ; and so much to the point have been his remarks that several of our best critics have agreed with many, if not all, of his re- baptisms. Signor Morelli's is, if not a new style , at least a novel application of criticism in art. He judges paintings by the peculiarities of draughtmanship, visible in original drawings and well authenticated paintings, such as the formation of the ear, the head, and the eye, and by this system of analytical examination he has succeeded in overthrowing many previously expressed opinions. Reference to abstruse questions of authenticity arising between critics would of course be out of place in an Elementary History of Art which cannot do more than lightly touch on the leading painters of each school : but it is none the less essential that the student should learn to discriminate between undoubted and authentic pictures and works by followers and imitators. And a careful study of the varied styles prevalent in Italy which led up to the Renaissance will ever repay the student by assisting him to form a just appreciation of the many schools which succeeded it both in Italy and elsewhere. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, Italian society was still utterly disorganized, and the practice of decorative art was almost entirely discontinued . The few pictures produced were either in the worst form of the Byzantine style, or the rudest reproductions of antique types. As early as the beginning of the twelfth century, however, the Republics of Upper and Lower Italy gained strength and stability, whilst a new 42 PAINTING ve and independent style of art gradually developed itself, displacing alike the Byzantine and the Late Roman , -a style which may be called purely Christian, and which owes its rapid growth mainly to the patronage of the Church. In the mosaics of S. Maria in Trastevere at Rome ( 1139—1153) , and of the basilica of S. Clemente, also at Rome, a marked improvement is noticeable ; but the art apparently did not advance further until the commencement of the thirteenth century, when the fusion of the two conquering races of Sicily — the Normans, and their predecessors the Arabs—had become complete, and the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204 had led to the immi gration into Italy of artists well acquainted with all the technical pro cesses of painting, although unable to turn them to the best account. Henceforth the history of painting is the history of individual men, a fact significant alike of the new position to which art was promoted and of the new political freedom enjoyed in the Republics. Allusion has been already made to the important part taken in the revival of sculpture by the famous Niccola Pisano, * and there can be no doubt that he greatly influenced his cotemporaries in every branch of art, The distinctive feature of this revival, in which Tuscany took the lead , was-as remarked by Mrs. Jameson in her · Lives of the Early Italian Painters '-— " that art became imitative as well as representative, although in the first two centuries the imitation was as much imaginary as real ; the art of looking at nature had to be learnt before the imitating her could be acquired . " The first Italian painters to take part in the new movement were Giunta of Pisa, Guido of Siena, Buonaventura Berlingieri of Lucca, Margaritone of Arezzo, Maestro Bartolommeo of Florence, and Andrea Tafi (the greatest mosaic-worker of the thirteenth century) , all of whom followed the Byzantine style, with certain modifications significant of the stirring of the new life in art. Among the few paintings by Margaritone which now remain , there is in the National Gallery ( No. 564) The Virgin and Child, with Scenes from the Lives of the Saints, which is, on every account, most character istic and important, as showing the state of art at the end of the thirteenth century. “ These pictures of his," says Mr. Monkhouse,

  • In the companion volume, on ARCHITECTURE and SCULPTURE.

1 IN FLORENCE. 43 “ may show aa certain decorative sense * , * but their drawing is atrocious ; it is worth while to study them, until we feel how grim and ugly and lifeless they are, and how much pleasure would disappear from existence if all pictures were now like these.” In the works of Giovanni Cimabue of Florence, who has been called 16. —Madonna and Child. By Cimabue. Late thirteenth century. In the National Gallery. -not altogether with justice — the founder of modern Italian painting, we recognize a very decided advance in representing form and in the expression of action , although his figures are still of the long-drawn Byzantine type. Of his existing paintings the principal are a colossal Madonna in the Rucellai chapel of S. Maria Novella , Florence, (of which a fine water -colour copy may be studied in the Crystal Palace) ; a 44 PAINTING Madonna and Child in the Academy of the same town ; and the frescoes on the vaulted ceiling and above the walls of the nave of the upper church of S. Francesco at Assisi , of which the best are the Kiss of Judas, the Marriage at Cana, the Deposition from the Cross, and Joseph and his Brothers. His Madonna and Child, in the National Gallery ( Eng. 16 ), may be studied as an indication of the early dawn of the new birth of art in Florence. As cotemporaries of Cimabue who were influenced by his work, we must name Jacobus Toriti, author of some fine mosaics in the tribunes of S. Giovanni in Laterano and S. Maria Maggiore at Rome ; Giovanni Cosmato, author of mosaics in the latter church and in that of S. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome ; Gaddo Gaddi, the painter of an Ascension of the Virgin in the cathedral of Pisa, and a Coronation of the Virgin in the cathedral at Florence ; and, above all , Duccio di Buoninsegna of Siena, the chief painter of the Sienese school of this period, who exe cuted a famous series of paintings, representing scenes from the Passion of Christ, the Entry into Jerusalem, etc. , in the cathedral of Siena, and other minor works, in which he perhaps displayed greater feeling for beauty and knowledge of form than Cimabue himself. The National Gallery contains three pictures by Duccio, and two by his cotemporary Ugolino da Siena. In these works evidence may be noticed of the practice of the early masters of laying the ground of flesh tints in green, on which the high lights were thickly painted, while it was allowed to show through for the shadows. > We have now reached the second stage of the development of the Italian school of painting, and shall have to distinguish between two styles into which it branched off in the time of Giotto. We still find Tuscany taking the lead , but Tuscan artists are no longer of one mind. The head - quarters of one school was Florence-of the other, Siena. The Florentines and their followers , who derived their practice to a certain extent from the early Sienese masters, were distinguished for vigour of conception and richness of composition ; the Sienese, for warmth of feeling and grace in the treatment of single figures. At the head of the new Florentine school stands Ambrogiotto Bondone, known as Giotto, who was the first Italian IN FLORENCE. 45 painter to free himself entirely from Byzantine traditions, and who exercised a lasting influence on art in every part of Italy. According to an old tradition, now exploded, Giotto began life as a shepherd-boy on the mountains near Vespignano, his native place, and his artistic genius was first discovered by Cimabue, who surprised him, when a child of some ten or twelve years old, drawing one of his sheep on a 17.- Obedience. By Giotto. Early fourteenth century. In the Lower Church of S. Francesco at Assisi. piece of smooth slate with a sharply-pointed stone. Cimabue at once took him to his own home in Florence, and taught him the rudiments of his art. It was not long before Giotto surpassed his master ; and his earnest study of nature, and steadfast resistance to all that was false or unnatural in art, effected a reformation in painting the value of which it is impossible to over- estimate. In knowledge of form, of chiaroscuro, and of perspective, he is generally allowed to have been 46 PAINTING deficient ; but his force of conception, his power of preserving right balance in complicated groups, of expressing natural character, and his feeling for grace of action and harmony of colour, justly entitle him to the high position assigned to him as the founder of the true ideal style of Christian art, and the restorer of portraiture. The cotem- . porary and friend of Dante, he stands at the head of the school of allegoric painting, as the latter of that of poetry. The following may be taken as typical works by this great master : -the historic paintings representing thirty-eight scenes from the lives of the Virgin and Christ in the chapel of the Madonna dell' Arena at Padua ; the frescoes in the lower church of S. Francesco at Assisi, over the tomb of the saint ( Eng. 17) , representing scenes from the life of that saint, of which two of the best are the Marriage of S. Francis to Poverty, and the Death of S. Francis ; the celebrated mosaic, known as the Navicella, in the old basilica of S. Peter, Rome, representing a ship on a stormy sea containing the disciples, with Christ walking on the waves ( still preserved, much restored, in the vestibule of the pre sent S. Peter's) ; the Seven Sacraments, in the church of the Incoronata at Naples, in which Giotto departed from his usual symbolic style and painted actual scenes of human life ; and a series of small paintings on wood in the Florence Academy. A fine Portrait of Dante, by Giotto, was discovered in 1840 on a wall in the palace of the Podestà at Florence. * Several of the works of Giotto, and many of those by Italian artists who flourished at or near the time to which we are referring, have been reproduced in chromo- lithography by the Arundel Society. The general characteristics of the early Italian painters may be well studied at the National Gallery, which is tolerably rich in speci mens of the various early schools of Italy and Germany. Two Apostles, by Giotto, and a Coronation of the Virgin, by a disciple of his school, are of the class to which we allude. Two works by Giotto are in the Liverpool Institution : they are the Presentation of S. John the Baptist to Zacharias, and Salome with the head of the Baptist, both from Santa Maria del Carmine at Florence. In Giotto's paintings the colours are lighter and of a more roseate hue than those of his predecessors ; they were mixed with a thinner medium, and are very well preserved. Not

  • Recent writers have thrown doubts on its authenticity.

IN FLORENCE. 47

only in painting, but also in sculpture and architecture, was Giotto famous. The Campanile at Florence was built from his designs, and some of the sculptures which adorn the base are said to be by his hand. Taddeo Gaddi was the chief of Giotto's scholars, and his works are considered the most important produced in the early half of the four teenth century. He was especially successful in historic subjects, in which he displayed great feeling for truth and beauty, and a more thorough knowledge of colouring and chiaroscuro than Giotto. Three pictures of his school are in the National Gallery. The frescoes in the Cappella de' Spagnuoli in the cloister of S. Maria Novella at Florence, which illustrate the newly instituted festival of the Corpus Christi and scenes from the life of S. Domenic, were formerly ascribed to him , and also to Simone di Martino, but they are now attributed to Andrea da Florentia, who is known to have executed the frescoes in the chapel of San Ranieri in the Campo Santo at Pisa , and who probably belonged to the Sienese School. Andrea di Cione -- called Orcagna, * although he did not study under Giotto, was greatly influenced by his paintings : his works are re markable for their grace, energy, and imaginative power. His principal paintings are the Last Judgment and Paradise, in the Cappella Strozzi, in S. Maria Novella at Florence. The National Gallery contains a , large altar- piece in twelve pieces by Orcagna, representing in the centre, in three divisions, the Coronation of the Virgin , with nine other scenes connected with the life of Christ, which were formerly placed over them. It was originally painted for S. Pietro Maggiore, Florence. The Triumph of Death and the Last Judgment in the Campo Santo at Pisa, which for many years rendered Orcagna's name famous, are now given to other painters ; by some to the Lorenzetti, and by others to Nardo Daddi, whose known work in Santa Croce and the Ognossanti, however, is considered to hardly justify the ascription of these fine frescoes to him . Another famous follower of Giotto was Giottino, so called from his success in imitating his master. He took some share in the paintings of the church of S. Francesco at Assisi. Stefano Florentino must also

  • The shortened form of his sobriquet · L'Arcagnuolo.'

48 PAINTING be mentioned, on account of the great improvement he effected in the imitation of form, although no existing work can be ascribed to him. Other painters influenced by Giotto are Giovanni da Milano, a fellow worker with Taddeo Gaddi ; Jacopo di Casentino ; and his pupil Spinello Aretino of Arezzo, the author of several of the frescces in the Campo Santo at Pisa ; and lastly, Giovanni and Agnolo Gaddi, sons of Taddeo. Sweden

33

... CALEما أنته فى 2499999 18.—The Preaching of S. Domenic against the Heretics. * Fragment of the fresco formerly attributed to Simone di Martino, now ascribed to ANDREA DA FLORENTIA. In S. Maria Novella , Florence. About A.D. 1340. The importance of the art of Siena of this period has only been fully recognized of late years. Vasari's partiality for his fellow -countrymen led him to treat the Sienese painters with brevity, with the result that until quite recently their work has not been properly appreciated. Of the Sienese school, the members of which aimed rather at spiritual expression than an exact imitation of corporeal form , Simone di

  • The dogs in this picture are black and white, in allusion to the dress of the order (Domini Canes).

IN SIENA. 49 Martino, known as Simone Memmi, a cotemporary of Giotto and the friend of Petrarch, was the chief. Very few of his works now remain : the frescoes in the Cappella de' Spagnuoli in S. Maria Novella, formerly thought to be Simone's chief work, are now, as we have seen, ascribed to Andrea da Florentia. In the Palazzo Pubblico, at Siena, is an important fresco by him of the Virgin and Child with Saints, of the year 1315 ; but he can be best studied in the church of S. Francesco, at Assisi. Ambrogio Lorenzetti ( the dates of whose birth and death are un known) was the most famous of a family of artists. His principal works are a series of allegoric frescoes, representing the Results of Good Government and the Results of Bad Government, painted in 1337 39 , in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena ; and to him and his elder brother Pietro Lorenzetti are now given, by some, the frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa, formerly, on the testimony of Vasari, ascribed to Orcagna. Taddeo di Bartolo, who painted at Pisa, Siena, S. Gemignano, Volterra, Arezzo and Padua, upheld , if he did not advance the reputation of this school. The work of Matteo da Siena is to be noticed for the religious sentiment which it possesses. The Madonna della Neve, of the year 1477 , at Siena ; his representations of the Massacre of the Innocents, and the Assumption of the Virgin in the National Gallery, which “ displays all the most characteristic qualities of the Sienese School of the fifteenth century , ” may be reckoned his best works. Pacchiarotto and Del Pacchia are two painters of the Sienese school , whose lives and works have alike been confused by historians and critics. A Virgin and Child in the National Gallery, at one time ascribed to the former, is now given to the latter. The fame of these artists was, however, far outshone by that of Bazzi, whom we shall notice further on amongst the followers of Da Vinci. Whilst the art of painting was making rapid strides towards per fection in Tuscany, a simultaneous advance was taking place in Umbria, Rome, Venice, and other parts of Italy. " The early Florentine and Umbrian schools were not sufficiently distinct for it to be necessary to particularize the peculiarities of the latter ; and the early masters of HHA - PAINTING E 50 PAINTING the Roman school were greatly influenced by Giotto. Of these, Pietro Cavallini was the most remarkable ; the Crucifixion in the church of Assisi, formerly considered his best existing work, is now thought to be by Pietro Lorenzetti. Towards the close of the fourteenth century great progress was made in Rome, and many artists rose into fame. Of these, Gentile da Fabriano, who, however, belongs to the Umbrian school, was the chief. His picture of the Adoration of the Kings, in the academy of Florence, is one of the finest existing specimens of the early schools, and like all his work is somewhat loaded with gold. He was a good colourist, and excelled Giotto in knowledge of form. His pictures are poetic in feeling, and freer in the treatment of their subjects than those of many of his cotemporaries. In Venice, the struggle between the Byzantine style and the new tendencies in painting lasted long, and it was not until the latter half of the fourteenth century that the yoke of tradition was finally broken . Lorenzo Veneziano and Niccolò Semitecolo, of the fourteenth century, were the first Venetians to attempt the new method. IN FRANCE AND GERMANY. A.D. 1250—A.D. 1470. BEFORE we enter on the history of Italian painting in the fifteenth century, it would be well to cross the Alps, and trace the development of the new movement in the rest of Europe. Mural painting was practised with great success in Germany and France in the Romanesque period ( tenth, eleventh and twelfth cen turies ), and even the most insignificant village churches were adorned with frescoes. The principal works of this description in Germany dating from these centuries are those on the ceiling of $. Michael's at Hildesheim ; and those in the choir and left aisle of the cathedral at Brunswick, supposed to have been executed before 1250 ; in the Nicolas Chapel at Soest ; and in the church of Schwarz Rheindorf, and the chapel at Ramersdorf, near Bonn (Eng. 19) . There are the remains of a mosaic in the cupola of the cathedral of IN FRANCE AND GERMANY. 51 Aix-la- Chapelle : it represents Christ with twenty-four Elders. We know too, from miniatures of them , that the castle of Upper Ingelheim on the Rhine was adorned with frescoes of historic subjects, which bore strong traces of Byzantine influence. In France, the frescoes in the churches at S. Savin and Tournus are among the most remarkable. All these works follow the antique rather than the Byzantine style, and are distinguished by a simple mi 19.– Wall painting. German. Early fourteenth century. In the Chapel at Ramersdorf, near Bonn . earnestness and dignity in the figures, and by their powerful colouring and appropriateness as architectural decorations. The industry of the monks, --especially of those of the monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland, of which Tutilo (or Tuotilo) and Notker were the most celebrated, -carried the art of manuscript painting to the greatest perfection in the middle ages.. In the same period it became the fashion to paint movable or easel pictures. The rise of the pure Gothic style of architecture—which, it will be E 2 52 PAINTING remembered, underwent large modifications when practised in Italy was unfavourable to the progress of painting in the north of Europe. . Stephan Lochner Soon after A.D. 1426 20. —The Adoration ofthe Magi .By .Cathedral Cologne In c 0Frescoes were no longer required to decorate the flat walls, for the walls were reduced to narrow proportions ; but the decline of mural IN GERMANY. 53 painting was in a great measure atoned for by the growth of the art of glass - staining, which was carried to perfection in the Gothic period . The finest painted windows of France and Germany — such , for example, as those of the cathedrals of Bourges, Chartres, Rheims, and the Sainte Chapelle of Paris, in France, and those of the cathedrals of Strasburg, Cologne, and Ratisbon, in Germany - are all the work of the best Gothic period, and are essentially integral parts of the buildings to which they belong. The miniature painting of the Gothic period in the north of Europe consisted principally of illustrations of the ballads of the troubadours ; and the first evidence of what can be strictly called a school of German painting is met with in the “ Parcival” of Wolfram von Eschenbach, a poet of the thirteenth century, who speaks of the painters of Cologne and Maestricht in highly commendatory terms. The earliest school of art in Germany is that of Bohemia, which , under the patronage of the Emperor Charles IV. , flourished for a short time only at Karlstein, near Prague, in the fourteenth century. Its principal artists were Theodorich of Prague, Nicolaus Wurmser and Kunz, who were employed to decorate the walls of the castle and church of Karlstein. The Italian Tommaso da Modena also worked at Karlstein for Charles IV. The school of Nuremberg also attained to a high position in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. An altar - piece at Imhof, by one of its unknown masters, was probably executed about 1420. In the Berlin Museum are four wings of an altar-piece of the Virgin and Saints, which are said to have been painted at Nuremberg in 1400. Wilhelm of Herle, commonly called Meister Wilhelm of Cologne, is, however, the earliest German painter whose name has come down to us. To him are ascribed, some fine pictures in the Pinakothek of Munich ; a large altar-piece, his principal work, representing the Life of Christ, in the Johannis Kapelle in Cologne cathedral ; and several easel pictures, the single figures in which are full of life and character, in the various galleries of Germany. The National Gallery contains a S. Veronica by Wilhelm of Cologne. Stephan Lochner, or Meister Stephan, as he is called, said , but perhaps erroneously, to have been the pupil of Wilhelm , was another and greater master of the same school : 54 PAINTING a by him is the famous altar- piece in the cathedral of Cologne, formerly ascribed to Meister Wilhelm ; it represents the Adoration of the Magi, with S. Gereon and his Knights and S. Ursula and her Virgins on the wings, and the Annunciation on the exterior (Eng. 20) . Israel von Meckenen, who flourished at the end of the century, if all that is said of him be true, must have excelled all his predecessors, as some of the best pictures of this time in the Munich Gallery are attributed to him. The Master of the Lyversberg Passion , so called from a series of eight subjects from the Life of Christ formerly in the possession of Herr Lyversberg in Cologne, is represented in our National Gallery by a Presentation in the Temple : this painter has been confused with Israel von Meckenen. The Master of Liesborn is also represented in the National Gallery, where are two pieces, figures of Saints, from the high altar-piece which was executed in the Abbey of Liesborn about the middle of the fifteenth century. The works of the early German schools are mostly painted on panel, with gold grounds, and are distinguished for depth of colouring and careful execution of details. Their chief fault is want of accuracy in design ; but this is to some extent atoned for by the nobility of the expression of many of the heads. In technical dexterity in the use of tempera or water - colours they excelled all their cotemporaries and predecessors, their works having often as fine an effect as oil-paintings. Decorative Painting. The decorative painting of the middle ages would repay separate study ; but our limits only permit us to point out that, at first purely geometrical, the designs were gradually complicated by the introduction of heads of birds and beasts, finally leading to the profuse use of the grotesque element, which formed so distinctive a feature of Gothic art. The pointed or Gothic style of ornament was a reproduction in decorative painting of the peculiarities of Gothic architecture and architectural sculpture. Human heads, flowers, and foliage, heads of animals, wings of butterflies, with an endless variety of zigzags, frets, and other ornaments, were grouped together in such a manner as to har monize alike with the lines of the building and its decorative sculpture. RENAISSANCE OF PAINTING IN ITALY. A REMARKABLE difference exists between the history of painting and that of sculpture and architecture at the Renaissance period. Of the two latter arts the Romans had left so many remains that, when the revival of letters altered the current of men's thoughts, it was natural to revert to the actual models existing abundantly in Italy ; and, as we have seen, this was done. In painting the case was different : the art was in a constant state of development, which was influenced but not interrupted by the classic revival. We may, if we please, consider the fifteenth century as a transition period, and the sixteenth as the Renaissance period ; but the terms must not be understood to charac terize a revival of classic modes at all so complete as that which occurred in the sister arts. By many writers it is considered that the Renaissance of painting in Italy began early in the fifteenth century, or even with Giotto at the commencement of the fourteenth century. Painting in Italy in the Fifteenth Century. The fifteenth century was a time of exceptional intellectual activity, and the progress made in scientific discovery was of great importance to the arts of painting and sculpture. As we have seen, a considerable advance had been made in expression and imitation in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ; but oil- painting was still unpractised, portraiture was little cultivated, linear perspective was very imper fectly understood, and landscape painting, as an independent branch of art, was not even attempted . At the beginning of the fifteenth century , however, the introduction of oil colours, the scientific study of perspective, form and colour, and the constant demand for frescoes on an extensive scale led to a progressive movement in Italy which culminated in the sixteenth century ; and during this development schools arose on every side, characterized by excellence in one or another element of art. Until about 1450 we find Florence still MER The 21. —Battle Snt'Egidio of,1416. A.D. ByPaolo Uccelli In.National the Gallery Intempera (wood ,on.) PAINTING IN FLORENCE. 57 taking the lead ; but from that date the Umbrian, Bolognese, Venetian and Paduan schools rose into almost equal importance. The Florentine School. A.D. 1420—A.D. 1520. The artist who contributed most to the pre-eminence of Florence in the early part of the fifteenth century was, without doubt , the sculp tor Lorenzo Ghiberti, in whose school the leading painters of the day were formed. He perfected the imitation of nature which Giotto bad introduced, applying the sciences of anatomy, mathematics and geometry to the art of design. Of his pupils we can only name the principal : Paolo Uccelli, * who directed his attention almost ex clusively to the study of perspective, the great value of which he illustrated in his frescoes in the monastery of S. Maria Novella at Florence-of which the Drunkenness of Noah is especially re markable -- and in several easel pictures, one of which, the Battle of S. Egidio, is in the National Gallery (Eng. 21 ) ; and two others in the Uffizi and the Louvre. Piero de' Franceschi, com monly called Piero della Francesca , of the Umbrian school, did much to 22.- The Expulsion from Paradise. systematize the study of perspective ; By Masaccio . In the Brancacci Chapel, Florence. Ab. A.D. 1425. an unfinished Nativity by him is in the National Gallery. Masolino da Panicale, who excelled in colouring, but who rather sacrificed composition to detail of form , executed several fine works in the church and baptistery of Castiglione d'Olona, and in the Brancacci Chapel in the church of the Carmine at Florence. Chief

  • Paolo di Dono, called Uccelli from his love of birds.

58 PAINTING among these painters was Tommaso Guidi, commonly called Masaccio ; he was the pupil of Masolino, and might, with better justice than Cimabue, be styled the father of modern Italian painting ; he excelled all his predecessors in knowledge of form , perspective, and chiaroscuro, and exercised a most important influence on the art of his country. Masaccio was born' at Castel S. Giovanni, in the Val d'Arno, and when quite a boy worked under Masolino at the frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, in the church of the Carmine, Florence . * In his frescoes, Masaccio gave proof of remarkable powers, and the influence of Ghiberti is very distinctly traceable. Their chief excellences are the admirable treatment of the nude human figure — the judicious fore shortening of the extremities, the happy rendering of the flesh - tints, the animation and varied character of the heads, and the skilful grouping and composition of the whole. The National Gallery pos sesses a so -called portrait of this great master from his own hand, but some writers doubt its authenticity. It is ever to be regretted that Masaccio died at the early age of twenty- six. Masolino and Masaccio were the first Italian painters who gave a natural treatment to their landscape backgrounds. Two of Masaccio's greatest cotemporaries ( both monks) were Guido di Pietro, of Fiesole, commonly called Fra Angelico, and Filippo Lippi, who may be taken as the representatives of the two great classes into

It has commonly been said that Masaccio finished these frescoes after Masolino's death ; but inasmuch as the latter survived the former by nineteen years, this is impossible. As these frescoes “may be considered to be the most important works in painting executed during the fifteenth century ," it may be serviceable to give a list of them as they have been assigned by the latest authorities. By MASACCIO . 1 The Erpulsion from Paradise. The Tribute- Money. The Resuscitation of the King's Son. (Fin BY MASOLINO . The Preaching of S. Peter . Healing of the Cripple at the Beautiful Gate, and Resuscitation of Petronilla. Fall of Adam and Eve. ished by Filippino Lippi.) The Infirm healed by the Shadoro of SS. Peter and John, S. Peter baptizing. SS. Peter and John distributing alms. BY FILIPPINO LIPPI. S. Peter in Prison visited by S. Paul. S. Peter freed from Prison. Crucifixion of S. Peter, and SS. Peter and Paul before Nero. IN FLORENCE. 59 which the painters of the Renaissance became divided, and to which the name of the Mystics or Idealists, and Naturalists, have been given -names still retained by their followers and imitators : the former O oool 23.-S. Lawrence giving alms. By Fra Angelico. A.D. 1447 . In the Chapel of Nicholas V. in the Vatican . ! being those who cultivated beauty as a means to an end, and studied nature only for the sake of furthering that end-the expression of all that is highest and best in the material and spiritual world ; and the latter, those who aimed at the exact imitation of beauty for its own 60 PAINTING. 11sake, and earnestly studied everything connected with the theory and practice of their art. Fra Angelico da Fiesole, called from the holiness of his life Il Beato ( the Blessed ), entered the order of the Predicants at Fiesole at the age of twenty, taking the name of Giovanni, and devoted a long and peaceful life to the cultivation of religious art , never painting any but sacred subjects,' and never accepting payment for anything he did. His principal works are frescoes in the convent of S. Marco, and the church of S. Maria Novella at Florence, and in the chapel of Nicholas V. in the Vatican ( Eng. 23) ; an easel picture, the Coronation of the Virgin , now in the Louvre ; and the Adoration of the Jagi, and Christ in Glory surrounded by Angels (which once formed the predella of an altar-piece in S. Domenico at Fiesole) , both in the National Gallery. Many good works by him are in the Florentine Academy of Fine Arts. They are all alike remarkable for their elevated religious sentiment, the grandeur and ideal beauty of the figures, and the loving finish of every detail. Fra Angelico's works were the outpourings of his own devout spirit, the expression of his passionate love of spiritual beauty ; and, although not characterized by the powerful drawing and exact imitation of nature of cotemporary masters, they have a charm and pathos of their own, and combine in the highest degree the two great requisites of ideal art — expression and pictorial power . Fra Filippo Lippi presents both in his life and works a striking contrast to Fra Angelico. He was received into the convent of the Carmelites as a boy when Masaccio was at work on his frescoes, and, if he did not actually receive lessons from that master, he certainly followed his style. According to a popular tradition , which recently discovered documents have shown to be erroneous, Lippi's life was one long romance. Becoming weary of convent life, it is said, he ran away to Ancona, was taken captive by African pirates, and sold as a slave in Barbary. After eighteen months' captivity he won his master's favour by drawing his portrait with a piece of charcoal, and, as a reward, received his liberty. His life was divided between the pursuit of pleasure and of art. He was one of the first Italian masters to paint in oils, and to cultivate the sensuous side of art . His principal merits were his mastery of chiaroscuro, the breadth and grandeur of his use MUDA JOB OPUS PerPecit 24. -Coronation ofthe Virgin .ByFilippo Lippi A.D. 1441. Inthe Academy ,Florence . 62 PAINTING figures, and his easy grace in grouping. He was also amongst the first to introduce genuine landscape backgrounds, and he often displayed considerable knowledge of nature ; but many of his works were spoiled 25.- Portrait of a Young Man. By Antonello da Messina. About A.D. 1470 . In the Louvre. by a certain want of calınness and dignity in his sacred personages. The academy of Florence contains many of his finest pictures, painted for the churches and convents of that city ; and among them is the Coronation of the Virgin , which was formerly an altar- piece in the IN FLORENCE. 63 church of Saint Ambrosio in Florence, in which the artist has painted his own portrait in the right- hand corner ( Eng. 24 ) . In the National Gallery there are five sacred subjects ascribed to him : the Vision of S. Bernard ; a Madonna and Child ; the Virgin seated, with an Angel presenting to her the Holy Child ; a beautiful Annunciation ; and S. John the Baptist and six Saints. Crowe and Cavalcaselle doubt the authenticity of the second and third of these ; but, on the other hand, give to Filippo Lippi the Adoration of the Magi, which is in the cata logue ascribed to Filippino Lippi. Of Lippi's numerous frescoes, those in the cathedral of Prato, representing scenes from the lives of S. John the Baptist and S. Stephen, are considered the best ; the Lamentation over the death of S. Stephen is especially fine : those in the cathedral of Spoleto are also much admired. Filippo Lippi was the greatest colourist of his age : he was also a great reformer in art, or rather a degenerator, for it was he who, by giving an undue prominence to drapery which it had never before received, and similar alterations, started the decline in sacred historic painting. Antonello da Messina, although belonging, strictly speaking, to the Venetian school, must be mentioned here on account of his intro duction of the improved Flemish method of mixing oil colours . The National Gallery possesses by him a Salvator Mundi, a Portrait of a Young Van, and a small Crucifixion ; another Portrait of a Youth by him is in the Louvre Gallery ( Eny. 25 ) ; and three important pictures are preserved in the Berlin Museum --- of these the Head of S. Sebastian and a Jadonna and Child are considered the best. As great Florentine painters of the fifteenth century, we must also name the following Lippi's adopted son, Filippino Lippi, who copied his style and excelled him in his peculiar merits ; he was the author of the Crucifixion of S. Peter, and other fine frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, so often referred to. He also painted important works in the Strozzi chapel in S. Maria Novella , Florence, and in Rome and Prato. There are three works by him in the National Gallery. His pupil Raffaellino del Garbo executed many paintings of singular sweetness and grace. Benozzo Gozzoli, the pupil of Fra Angelico, but inferior to him , whose best works are twenty-four frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa, 64 PAINTING and whose style may be studied in two easel pictures in the National Gallery. One, the Rape of Helen , is interesting as being “ one of the earliest attempts of a Christian painter to represent a classical subject ; it was probably meant to decorate a small chest for private use, and Sier 26. —The Coronation of the Virgin . By Sandro Botticelli. About A.D. 1500. In the Uffizi, Florence. shows that pictorial art had made its way from the church to the dwelling- chambers of the rich . ” Gozzoli was very fond of elaborate accessories and picturesque details. Andrea del Castagno, who until recently has been considered the IN FLORENCE. 65 murderer of Domenico Veneziano, who survived him four years, and from whom he is said to have obtained the secret of the method of mixing oil colours. It is usually asserted that Domenico learned the secret from Antonello da Messina in Venice, and then carried it to Florence. This is now disbelieved ; and it seems very doubtful if Domenico Veneziano used oil at all in a different manner from his predecessors. None of the pictures ascribed to either of them in the National Gallery afford any signs of advance on the processes of their cotemporaries. In the cathedral of Florence is an equestrian portrait of Niccolò Tolentino painted by him in imitation of statuary : it forms a companion to a similar picture of Hawkwood by Uccelli. Alessandro Filipepi, commonly called, from the name of the goldsmith with whom he studied, Botticelli, was the pupil of Filippo Lippi ; he is famed for the introduction of ancient mythology into sacred subjects, and was one of the first of the Florentines to depict the nude figure of the size of life, as in the Mars and Venus in the National Gallery, He painted several circular Madonna pictures, and many more were executed by his pupils in his studio. One of his most famous is his Coronation of the Virgin , now in the Uffizi ( Eng. 26 ). Seven works are assigned to him in the National Gallery . “ Cultivated beyond most artists of his time, and gifted with imagination, humour, insight into character, and passion, he could be fanciful , realistic, grave or gay by turns, reaching sometimes a height of exquisite airy grace, and sometimes a most thrilling depth of tragedy . " -Monkhouse. Domenico Bigordi, called Ghirlandajo, from the fact that his first master, a goldsmith, also made garlands, is remarkable for his skill in portraiture, his command of all the technical processes of painting, and for the brilliancy of the colouring of his frescoes. He may be said to have carried on and advanced the movement begun by Masaccio : his most famous works are a series of frescoes in the Sassetti Chapel in the church of the S. Trinità at Florence-of which the Funeral of S. Francis is considered the finest — and the frescoes representing scenes from the Life of the Virgin ( Eng. 27) and the Life of S. John the Baptist in the choir of S. Maria Novella. The Florence galleries and churches, the Berlin Museum, and the Louvre contain several of his pictures, in which he painted the portraits of many of the most HHA-PAINTING F De BIGORDI Florence .Maria Novella ,atthe Choir ofS.AD. 1490. InFresco ByGhirlandajo the Virgin .27. —The Birth of PAINTING IN FLORENCE. 67 He was eminent men of his time in Florence. The National Gallery possesses a recently -acquired bust Portrait of a Girl. Luca Signorelli was one of those who did most to promote the development of the great Florentine school of painting of the sixteenth century, by his earnest study of the human form , of which he acquired thorough anatomical knowledge, combined with absolute command of expressing that knowledge in painting : he has been justly called the forerunner of Michelangelo. He was a pupil of Piero della Francesca. His most famous works are the frescoes in the Chapel of the Virgin in the cathedral of Orvieto, representing the Last Judgment — of which the best part is the Wicked cast out of Heaven, in which the foreshortening is most daring and hitherto unapproached : they were completed in 1503, shortly before the exhibition at Florence of Michelangelo's celebrated Cartoon of Pisa, to which we shall presently refer. one of the artists called to Rome by Sixtus IV. to decorate the Sistine Chapel. His work there is second only to that of Ghirlandajo. ( See next page. ) Other paintings by him are the Life of S. Benedict, in the convent of Monte Oliveto, near Siena ; and frescoes in the church of Loreto and the duomo of Cortona, The National Gallery possesses two works by him , a Circumcision and a Nativity. Antonio del Pollaiuolo, one of Ghiberti's assistants in the ornamenta tion of the second bronze gate of the Baptistery at Florence, produced several fine paintings in the latter part of his life : four are in the National Gallery, of which a Martyrdom of Sebastian is acknowledged to be his masterpiece. He with his brother Piero del Pollaiuolo is said to have been the first to study the dead body for artistic purposes. They were also celebrated as sculptors, and their knowledge of this branch of art had considerable influence on their painting. They were the first Italian artists to abandon tempera in favour of oil mediums. Andrea del Verrocchio , sculptor, wood-carver and painter, was celebrated as the master of Leonardo da Vinci, of Perugino, and of his friend Lorenzo di Credi, a talented artist whose style has much in common with that of Leonardo. The influence which Verrocchio exercised has till recently scarcely had justice done to it. He is said to have been the first artist who took plaster-casts from life as an aid in the study of form. The Baptism of Christ, in wbich Leonardo F 2 68 PAINTING painted one of the angels, in the Florentine Academy, is his only undoubted work . Cosimo Rosselli, a follower of Masaccio, in later years spoiled his art by over - gilding. His pupil, who was named after him, Piero di Cosimo, and who assisted him in the Sistine Chapel, is to be noticed for the landscapes in the background of his pictures, an example of which may be seen in his Death of Procris in the National Gallery. When in 1474 Sixtus IV. had completed the erection of the chapel called after him, he sent to Florence for artists to decorate it. Those who answered the call were Botticelli, Ghirlandajo, Rosselli and Signorelli ; and, under the direction of the first-named, they executed frescoes which to this day testify to the excellence of Florentine art at the close of the fifteenth century. * The Paduan School. A.D. 1420 to about A.D. 1520. Although Giotto painted bis frescoes in the Arena Chapel at Padua in the beginning of the fourteenth century, and Giusto di Giovanni, a Florentine by birth, but known as Justus of Padua, painted his charming little triptych the Coronation of the Virgin , now in the National Gallery, there in A.D. 1367, yet it was not till the middle of the fifteenth century that the true Paduan school was formed. The founder was Francesco Squarcione, to whom is due the merit of reviv ing the study of the masterpieces of antique sculpture. The peculiarity of the Paduan school was a sculpturesque rather than pictorial treat ment of form, the compositions of its masters resembling bas-reliefs

  • Our space will only permit us to give a list of these works.

ON THE LEFT WALL. Michael bearing away the body of Moses. ( Salviati .) Journey of Moses and Zipporah. ( Signorelli or Pinturicchio ? ) ON THE RIGHT WALL. Moses's Miracles in Egypt. (Botticelli . ) Baptism of Christ. ( Perugino or Pinturic Drowning of Pharaoh . ( Rosselli. ) chio ? ) Temptation of Christ. ( Botticelli .) Moses reading the Law : Adoration, and Calling of Peter & Andrew . (Ghirlandajo .) Destruction of the Calf. ( Rosselli. ) Sermon on the Mount. ( Rosselli.) Fall of Korah and Followers. (Botticelli . ) Investiture of S. Peter. (Perugino .) Publication of the Ten Commandments, and Last Supper. ( Rosselli. ) Death of Moses. ( Signorelli.) Resurrection. (Ghirlandajo .) IN PADUA. 69 rather than paintings. Squarcione was more a teacher than a painter —he is said to have had no less than 137 pupils or assistants ; and only one picture by him, a group of a S. Jerome and other Saints, at Padua, has been preserved. His fame rests principally on his having been the master of Mantegna. Marco Zoppo, a Bolognese, also aided in the development of Paduan art. Andrea Mantegna was the greatest and most celebrated painter of the north of Italyin the fifteenth century. The most remarkable of bis works are a series of nine cartoons executed in tempera, of the Triumphs of Julius Cæsar after the con quest of Gaul, painted in 1485-92 for the Duke of Mantua now in Hampton Court Palace ; and the fres coes in the Chapel of S. Cristoforo in the church of the Eremi tani, at Padua , repre senting scenes in the 28. - Judith with the head of Holofernes. By Mantegna. lives of S. Christopher Drawing in the Uffizi, Florence. and S. James. Of his altar-pieces, we may name that on the high altar of S. Zeno at Verona, and the Crucifixion ( Eng. 29 ) , from the predella of this altar piece, and the Madonna of Victory, in the Louvre. The National Gallery contains a Holy Family of his early years, and, almost in monochrome, the Triumph of Scipio, a sculpturesque Samson and MINERID 29. The Crucifixion .ByMantegna From the prdella ofaltar -piece S.Zeno atVrna .Finished A.D. 1459. Inthe Louvre . PAINTING IN VENICE. 71 Delilah, and two allegoric figures of Summer and Autumn. The Triumph, executed in tempera on canvas, is especially valuable, as being one of the latest , if not the last , picture he ever painted. In all these works Mantegna displayed a complete acquaintance with ancient Roman art, a richness of imagination, a power of design , and a knowledge of form , chiaroscuro, and perspective, which entitle him to the high rank universally assigned to him , and account for the wide influence he exercised over his cotemporaries. The effect which sculpture had upon his style is evident in most of his works : he was the first painter who engraved his own designs. None of Mantegna's numerous pupils attained to remarkable eminence, but many Venetian , Veronese, Ferrarese, Milanese, and other masters copied his peculiarities with more or less success. We must here mention Bono di Ferrara and Francesco Bonsignori, of Verona. By Bono, who was a pupil of Vittore Pisano, the National Gallery possesses a S. Jerome in the Desert, and by Bonsignori a Portrait of a Venetian Senator. The Venetian School. A.D. 1480-A.D. 1520. We must now turn to Venice, where we find an important school arising, founded by the brothers Bellini , sons of Jacopo Bellini, a painter of much merit, in which brilliancy and harmony of colouring reached their fullest development. Antonello da Messina, already mentioned, who introduced into Italy the oil-painting practised by the Van Eycks and Memlinc, * influenced the style of Giovanni Bellini, who, in his turn, had considerable influence on Antonello. The Vivarini-of whom the principal was Bartolommeo, who executed the first oil- painting exhibited in Venice laid the first foundations of the Venetian school. Carlo Crivelli must also be noticed here, though he adhered to the old method of tempera painting. The National Gallery possesses a Virgin and Child by Bartolommeo Vivarini, and figures of SS. Peter and Jerome by his brother Antonio Vivarini, and no less than eight works by Carlo

  • Modern writers doubt whether Antonello really visited the Netherlands at all . The “ Giovanni da Brugia ,” mentioned by Vasari, is now thought to be Memlinc and not Van Eyck.

1 72 PAINTING LHALLA 14:14 222 1/27 % ) / 17 a TIDIDUNT UTOMODIRETTIVIBUIRRETTI mm WW OFVSCARG LI CRNI MENETEM 148 LIBERTA'S SE ECCLESIASTICA: 30.—The Annunciation . By Crivelli. A.D. 1486. In the National Gallery. Crivelli, among which the Annunciation ( Eng. 30) is one of the finest. IN VENICE. 73 His works are easily recognized by an elaboration of ornament and the introduction of fruits, flowers and birds. Giovanni Bellini was the greater of the two brothers. His best pictures were painted in oils, and are characterized by a spiritual beauty of expression, combined with truth to nature and a brilliancy and transparency of colouring hitherto unattained. Most of them are in the galleries and churches of Venice : they consist principally of portraits and Madonnas, of which we must name an altar- piece in the sacristy of S. Maria de' Frari, a Madonna in the Academy, and a Madonna and Saints in S. Zaccaria ; his large altar- piece in SS. Giovanni e Paolo perished in 1867, in the same fire which destroyed Titian's Peter Martyr. Another extremely fine work is a picture in S. Salvatore, Christ at Emmaus. The National Gallery contains several fine specimens of Bellini's style : a bust portrait of the Doge Leonardo Loredano (see frontispiece) , a Madonna and Child, a Land scape with the death of S. Peter Martyr, The Blood of the Redeemer, and Christ's Agony in the Garden, which recalls the work of his brother- in - law , Mantegna. Gentile Bellini's works are of inferior importance to his younger brother Giovanni's ; they are characterized by greater softness and less individuality of style. The best are S. Mark peaching at Alex andria, now in the Brera at Milan ( Eng. 31 ) ; and a Miracle of the Cross, in the Academy of Venice. In the National Gallery is a supposed— Portrait of Girolamo Malatini. The brothers worked to gether for some time in the Council Hall of the Ducal Palace of Venice, at a series of pictures illustrative of the Venetian wars in 1177, which were unfortunately destroyed by fire in 1577, and were replaced by works by the great painters of Venice of a later period. Giovanni had many celebrated scholars, of whom Giorgione and Titian, to be presently noticed, were the chief. We must also name Cima da Conegliano, Girolamo Mocetto, Martino da Udine, Vittore io, Lazzaro Bastiani, Giovanni Mansueti, Marco Marziale, Catena, Previtali, Bissolo, and Marco Basaiti,-all Venetian artists who were influenced by the Paduan school, and combined something of its severity of form with Venetian softness of colouring. Many of these artists may be studied in the National Gallery. Jacopo de' m . 1 facit with وا Emma ima ihr? Illi KEK Ilala 31.—The Preaching of S. Mark. Oil painting. Begun by Gentile Bellini, and completed after his death by his brother Giovanni . A.D. 1507 . In the Brera, Milan . PAINTING IN UPPER ITALY. 75 Barbarj, a Germanized Italian , who is best known for his engravings, worked at Venice and painted several fine pictures there. Other Schools of Upper Italy. A.D. 1480— 1.D. 1530. Before touching on the Umbrian school we must notice several towns which , besides Venice, played a part in the history of painting at this time. Bartolommeo Montagna, a Bresciau by birth , though resident in Vicenza, where his best works are to be found, was a painter whose style was formed on a judicious blending of those of Mantegna and the cotemporary Venetians. Vittore Pisano ( frequently called Pisanello ), the founder of the Veronese school, is better known by his medals than his paintings, which are however of great merit. His Anthony and S. George in the National Gallery is one of his best known works; Lord Ash burnham alsò possesses a S. Eustace with a Stag by him ; and frescoes by his hand are in S. Anastasia and S. Fermo Maggiore at Verona. Liberale, Girolamo dai Libri, and Paolo Morando also flourished at Verona, where their works are still preserved : they may all be studied in the National Gallery, where are also pictures by Ambrogio di Stefano, called Borgognone, a native of Piedmont, who worked at Pavia. His paintings, which are either in tempera or fresco, are best seen in the Milanese. Vicenza Foppa founded the school of Milan in the middle of the fifteenth century. To him is now ascribed the Adoration of the Kings in the National Gallery, formerly attributed to Bramantino, who, to gether with Borgognone and others, followed Foppa's style . The Ferrarese school was upheld by Cosimo Tura, whose works bear trace of Squarcione's influence ; by Francesco Cossa, whose works have been ascribed to other painters (e.g. his Annunciation in the Dresden Gallery was given to Pollaiuolo, and his S. Mark at Frankfort to Mantegna ) ; and by Lorenzo Costa and his pupil Ercole Grandi di Giulio Cesare , * who, however, both also painted in Bologna. Costa, whose best works must be sought in Bologna, was a fine colourist and

  • Not to be confounded with an earlier painter of Ferrara, Ercole Roberti de'

Grandi. 1 76 PAINTING full of poetic imagination. Though a good portraitist, he is specially to be noted for the landscapes which he introduced into his paintings. He was a friend of Francia and collaborated with him. The chief work of Grandi, “ the Raphael of the Ferrarese school,” is a large altar- piece of the Virgin and Child with S. William and the Baptist, in the National Gallery, which is much in the style of Costa ; and to this is added by some critics the Last Supper, from the Hamilton collection, also in the National Gallery, now catalogued as “ North Italian School.” The Umbrian School. A.D. 1460—A.D. 1510. The mountainous district of Upper Italy, now known as the Duchy of Spoleto ( the favourite resort of S. Francis of Assisi and other religious devotees) , was the home of a school of painters who cared rather for spiritual beauty than external perfection of form. The peculiar style of this school is the reflection of the mode of thought of its members, coloured by influences from various external sources. In the works of the early Umbrian masters, we are reminded alike of Giotto, Uccelli, Masaccio and Luca Signorelli. To Niccolo di Liber atore is due the merit of giving to the Umbrian school its distin guishing characteristic of spiritual expression -- a characteristic more fully displayed in the works of his reputed pupil, Pietro Vannucci, commonly called Perugino from his long residence in Perugia. Perugino was principally famous for his purity of colouring and his knowledge of perspective. He several times changed his style, the result probably of a constant wandering from one studio to another : at one time he studied under Verrocchio at Florence, at the same time as Leonardo and Lorenzo di Credi. Among his earlier works we must notice the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, representing the Baptism of Christ, and the Investiture of S. Peter. To his best manner belong the Madonna with four Saints, in the Vatican ; a Descent from the Cross, a Pietà ( Eng. 32) , in the Pitti Palace ; and the Assumption , in the Academy, Florence ; the Marriage of the Virgin (the design of which was afterwards adopted by Raphael) at Caen ; an Ascension in the museum of Lyons, and, above all, the frescoes in the Cambio at IN UMBRIA. 77 Perugia. Our National Gallery possesses three of his paintings — a Madonna adoring the Infant Christ, with the Archangels Michael and Raphael and Tobit, worthy of Raphael, to whom it has often been attributed, a Madonna and Child with S. John , and a Madonna and Child with SS. Francis and Jerome. Perugino's best works are remarkable for an enthusiastic earnestness of expression and a 32.- Deposition from the Cross . By Perugino. A.D. 1495. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. grace and softness of colouring seldom surpassed ; they are, however, somewhat wanting in energy of composition and variety. The Apollo and Marsyas in the Louvre, till recently ascribed to Raphael, is now thought, by Morelli and others, to be the work of Perugino. His greatest pupil was Raphael, of whom we shall presently speak. But we must here mention Bernardino di Biagio, cailed Pinturicchio, KURIR National Gallery Francia Inthe 33. –Pietà .By Lucca .atS.Frediano chapel inBuon visi the painted for -piece anAltar Lunette ofThe PAINTING IN UMBRIA . 79 who was also his pupil, and who probably assisted his master in the Sistine Chapel, and executed some fine frescoes in the cathedral of Spello ; and, in the Libreria of the cathedral of Siena , scenes from the Life of Enea Silvio Piccolomini, his masterpieces ; and several easel pictures, of which the best, the Virgin between SS. Jerome and Augustine, is in the Academy at Perugia. The four specimens in the National Gallery do not do justice to this master, whose talents have only recently been fully recognized . Many drawings by him are still ascribed to Perugino and Raphael. The Spaniard, Giovauni di Pietro , called Lo Spagno, was, after Raphael, Perugino's most famous pupil ; his best work is an Enthroned Madonna with Saints in S. Francesco at Assisi. An Ecce Homo and an Agony in the Garden by him are in the National Gallery. The Glorifi cation of the Virgin , there, is doubted by some writers. Greater than either of these, however, and equal, if not superior, to Perugino, was Francesco Raibolini, of Bologna - known as Francia whose chief characteristic was his fervent piety. Originally a gold smith, Francia did not turn his attention to painting until late in life. His earliest pictures are in oils , but he also executed many frescoes : his style is distinguished for richness of colouring and earnestness of expression. His works, principally painted for the churches of Lom bardy, are now scattered throughout Europe. Our own National Gallery possesses three, two of which are a beautiful altar -piece representing the Virgin and S. Anne with other Saints, and its lunette, containing a Pietà, in which the grief and despair of the mourners are admirably expressed ( Eng. 33). Our space forbids us to attempt an enumeration of Francia's various works, but we may add that the frescoes in S. Cecilia, at Bologna, are considered the best. Francia's favourite pupil, Timoteo Viti, who for long was thought to have been a follower of Raphael, has now been proved by Morelli to have exercised considerable influence, second only to that of Perugino, over the work of the great painter of Urbino, and accordingly has acquired an importance in art history which had not hitherto been attached to him . His works well express religious fervour. The Sienese school of this period produced, by means of such artists as Matteo da Siena , already mentioned, numerous works which are 80 PAINTING. best studied in Siena ; they ' show grace and feeling, but lack any forward movement. In the fifteenth century the school of Naples rose into considerable importance. Its distinctive peculiarity was the blending of Flemish and Umbrian features , —the details, accessories, and landscape back grounds reminding us of the works of the Van Eycks, and the figures of those by Umbrian masters. The chief artists of this school - to which we may perhaps apply the term “ Eclectic " -were Antonio . Solario, surnamed Lo Zingaro ( the Gipsy) , whose principal work is a series of frescoes illustrating the Life of S. Benedict, in S. Severino at Naples ; Silvestro de' Buoni, and his pupil, Giovanni Amato. The later Florentine School. A.D. 1490—A.D. 1510. One other great Italian master of the latter part of the fifteenth century remains to be noticed before we enter the golden age of painting. Bartolommeo di Pagholo, commonly known as Fra Barto lommeo—also called Baccio della Porta and Il Frate — the pupil of Cosimo Rosselli, although the cotemporary of Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, belongs in feeling to the Early Florentine school, and deserves special recognition for his earnest opposition to the licentiousness and irreverence which were associated in his day with the revival of classic art and literature. The friend and admirer of Savonarola , the great Florentine Reformer , he shared his enthusiasm for a pure and holy life, -an enthusiasm sincere enough to lead him to sacrifice to the flames some of his early works. * Influenced , it is believed, by the violent death of Savonarola in 1498, Baccio took the vows of a monk in 1500 ; and not until four years afterwards did he return to his true vocation, aroused by the exhortations of Raphael, then a young man of one-and -twenty. To the mutual influence of these two master-minds, we owe many of the greatest excellences of both. Raphael taught the friar the value of perspective, and Fra Bartolommeo initiated

  • It is now known that Savonarola did not, as has been thought, condemin all works of art. On the contrary, he encouraged painting in its purer forms.

3 பாயாயபபா LIT SALVATORMOD su 34. – Salvator Mundi. By Fra Bartolommeo. A.D. 1516 . In the Pitti Palace, Florence. HHA-PAINTING G 82 PAINTING. Raphael into many secrets of colouring. The distinctive characteristics of Fra Bartolommeo's works are the holiness of the heads, —especially those of the Madonnas and child-angels, —the grandeur and graceof the drapery, * and the beauty of the architectural backgrounds. As typical works, we may name the Madonna della Misericordia at Lucca ; the S. Mark, and the Salvator Munli in the Pitti Palace, Florence ( Eng. 34) ; and the Presentation in the Temple, in the Belvedere at Vienna. The Grosvenor House Gallery contains a small but very interesting Holy Family from the same great hand. It is to be regretted that Fra Bartolommeo is as yet unrepresented in our National Collection. Intimately connected with the life of Fra Bartolommeo is that of Mariotto Albertinelli, his fellow- student in the bottega of Cosimo Rosselli . In 1509 they entered into partnership, and conjointly executed many works. Albertinelli was very similar in his style to his more famous friend. His Visitation , in the Uffizi at Florence, painted during Fra Bartolommeo's temporary withdrawal from the world , is considered to be his masterpiece. To sum up the progress made since the beginning of the fifteenth century-we find imitation of nature no longer imaginary but real : the laws of perspective had been fathomed and turned to practical account by Paolo Uccelli, Piero de' Francesci, Luca Signorelli and their followers ; great improvements had been effected in types of form , anatomical correctness, and physical beauty, by Masaccio and his followers at Florence, by Squarcione at Padua, and by Mantegna at Mantua ; love for spiritual beauty had been embodied in the works of Fra Angelico at Florence, of Perugino at Rome, of Francia at Bologna, and of Fra Bartolommeo at Florence ; whilst the true principles of colouring were carried out in Venice by the Bellini, Vivarini and others. In a word, the way had been paved for the advent of the great Cinque- cento masters, in whose works were to be combined all the excellences divided amongst their predecessors. The names Pre- Raphaelites and Quattrocento Masters have been given to the painters of the fifteenth century.

  • Fra Bartolommeo invented the jointed wooden figures (lay - figures ) which have been useful in promoting the better study of the fall of drapery.

PAINTING IN ITALY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. The early part of the sixteenth century was for Painting what the age of Pericles had been for SCULPTURE. As we have seen, much had been done to prepare the way by many earnest workers in the fifteenth century ; but the men we have now to consider were so original, so individual, in their genius, that the connection between them and their predecessors is liable to be lost sight of. The appearance of any one of them would have been enough to raise the painting of the period to the very highest rank ; but, instead of some single master- spirit , we have a group of original geniuses, each pursuing some great aim ; each inspired with the same divine lore of ideal beauty and endowed with the same power of embodying that ideal in masterpieces of undying perfection. We have traced the gradual casting off of the trammels of tradition , the slow and laborious working -out of individuality of form , the painful winning of the secrets of science, and their applica tion to arts of design, and we have seen the various elements of excellence in painting, forming each the distinctive characteristic of some one school ; but we have now to examine these elements as they appear when blended into one harmonious whole in the works of the five greatest masters of Italy - Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian , Correggio—and their followers, each of whom united command over every art - element with special excellence in some one particular. Leonardo da Vinci and his School. Leonardo da Vinci, the pupil of Andrea Verrocchio, was the head of the later Milanese school. He appears to have been a universal genius, and to have been endowed with exceptional beauty of person. His versatility and energy were alike unparalleled ; he was a sculptor, painter, musician , poet, and had a thorough practical knowledge of architecture, mechanics, anatomy, botany and kindred sciences. The son of a notary, he was born at Vinci, near Florence, in 1452, and spent the early part of his life in indefatigable study. His G 2 84 PAINTING. first painting seems to have been a Chimera , executed on a piece of wood for a peasant on his father's estate. While with Verrocchio he completed a picture which that master had begun - a Baptism of Christ, now in the Academy at Florence. At the age of thirty the future master was invited to the court of Lodovico Sforza, then Regent, afterwards Duke of Milan, and was intrusted by him with the found ation of an Academy of Art at Milan. His Last Supper, of which we give the greater part ( Eng. 35) , painted in oils on a wall in the refectory of the Convent of S. Maria delle Grazie at Milan, now nearly perished by decay, and almost entirely repainted, was executed in 1498. This world - famous picture combined all the best characteristics of Da Vinci's style, and must have been one of the grandest works that Christian art ever produced. Fortunately the original cartoons of many of the heads, and several fine copies (one of the best of which, done by Marco d'Oggiono, a pupil of Leonardo's, in 1510, is in the Royal Academy, London ), have been preserved, enabling us to form some idea of the impressive solem nity and beauty of the original . The painter has chosen to represent the moment when, at the words “ One of you shall betray Me, " a thrill of horror ran through the assembled disciples. The head of the Redeemer, full of Divine majesty and courage to endure, yet expresses human sorrow, with human weakness and shrinking from pain ; whilst the groups on either sides are rendered with a force of character and dramatic power perhaps never equalled, certainly never surpassed. The accusation affects each disciple in a different manner, and a glance is enough for the recognition of the gentle John, the impetuous Peter, or the dark and gloomy Judas. In this great work we see how Leonardo, whilst adopting the traditional style of treatment of sacred subjects and the traditional type of the Saviour's face, has given to the whole a dignity of expression and an elevation of sentiment hitherto upattained—the result of his complete mastery of all the elements of perfect art . While at Milan, he executed a famous equestrian statue of Lodovico Sforza, which was destroyed a few years after its completion, and is now only known by Leonardo's sketches for it. In 1499 Leonardo returned to Florence and executed many important works; of these a cartoon of the Holy Family, called the Cartoon of MOON DUNLOAD MU TUS , MY Grazie ,Milan .Convent ofS.Maria delle A.D. 1498. Inthe ByLeonardo daVinci 35. —The Last Supper . IBUTE 86 PAINTING St. Anna, now in the Royal Academy, is one of the most celebrated . A second, supposed to have been one of the masterpieces of modern art, was a cartoon ( composed in competition with Michelangelo's Cartoon of Pisa ) known as the Battle of the Standard, and representing the Victory of the Florentines over the Duke of Milan in 1440. Both these great works are unfortunately lost, but we still possess Leonardo's preparatory studies for the picture. A copy by Rubens of a group of four horsemen from Leonardo's is preserved in the Louvre ; and an engraving by Edelinck is also in existence. In 1514 Leonardo paid a short visit to Rome ; but the last years of his life were spent in France, whither he accompanied Francis I. in 1516, and where he died , at Château Cloux, near Amboise, in 1519. Of the various works now in the Louvre attributed to him , many were in reality from the hands of his pupils ; he himself worked very slowly, and often left pictures unfinished, but he was so full of grand conceptions, and supplied those studying with him with so many great designs, that a whole school of workers would not have sufficed to carry them out. Although the name of Leonardo not unfrequently occurs in the catalogues of public galleries, the undoubted works of his hand are few indeed. Dr. Richter, who has given many years to the close study of bis doubted and undoubted pictures, and to the numerous drawings, sketches, and manuscripts which he has left, admits only the following works to be unquestionably by the hand of the great master : The Annunciation. In the Louvre, Paris, No. 158 * (his earliest work ) . Adoration of the Kings. In the Uffizi, Florence (in monochrome) . S. Jerome. In the Vatican , Rome ( in monochrome). Last Supper. In S. Maria delle Grazie, Milan ( wall-painting) . Mona Lisa. In the Louvre, Paris. Madonna amid the Rocks. In the National Gallery, London . Vierge aux Rochers. In the Louvre (similar to Nat. Gallery picture) Among the doubtful pieces generally accepted, are La Monaca. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. Head of Medusa. In the Uffizi, Florence. Portrait of himself. In the Uffizi, Florence . Vierge au bas-relief. Formerly in the possession of Lord Monson. +

  • Wrongly ascribed to Lorenzo di Credi .

+ Sold to a dealer in 1888 for £2520. Replicas are in the Brera and the Hermitage. IN ITALY. 87 La belle Féropnière. Holy Family with S. Anne. S. John the Baptist . In the Louvre, Paris . In the Louvre, Paris. In the Louvre, Paris . The Portrait of Bianca Maria Sforza in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, by many considered an undoubted work by Leonardo, is by Morelli attributed to Ambrogio Preda, a little-known but ex cellent painter of Milan , by whom there is a signed portrait of that lady's husband, the Emperor Maximilian , dated 1502, in the Ambras collection at Venice. Leonardo was the author of several learned treatises ; his book on the Art of Painting still remains a valuable aid to the student of this art. The chief characteristics of Leonardo's works are truth of tone, mastery of chiaroscuro, grandeur of design, and—as we have said in speaking of the Last Supper - elevation of sentiment and dignity of expression ; whilst those of his pupils are distinguished for what may be termed a reflection of his spirit , especially in the transparency of their lights and shadows, and the sweetness of the expression of the heads of their figures. Bernardino Luini, who is commonly called the pupil of Leonardo, really learned his art under Borgognone. When he settled at Milan, however, Leonardo's works had a great effect on his style . The Christ disputing with the Doctors, in the National Gallery, formerly ascribed to Leonardo, is one of Luini's best works. His frescoes in the Brera at Milan, collected from various churches, are likewise very fine ; but he painted, comparatively speaking, so few easel pictures that it is by his frescoes alone he can be properly appreciated. Of the pupils of Leonardo, we must notice Andrea Solari, Marco d'Oggiono, Andrea Salaino, Francesco Melzi, Cesare da Sesto, and lastly, Giovanni Boltraffio, a nobleman who painted for pleasure, and among whose works may be reckoned the fresco of the Virgin and Child at S. Onofrio in Rome, formerly ascribed to his master, Leonardo. Gaudenzio Ferrari, although not a pupil of Leonardo, was greatly influenced by him, and “ takes one of the highest places in the Lombard school.” His Last Supper in the refectory of S. Paolo at Vercelli, and his frescoes in the churches of Saronno and Varallo, especially the altar-piece in the latter, are among his best works. SO 36.-S. Sebastian . By Bazzi . A.D. 1515. In the Uffizi, Florence. PAINTING IN ITALY. 89 The celebrated Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, surnamed 11 Sodoma, must be named as one of Leonardo's cotemporaries, who caught much of his peculiar manner. He worked chiefly at Siena, and again raised the fame of that School, which had somewhat suffered at the close of the fifteenth century. At Siena are still to be seen his Deposition from the Cross in the Academy ; several scenes from the Life of S. Catharine in the chapel of S. Catharine of Siena , in S. Domenico ; and other works in the galleries and churches. In the Villa Farnesina, Rome, two fine frescoes from his hand are preserved -- the Marriage of Alexander with Roxana, and The Wife of Darius pleading for mercy with the victorious Alexander. His S. Sebastian , painted on a processional banner ( Eng. 36) , and now in the Uffizi , Florence, ranks amongst the best productions of his day, on account of its beauty and the touching expression given to the countenance of the youthful martyr. Michelangelo and his School. The great Florentine, Michelagniolo Buonarroti , ( usually called Michelangelo), has been spoken of both as an architect and sculptor. * We have now to consider him as a painter, and we find him taking rank amongst the first and greatest of his cotemporaries, and, in the force and grandeur of his conceptions, his anatomical knowledge and power of drawing, excelling both them and all his predecessors. Michelangelo-unlike Leonardo, who gave his chief attention to light and shade and colour-devoted his life to the study of form and the expression of energy in action . His figures are stamped with the impress of his bold, profound, and original genius, and have a mysteri ous and awful grandeur all their own. His mighty spirit found its best expression in sculpture. He despised easel pictures as unworthy of a great man ; and his large fresco paintings,—the greatest works of the kind ever produced, --which he executed without assistance of any kind, are instinct with the same energy as that which we have seen to characterize his statues and bas-reliefs. In the companion volume on ARCHITECTURE and SCULPTURE.

90 PAINTING Michelangelo's first work of importance in the branch of art now To 37.—Part of the Cartoon of Pisa. By Michelangelo. A.D. 1504. From the engraviny by Marc Antonio . under consideration was the Cartoon of Pisa, already alluded to. is unfortunately lost - having, it is said, been destroyed by Baccio It IN ITALY. 91 con Bandinelli, one of the great painter's rivals ; but the Earl of Leicester possesses, at his seat at Holkham, a copy of the principal portions which has been very well engraved. It represented a group of Florentine soldiers bathing in the Arno unexpectedly called to battle, and is re markable for the extraordinary knowledge displayed of the human form in every variety of attitude ( Eng. 37 ) . A few years after the completion of this cartoon , Michelangelo commenced, in 1507, the decoration of the vaulted ceiling of the Sistine Chapel , Rome, by command of Pope Julius II. , finishing it in 1512. This stupendous undertaking, which is sidered Buonarroti's master piece and the most powerful piece of painting in existence, contains more than two hun dred figures nearly all larger than life. The flat central por tion of the ceiling is divided into four large and five small compartments, the former con taining representations of the Creation of the Sun and Moon , the Creation of Adam , the Fall and its immediate consequences, 38. - The Prophet Isaiah . By Michelangelo . and the Deluge ; the latter, A.D. 1507-12. In the Sistine Chapıl. scenes from the Book of Genesis. In the small recesses between these compartments and above the windows are groups of the Ancestors of Christ, awaiting in calm expectation the Coming of the Lord ; and in the four corners of the ceiling are scenes from the various deliverances of the people of Israel ,-viz., Holofernes and Judith, David and Goliath , the Brazen Serpent, and Haman's Death. The various 92 PAINTING portions of the work are united by architectural designs enclosing numerous figures of a gray, bronze, or bright colour, according to the position they occupy, which admirably serve to throw the groups into the necessary relief without in the least obtruding themselves upon the attention . The combined genius of an architect, sculptor and painter was required to produce a result so admirable. The figures of the prophets (Eng. 38) and sibyls are allowed to be the finest forms ever produced by the painter's brush—they are all alike grand, dignified, and full of individual character ; whilst those in the minor groups display a feeling for beauty and a tenderness of sentiment rarely met with in the works of the stern and rugged author of Moses and the Last Judgment. Between the years 1534 and 1541 , Michelangelo executed his Last Judgment as an altar-piece for the same chapel, in obedience to the command of Pope Paul III. In this composition the Judge is repre sented at the moment of saying, “ Depart from Me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire ! ” In the upper part of the picture we see the re deemed in every variety of attitude anxiously awaiting the sentence of mercy ; and in the lower the condemned, writhing in anguish and convulsively struggling with evil demons. The whole scene is pervaded by horror : there is no joy in the countenances even of the blessed ; and the Virgin, standing beside her Son, turns away her head with an expression of sorrowful dismay. Universally allowed to be a marvel lous effort of human skill , the Last Judgment is inferior in beauty, if not in power, to the paintings of the vault. In it , the great master has broken completely loose from all the traditions of Christian art, and his chief aim appears to have been to prove his knowledge of muscular development at every stage of human life, and his power of expressing all the most terrible of human emotions. Powerless rage, terror, doubt, and the struggle between fear and hope, are alike admirably rendered in this awful scene. Michelangelo's only other paintings of importance were two frescoes in the Pauline Chapel, Rome, of the Crucifixion of S. Peter and the Conversion of S. Paul. They are now nearly destroyed ; but the British Museum contains some old engravings after them.

  • Several engravings of the Last Judgment are in the British Museum.

IN ITALY. 93 The National Gallery has an unfinished picture of the Entombment 39. — The Holy Family. By Michelangelo. A.D. 1504. In the Uffizi, Florence, of Christ, said to be by Michelangelo, though various critics do not 94 PAINTING admit its authenticity. His most important easel picture is the Holy Family of the year 1504, in the Uffizi, Florence ( Eng. 39 ) . He assisted his pupil, Sebastiano del Piombo, in his great work, the Raising of Lazarus, executed for Giulio de' Medici in 1517-19, by making various drawings and studies. Of Michelangelo's other pupils the best were Marcello Venusti and Daniele Ricciarelli, called da Volterra. The latter worked out some thing of an independent style of his own ; his finest work, the Descent from the Cross, is in the church of the Trinità de' Monti, at Rome. The former may be studied in his Christ driving the Tradersfrom the Temple, in the National Gallery. The Florentine School in the Sixteenth Century. We may conveniently here mention a few painters who upheld Florentine art during part of the sixteenth century. Andrea d’Agnolo, commonly called Andrea del Sarto ( i.e. tailor) , a cotemporary of Michelangelo, attained to considerable excellence as a colourist, and enriched Florence with many fine original frescoes and altar-pieces, of which the History of S. John in the Scalzo, and the Life of S. Filippo Benizzi in the church of the Servi (which contains his famous Madonna del Sacco ) are among the best. His S. Agnes, in the Cathedral of Pisa ( Eng. 40) , is also a fine work. The National Gallery contains a fine Portrait, said erroneously to be of himself, and a Holy Family. He was first apprenticed to a goldsmith ; and afterwards studied painting under Piero di Cosimo. His style, however, was formed more from a study of the great works of Ghirlandaio and Masaccio, of Michelangelo and Leonardo, than from any instruction received from Piero. Francesco Bigi, commonly known as Franciabigio, first studied in the Brancacci Chapel, and then under Albertinelli. He was a friend of Andrea del Sarto, and was influenced by him. A Portrait of a Youth, by him, is in the National Gallery. Jacopo Carucci, called da Puntormo ( his birthplace) , was a pupil of Leonardo, of Piero di Cosimo, and of Andrea del Sarto : he is famous for his portraits ; an example is in the National Gallery, where his IN ITALY 95 40.-S. Agnes. By Andrea del Sarto . A.D. 1526 . In the Cathedral, Pisa . 96 PAINTING pupil, Angiolo Allori, called Bronzino, may also be studied . Bronzino was greatly influenced in his painting by Michelangelo, and was more over the friend of the famous Florentine painter and chronicler, Giorgio Vasari, whose · Lives of the most excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects ' has gone through many editions, and is world-known. 6 Raphael and his School, W Raffaello Sanzio (usually called Raphael), is considered by most critics to be the greatest of all painters. He was born at Urbino in 1483 : his father, Giovanni Santi, was an Umbrian painter of some note , whose title to fame has been eclipsed by that of his famous son ; and the young painter's earliest works were exponents of the peculiar style of the Umbrian school in its highest development. After Santi, he was influenced by Viti (already noticed), then by Perugino, whose manner is apparent in many of his earlier works, then again by Viti. His works have hitherto usually been divided into three distinct styles known as the Peruginesque manner, the Florentine and the Roman adopted at the three different periods of his life. Raphael, like the other master- spirits of his age, was a universal genius ; he excelled alike in architecture, sculpture and painting, and was endowed with every quality which could endear him to his associates. No man inspired such universal confidence and affection , and no artist has exercised so wide and lasting an influence upon art as Raphael, by whose spirit we are even now met at every turn in every branch of art. What strikes us principally in our study of his character is the com bination of the highest qualities of the mind and heart—a combination rarely met with even in the greatest men, and perhaps never to so full an extent as in him and in the great musician Mozart, who may well be called a kindred spirit, though working in a different sphere. In the works of others, even of the most gifted masters, we find the influence of the intellect or of the affections predominating, whilst in those of Raphael they are inseparably blended ; and it is this union of the higbest faculties which produces that beautiful and unrivalled harmony which pervades everything from his hand. He exhibited in IN ITALY. 97 the highest degree the combination of the powers of invention with those of representation, sometimes known as the formative and imitative Vio 41.—The Vision of a Knight. By Raphael . A.D. 1500. In the National Gallery. qualities. In invention, composition, moral force, fidelity of portraiture, and feeling for spiritual beauty, he is surpassed by none ; in grandeur of design by Michelangelo alone ; whilst in fulness of chiaroscuro and HHA—PAINTING H 98 PAINTING richness of colouring he is only excelled by the best masters of the Venetian school. It will be impossible, having regard to our limited space, to do more than allude in the most cursory manner to the chief of Raphael's numerous works. Although he died at the early age of thirty- seven, he executed no less than 287 pictures and 576 drawings and studies , in addition to the series of frescoes in the Vatican and elsewhere. Of the paintings executed under Perugino, the principal is a Corona tion of the Virgin , in the Vatican, two studies for which are in the Oxford collection. The beautiful Vision of a Knight, under which is hung the original drawing for it, in the National Gallery, bears trace of Viti's influence ( Eng. 41 ). One of his earliest independent works is a Crucifixion, now in the possession of Lord Dudley. A Church banner in S. Trinità at Citta da Castello, formerly thought to be an early work by Raphael, is now given to Eusebio da S. Giorgio. In 1504, at the age of twenty- one, Raphael, eager to improve himself by the study of greater works than those of Perugino or Viti, repaired to Florence, and found all that he required in the cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, which excited his enthusiastic admiration. Peculiarly susceptible to the influences alike of the old and new Florentine schools, Raphael's transcendent genius manifested itself perhaps in nothing so much as in his marvellous power of assimilating and fusing, so to speak, with his own peculiar gifts all that was best and highest in the works of others, building up therefrom a lofty and independent style essentially his own. Of the works of the first period of Raphael's life, a Madonna with SS. Jerome and Francis, in the Berlin Museum, and the Marriage of the Virgin ( known as the Sposalizio ), in the Brera, Milan, are among the most esteemed. In the last-named ( Eng. 42 ) we see the Virgin attended by five maidens and S. Joseph by five youths, Mary's former suitors, whose disappointment is symbolized by the flowerless reeds which they hold . In the year 1505 he painted the famous Ansidei Madonna, now the glory of the National Gallery. This picture was purchased from the Duke of Marlborough for £ 72,000 — the highest price ever paid for a single picture. It is one of Raphael's finest works, and, happily, is in an excellent state of preservation, IN ITALY. 99 ACA MWM 42. — The Marriage of the Virgin . By Raphael. A.D. 1504. In the Brera , Milan . Of the paintings executed at Florence, in the master's second manner, we must name, as especially celebrated, the Madonna del Cardellino I H 2 100 PAINTING. . ( of the Goldfinch ), in the Uffizi, Florence ; the Madonna of the Tempi Family, in the Pinakothek, Munich ; the famous Madonna in the Louvre, known as La Belle Jardinüre ( Eng. 43) ; Lord Cowper's Madonna --known as the Little Panshanger Raphael (of about the year 1505 ) , to distinguish it from the more famous painting by that artist in the same collection ; S. Catherine, in the National Gallery ; the Entombment, an altar- piece, now in the Borghese Palace, Rome; and the Madonna del Baldacchino ( of the Canopy), in the Pitti Palace, Florence, which belongs to the close of the second period . Here we must mention the other and more famous Panshanger Raphael, the Madonna della Casa Niccolini, which bears the date 1508. In the middle of the year 1508, Raphael was called to Rome by Pope Julius II. to aid in the adornment of the magnificent suite of apartments in the Vatican, which were to commemorate the temporal and spiritual power of the Papacy. The walls of three stanze ( i. e. rooms) , and of the gallery or corridor leading to them from the stair case, and consisting of thirteen compartments, or loggie, with small cupolas, were covered with frescoes by the great master himself, and by his pupils after his designs. In the first room, the Stanza della Segnatura , Raphael represented in symbolic scenes on the walls the four great intellectual pursuits Theology, Poetry, Philosophy and Jurisprudence,--and adorned the ceiling with four allegoric figures of the same, with appropriate symbols. The fresco of Theology (also called the Dispute of the Holy Sacrament) is divided into two portions ; the upper containing the Holy Trinity with the heavenly host, and the lower the Eucharist on an altar surrounded by forty -three figures, many of them portraits : the fresco of Poetry represents Parnassus, with Apollo attended by the Muses and the chief of the poets : that of Philosophy (or the School of Athens), in which Plato and Aristotle occupy the centre , with Zeno, Diogenes, Aristippus, Epicurius, and other well-known Greeks, with their pupils, amongst whom many portraits are introduced : and that of Jurisprudence, Gregory IX. giving out the Decretals ; Justinian giving the famous Pandects (i. e. the Roman Laws, made by order of Justinian from the writings of Roman jurists) ; and three allegoric زیورات اور 43.- La Belle Jardinière . By Raphael. A.D. 1507 . In the Louvre. 102 PAINTING figures of Prudence, Fortitude and Temperance. This chamber was completed in 1511 . In the next, the Stanza dell' Eliodoro, the frescoes are more strictly historic. We see the Expulsion of Heliodorusfrom the Temple, in which Pope Julius II. is introduced as a spectator ; the Miracle of Bolsena representing the Mass at which the miracle of the bleeding of the Host ERCIVS PAVLVS Naik IRTON SVE hier ANAM PIDUM TAMPFICIVR SALI PRÆDICAO ONC 44.-Elymas struck with blindness. Cartoon by Raphael. A.D. 1515-16. In the South Kensington Museum . is said to have taken place ; the Discomfiture of the hordes of Attila, and the Deliverance of S. Peter — in all of which the power of the Papacy is directly or indirectly shadowed forth. In the third chamber, the Stanza dell'Incendio, we have the Fire in the Borgo Vecchio — a marvellous work, full of the highest dramatic power, in which Raphael displayed consummate knowledge of anatomy in the IN ITALY. 103 groups of terrified naked figures; the Coronation of Charlemagne, the Oath of Leo III ., and the Victory over the Saracens in the time of Leo IV. The frescoes in a fourth room, known as the Sala di Costantino, are from designs by Raphael, executed after his death by his pupils. In the cupolas of the loggie there are no less than fifty -two subjects, which are called “ Raphael's Bible, ” remarkable alike for dramatic interest, beauty of design, and majesty of execution. Viewed as the production of a single mind, they stand alone as a proof of Raphael's unrivalled versatility and creative genius. The decorative paintings and ornamental plaster-work in which these pictures are framed remain unequalled of their kind . * Other famous works of the Roman period of the great master's life are the Cartoons ( seven still exist out of the original eleven ), which were designed by Raphael and executed by himself, assisted by pupils, and which are so well known to English students and visitors to the South Kensington Museum : they were originally designed for tapestries for the Sistine Chapel, by order of Leo X. ( Eng. 44) . The tapestries were woven, under the superintendence of Michiel van Coxcien, at Arras, in Flanders, and are now in the Vatican ; reproductions of them are also preserved in the Berlin and Dresden Galleries. Seven of the original designs, and copies after them , are so readily accessible that we need only add that they represent the following scenes from the Lives of the Apostles, treated with great dramatic power : The Miraculous Draught of Fishes ( greater part by Raphael. The birds in the foreground are believed to be the work of Giovanni da Udine ). Christ's Charge to Peter ( the figure of Christ only by Raphael) . S. Peter and S. John healing the Lame Man ( greater part by Giulio Romano). The Death of Ananias (most of the heads by Raphacl). Elymas the Sorcerer struck with blindness ( part by Raphael). Paul and Barnabas at Lystra ( executed by Penni). Paul preaching at Athens (most by Raphael). These seven cartoons were bought by Charles I. , at the suggestion of Rubens, and have remained in England ever since. The four missing cartoons had for subjects

  • The series of drawings known as Raphael's Sketch - book in the Academy at Venice

has recently been ascribed to Pinturicchio . 104 PAINTING The Martyrdom of S. Stephen. The Conversion of S. Paul. S. Paul in Prison. The Coronation of the Virgin . ( The original design is in the Oxford Muscum .) A second series, with subjects from the Life of Christ, was com menced shortly before Raphael's death. During his residence in Rome, Rapbael also painted the famous frescoes of the Farnesina Palace, in which he gave proof of the love of antique subjects which characterized his latter years, by choosing for representation the Triumph of Galatea (in which he was greatly assisted by Giulio Romano) , and the History of Cupid and Psyche, by many critics supposed to have been executed entirely by his pupils, after his designs. Besides these vast mural paintings, his architectural works - already alluded to *—and the diligent share he took in the researches then going on amongst the ruins of ancient Rome, Raphael found time to produce a magnificent series of easel pictures, altar-pieces, and portraits (includ ing several of himself) , of which we can only name the most important, and of which some have already been noticed. Taking first the Holy Families and Madonnas, of which there are no less than fifty, and into which he threw all the religious fervour for which he was dis tinguished, we find : The Holy Family with the Palm -tree. In the Bridgwater Gallery. ab. 1505. The Virgin with the Diadem. ( Early In the Bridgwater Gallery (replica in Roman. ) the Louvre). The Virgin and Child . (La Silence .) In the Louvre. The Garvagh Madonna. In the National Gallery. The Madonna di Foligno. 1511 . In the Vatican. The Virgin with the Fish. ab. 1513. In the Madrid Muscum . The Holy Family of Naples. ab. 1513. In the Napics Gallery . The Madonna of the Bridgwater Gallery. In the Bridgwater Gallery. The Madonna della Sedia . 1516. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. The Madonna di San Sisto. 1519. In the Dresden Gallery. 3 The last named, now the greatest treasure of the Dresden Gallery , is perhaps the most famous painting in the world. 6 * The Virgin ," says Kugler, “ is one of the most wonderful creations of Raphael's In the volume on ARCHITECTURE and SCULPTURE .

IN ITALY . 105 pencil.” Of Raphael's other altar-pieces the most famous are Christ bearing His Cro88, - (known as Lo Spasimo di Cecilia ) having once belonged to the Church of S. Maria del Spasimo, at Palermo, -now at Madrid, which is in every respect a masterpiece ; and the Trans figuration, his last and best oil painting, which was left untinished at his death and carried at his funeral with the colours still wet : it is now the most valued possession of the Vatican. Of his smaller paintings we must name S. Cecilia . 1516. The Vision of Ezekiel . The Visitation . S. Margaret. ab. 1516. Archangel Michael. 1517. In th: Bologna Gallery. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. In the Madrid Gallery. In the Louvre (replica in the Belvedere, Vienna ). In the Louvre. > And of his portraits, that of himself, in the Louvre ; the Fornarina, in the Barberini Gallery, Rome, and those of Bindo Altoviti, in the Munich Gallery ; of a beautiful Roman Maiden, and of Julius II. ( a copy of which is in the National Gallery ), and Leo I., with two Cardinals, all in the Pitti Palace, Florence. On the death of Raphael at the age of thirty -seven all Europe mourned, and for a time the inspiration of painters was eclipsed. Never did one man's death create so vast a void -never was memory more fondly cherished . In the words of Kugler, “ His works were regarded with religious veneration , as if God had revealed Himself through Raphael as, in former days, through the prophets.” " Raphael's pupils and followers were extremely numerous, and many of his excellences were successfully imitated . His most celebrated scholar was Giulio de' Giannuzzi, called Giulio Romano, well repre sented in our National Gallery by his Mary Magdalen , and the Capture of Carthagena, who took a share in the execution of many of his master's greatest works, and inherited his feeling for classic beauty and his powerful drawing, but not his grace of design or purity of colouring. A remarkable series of paintings by Romano decorate the Palazzo del Tè, at Mantua, which was also built from his designs. Giulio Romano had for pupils Francesco Primaticcio, who first worked under him at Mantua, but afterwards became famous for his 106 PAINTING scenes from the Odyssey (now destroyed ), which he executed in the Palace of Fontainebleau,whither he was invited by Francis I. in 1531 ; and Giulio Clovio, who is more celebrated for his illuminations in books than for his paintings. We must also name, as followers of Raphael, Gianfrancesco Penni, called “ Il Fattore,” in whose works we recognize excellences similar to 45.—The Annunciation to the Virgin . By Garofalo . In the Gallery of the Capitol, Rome. those of Romano ; Pierino Buonaccorsi, called Del Vaga, who painted much at Genoa ; Giovanni Nanni, of Udine, who carried out his decorative designs and caught much of his spirit ; Innocenzio Francucci da Imola, and Bartolommeo Ramenghi, called da Bagnacavallo, who adopted his soft and beautiful style of modelling. We may here notice a few artists who, amongst others, formed IN FERRARA. 107 The Ferrarese School. > > Giovanni di Lutero, called Dosso Dossi, was one of the most im portant painters of this school. His works are celebrated for their brilliant colouring and their poetic feeling ; many of them were mythological. He and his younger brother, Battista Dossi, both born at Ferrara, were first pupils of Lorenzo Costa, and then studied at Rome and Venice. Returning to Ferrara, they executed, amongst other works, frescoes in the Ducal Palace—Dosso doing the figures and Battista the backgrounds. Dosso's masterpiece, a Madonna and Saints, “ one of the principal art-treasures of Italy ," is in the public gallery of his native city. An Adoration of the Magi, by Dosso, is in the National Gallery, where also may be studied the style of Lodovico Mazzolini, a fellow -pupil under Costa, and a subsequent rival of Garofalo . Benvenuto Tisi , usually called Garofalo, painted at Ferrara , Cremona, Rome and Mantua, under various masters, but ultimately became an assistant of Raphael, in the Vatican , in 1515. The latter part of his life was spent in Ferrara, and for the last nine years he suffered total blindness. His best work is the Apparition of the Virgin to S. Bruno, in the Dresden Gallery. In the gallery of the Capitol, Rome, is an Annunciation by him ( Eng. 45 ) , and in the Borghese Palace an Entombment. The National Gallery contains four of his pictures : the principal is a Madonna and Child enthroned, originally an altar-piece in S. Guglielmo at Ferrara. His works display technical excellence, but are somewhat wanting in inspiration. He is best studied in Ferrara, where his portraits are worthy of especial attention . The National Gallery contains the masterpiece of Giovanni Battista Benvenuti, called Dell'Ortolano, whose manner was formed on a study of Raphael and Bagnacavallo. Another fine work by him is a Holy Family in the possession of Lord Wimborne at Canford. The Lombardic School. Antonio Allegri, called from his birthplace Correggio, introduced a totally new manner in the art of painting, and excelled all his prede 108 PAINTING. cessors and cotemporaries in his chiaroscuro, and in the grace and softness of effect of his pictures. He was the founder of what is known as the school of Lombardy or Parma. In the early part of his career he was greatly influenced by the style of Costa and Francia , and by that of Leonardo da Vinci ; but he soon displayed all those distinctive peculiarities which raised him at once to the highest rank . Whilst the masters of Rome and Florence almost exclusively cultivated form and expression, Correggio directed his attention to the harmonious play of light and shade, and to subtle combinations of colour. In the words of Sir Joshua Reynolds, “ His manner, design, and execution are all very great, without correctness. He had a most free and delightful pencil, and it is to be acknowledged that he painted with a strength, relief, sweetness, and vivacity of colouring which nothing ever exceeded. He understood how to distribute his lights in such a manner as was wholly peculiar to himself, which gave great force and great roundness to his figures.” He filled up all that was yet wanting in the master pieces of his cotemporaries, which appeared hard and dry compared with the soft melting lines, the gliding outlines, and transparent shadows of his graceful conceptions. He delighted in depicting the pleasurable emotions ; and all his figures express heavenly rapture or earthly bliss : they are bathed, so to speak, in the joy of existence, and even in suffering have an expression of gentle melancholy rather than All is life, movement, and variety ; but it must be owned that, in his love of expressing the passions, he sometimes degenerated into affectation . Of Correggio's early life little is known. He neither belonged to the noble family De Allegris, nor was he brought up in poverty ; both of which have been recorded of him. His early teachers in art were men of no note, but in 1511 he visited Mantua, and was much in fluenced by the works of Mantegna. His genius ripened early, and on his return to Correggio in 1514, at about the age of twenty, he exe cuted for the Franciscan Convent at Carpi a large altar-piece known as the Madonna di S. Francesco, now in the Dresden Gallery, and a few years later a series of frescoes in the convent of S. Paolo, at Parma, in which the influence of Da Vinci is very noticeable. In 1520 Correggio was commissioned to paint the cupola and choir of S. of woe. 13t. 46. - La Madonna della Cesta . By Correggio . Ab . A.D. 1520 . In the National Gallery. 110 PAINTING Giovanni, at Parma, which town he had previously visited in 1515. For the cupola he chose as a subject the Ascension of Christ. The pictures, though some are removed and others much damaged, exhibit considerable grandeur of design, and are remarkable for the extensive use of fore-shortening which the study of per spective had introduced : in the choir he painted the Coronation of the Virgin, now in the Bib lioteca ; a copy is in S. Giovanni. These works were finished in 1524. Later in his career this great master dis played considerable love of the antique, and in 1525 painted for the Duke of Mantua the Education of Cupid ( now in the National Gallery) , considered one of his masterpieces. Other works of a similar character are his Leda with the Swan and Io and Jupiter, both in the Berlin Museum ; and 47.—Madonna della Scodella . By Correggio . his Danäe in the Bor In the Parma Gallery. A.D. 1528. ghese Palace, Rome. To this period of his life belong many fine altar - pieces, Holy Families and other sacred pictures. The Dresden Gallery is especially rich in works by Correggio - con taining, amongst others, the famous Nativity, called La Notte (or “ Night ” ), because it is lighted entirely by the nimbus round the head of the Holy Child ; and the yet better known Reading Magdalen . The a IN LOMBARDY. 111 Parma Gallery contains the famous Madonna della Scodella ( Eng. 47 ) , and the Madonna and S. Jerome, representing the Saint offering his translation of the Bible to the Madonna and Child, -also called Il Giorno, or “ Day," on account of the fulness and radiancy of the light diffused over the whole scene. In the Louvre are the Marriage of S. Catherine and the Antiope ; in the Naples Gallery the Madonna known as La Zingarella, from the peculiar head-dress of the Virgin ; and in the National Gallery the famous Ecce Homo, representing Christ pre sented by Pilate to the people, a Holy Family ( known as the Madonna della Cesta) ( Eng. 46) , remarkable for the knowledge displayed in it of aerial perspective, and Christ's Agony in the Garden , in which the master's peculiar command of light and shade is well illustrated. During the years 1526 to 1530, Correggio was engaged on a most important work—the Assumption of the Virgin on the dome of the cathedral at Parma. It is a masterly piece of vigorous design and foreshortening, but is wanting in correctness of drawing, and exhibits a confusion of limbs which gained for it the title of a “ hash of frogs.” The school of Parma may almost be said to begin and end with Correggio. He had no pupils who attained to any eminence; but he had many imitators, of whom Francesco Mazzuoli, known by the name of Parmigiano, was the chief, and indeed the only one of importance. His style resembles that of Correggio in many particulars; but he also combines something of the peculiarities of Michelangelo and Raphael. Had he lived at any other period he would probably have risen to the highest rank as a painter ; for, although inferior to the five great men we have named as the master-spirits of the age, he greatly surpassed most of his other cotemporaries. He excelled in invention and design ; and his later works are characterized by a correctness of drawing and grandeur of conception sometimes wanting in those of Correggio. His Vision of S. Jerome, in the National Gallery, is one of his earlier pro ductions. In 1531 he commenced the frescoes of the choir of S. Maria della Steccata at Parma, in which occurs the world-famous figure of Moses breaking the Tables of the Law, which Sir Joshua Reynolds chose as a typical specimen of the correctness of drawing and grandeur of conception acquired by Mazzuoli through his study of the works of Michelangelo, contrasting it with his earliest work , S. Eustachius, in 112 PAINTING " at grace the church of S. Petronio at Bologna, in which the future master aimed and grandeur before he had learnt to draw correctly.” Of his easel pictures, Cupid making his Bow, in the Belvedere at Vienna, is considered the most remarkable ; and of his altar-pieces, S. Margaret, in the Bologna Academy. The Venetian School. A.D. 1512 to A.D. 1600. Comparatively free from the constant action of those external in fluences which were brought to bear on the artists of Upper Italy, the Venetians steadily pursued the course commenced by the Bellini, and finally evinced a consummate mastery of colouring, which, as we have seen , was the predominant characteristic of the Early Venetian school . Seeking beauty for its own sake, they found it, so to speak , by trans figuring nature, -by treating the events and objects of familiar life in a grand and lofty manner, which was the fitting expression of the love of splendour characteristic of the proud citizens of the Mistress of the Sea . The masterpieces of Giorgione, Titian and others are a reflexion of the magnificence of Venice at this time ; but a reflexion idealized and stamped with the impress of eternal beauty. The Venetian painters cultivated the sensuous rather than the intellectual side of human nature ; and in their works, faithfulness of pictorial repre sentation is ever of greater moment than the moral lesson to be conveyed ; with wonderful mastery over all the technical processes of their art, they rendered accurately the warm colouring of flesh - one of the painter's most difficult tasks—and the effects of light on different materials, in a manner never surpassed. Giorgio Barbarelli, called Giorgione, was the first to break free from the trammels of the Early Venetian school. The fellow-pupil of Titian , in the school of the Bellini, he soon proved his superiority to his masters, his paintings being distinguished for a luminous glow, a depth of colouring, and a purity of outline never before attained. *

  • “ The difference in the technical execution of Giorgione and Titian appears to have

been that the former painted in tempera and then glazed in oil , and the latter only used oil - colours. The consequence is that Giorgione's colours have retained their brilliancy and transparency, whilst those of litian have too frequently become opaque and black . ” — Layard's Kugler. He was IN VENICE. 113 one of the first of the Venetians to give prominence to landscape, and to paint what have since been called genre pictures. He was also famous for his portraits : many celebrated personages sat to him. He worked much in fresco, but there is but little left to show us what we have lost by the destruction of his works. Few of his easel pictures now remain ; and many works commonly ascribed to him are said by competent critics to be by Sebastiano del Piombo, Palma, Pellegrino, Lotto, Romanino, Moretto and others. It is ever to be regretted that he died at the early age of thirty-four. Had he lived longer his fame might have rivalled that of Titian. The following easel pictures are nearly unanimously agreed to be by him, but about Giorgione's works critics on Italian art differ perhaps more than on any other subject. Writers have even ventured to throw doubt on his most important and best known work, the Castelfranco altar- piece. Signor Morelli admits the following as genuine : Virgin and Child with S. Francis and I S. Liberale, ab. 1512 (his best work ). A Concert. The Judgment of Solomon ( early work ). The Ordeal of Moses ( early work ). Christ bearing His Cross. “ Three Philosophers.” Family of Giorgione. Sleeping Venus. Madonna with SS . Roch and Anthony. Daphne and Apollo. Three Stages of Life. Two young men in a landscape. In the Church of Castelfranco. In the Louvre. In the Uffizi, Florence. In the Uffizi, Florence. In the Casa Loschi, Vicenza . In the Belvedere, Vienna . Prince Giovanelli, Venice. In the Dresden Gallery. In the Madrid Gallery. In the Manfredini Collection , Venice. In the Pitti Palace , Florence. In the Esterhazy Gallery, Pesth. The Judgment of Solomon at Kingston Lacy, and the Concert in the Pitti Palace, are among a numerous class of works commonly ascribed to him, but doubted by various critics. The authenticity of the Knight in Armour in the National Gallery, usually accepted as Giorgione's original study for the Castelfranco picture, is doubted by Signor Morelli and others, chiefly on the ground of its being too highly finished for a study. “ The Three Philosophers, ” of which we give an illustration ( Eng. 48 ) , was formerly in Charles I.'s collection, but, owing to Cromwell's HHA-PAINTING I 114 PAINTING vandalism , it is no longer in England. To Signor Morelli, who has given special study to this master, is due the honour of having recognized in the Dresden Gallery (where it was catalogued as a copy after Titian) one of Giorgione's finest works, a Sleeping Venus of great beauty and purity, which was the model on which Titian, Palma Vecchio and other masters based their pictures of similar subjects. 48.— “ The Three Philosophers.” By Giorgione. In the Belvedere, Vienna. Sebastiano Luciani, del Piombo (i.e. of the seal ) , if not actually the pupil of Giorgione, was much influenced by his style, and attained to considerable fame as a colourist and portrait painter. His Raising of Lazarus, in the National Gallery, is generally considered his master piece : the group of Lazarus and the figures near him was designed by Michelangelo, under whom he worked for some time. The greatest Venetian painter of the sixteenth century was, however , IN VENICE. 115 Tiziano Vecelli , commonly known as Titian, who first studied with a painter named Zuccato, then with Gentile Bellini, and subsequently with Giovanni, in whose studio he laboured side by side with Giorgione. Titian's first patron was Alfonso I. , Duke of Ferrara , for whom he executed several of his masterpieces. He was employed by the Senate to complete the work left unfinished by Giovanni Bellini , in the Sala del gran Consiglio, Venice : this he did to the great approval of the authorities, and was rewarded with the office of La Sanseria - i.e . that of painter-in - chief to the Doges of Venice . In 1532 he went to Bologna at the invitation of Charles V. , but did not (as has been commonly asserted ) accompany that monarch to Spain. He was much patronized by the Duke Federigo Gonzaga, by Paul III, at Rome, and by other persons of note. Titian lived to the great age of ninety- nine, and was in the full possession of all his faculties, when he was carried off by the plague, in 1576. He was buried in the church of S. Maria de' Frari, Venice. Titian's works combine the distinctive excellences of Giorgione and Correggio, with a lofty original character of their own. In colouring he stands pre-eminent; his rendering of flesh - tints has never been surpassed, and in his landscapes and groups his treatment of local colouring and chiaroscuro has seldom been equalled. He is considered the finest portrait painter of any age ; his figures live on canvas ; they are real beings, whom we seem to know as we look into their calm and dignified faces, and they are as perfectly finished as the best works of the Dutch school. Aiming only at truth, Titian excelled all the other Italian painters in realistic imitation of nature ; and, although this very faithfulness precluded the development of ideal beauty, his works are all characterized by a calm nobility of figure and expression ; his creations are as full of serene and conscious enjoyment of existence as those of Giorgione are of stern and active energy ; and in his long life of ninety -nine years he produced a series of masterpieces which raised him to the head of the new Venetian school . It would be impossible in a work like the present to give anything like a full account of the numerous works of Titian, which enrich all the great cities of Europe. In his early paintings he followed the style I 2 116 PAINTING

e of Bellini , impressing it , however, with a power of his own. Of these the Resurrection , above the high altar of S. Nazzaro, in Brescia, is among the most important. More famous is his Christ and the Tribute Money, in the Dresden Gallery, of a somewhat later date, in which the head of Christ is especially beautiful. Of the large sacred works in the master's completed manner, the Entombment (ab. 1523), in the Louvre, in which exquisite truth and beauty of form are combined with dignity of expression and depth of feeling ; the Presentation ( ab. 1539), and the Assumption of the Virgin ( 1516 ) , both in the Academy at Venice ; the Supper at Emmaus, in the Studj Gallery at Naples ; the Christ at Emmaus (ab. 1546 ) , in the Louvre, and the Pesaro altar-piece * in the church of the Frari, Venice , -- are among the principal. Equally famous is the picture of Christ appearing to Mary Magdalen after His Resurrection ( known as Noli Me tangere), in the National Gallery, which also possesses two fine Holy Families. Titian's most celebrated his toric works are his Death of S. Peter Martyr ( 1528) ( Eng. 49) , which was formerly the altar-piece in SS. Giovanni e Paolo at Venice, and was destroyed by fire in 1867 ; and the Martyrdom of S. Lawrence, now much injured, in the Jesuits' Church, Venice. The former was especially noted for the beauty of the landscape, in which the most delicate aërial effects of bright twilight were faithfully rendered ; and the latter, for the peculiar results obtained by the meeting of the light from heaven and the flames of the burning pitch. In both we see faith and mental fortitude triumphant over physical agony. The representation of suffering was not, however, at all congenial to the great lover of sensual beauty, whose peculiar excellences found fuller scope in the lighter and more cheerful subjects of heathen mytho logy , or of allegory ; and the original genius which he brought to bear upon the worn-out fables of antiquity is well illustrated in his Diana and Callisto, so often repeated, and in the celebrated Venus of the Uffizi, Florence ; the Bacchus and Ariadne and Venus and Adonis, both in the National Gallery ; the Danäe at Naples, the famous Venus del Prado in the Louvre, and many other similar works. Of his allegoric pictures,

  • This picture, which is said to have been “ restored ” no less than seven times,

affords a startling example of the incalculable injury done to painting in Italy by so- called restoration. IN VENICE. 117 the most famous are the Three Ages, representing a young shepherd and DAD 49.-S. Peter Martyr. By Titian . A.D. 1528. Burned in 1867. Formerly in the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo , Venice. a beautiful maiden seated on the grass, with three winged children on 118 PAINTING one side, and an old man in the distance on the other ; and Sacred and Profane Love, symbolized by two beautiful women seated on the rim of a fountain , now in the Borghese Palace, Rome. Titian's portraits are very numerous. Many of the finest are in England : one, for instance, in the Hampton Court Palace, of a dark man, with a face full of eloquence and feeling ; another in the National Gallery ; and two at Windsor Castle —one of a certain Andrea Fran chesini, and one of Titian himself. More famous than any of these , however, are the portrait of a lady in the Pitti Palace, Florence, known as the Bella di Tiziano * ( Eng. 50 ); that of his daughter, in the Berlin Museum ; and that of Paul III. ( 1545 ) , in the Naples Museum. A list of Titian's portraits would include all the celebrities of his time. The Madrid Museum contains forty fine easel pictures by Titian, the Vienna Gallery thirty -four authentic works, and the Louvre eighteen, but he is best studied in the churches and galleries of Venice. a Of his cotemporaries, and we may also say his rivals in the early part of his career, we must name Jacopo Palma, surnamed il Vecchio ( old ) , whose masterpiece is the S. Barbara, in the church of S. Maria Formosa, Venice, which bears distinct traces of the influence of Giorgione. He was especially successful in female portraits, of which a good example is his Violante in the Belvedere at Vienna. The Portrait of Ariosto, called in the National Gallery a Titian , has recently been ascribed to Palma. Paris Bordone, -as much a follower of Giorgione as of Titian, —whose most celebrated work is his Fisherman presenting the ring of S. Mark to the Doge, in the Academy of Venice. The National Gallery possesses a beautiful Portrait of a Lady, and a Daphne and Chloe, an excellent example of his successful treatment of subjects of mythology. Another important work by him was the decoration, with scenes from the Life of Christ, of the dome of S. Vicenzo at Treviso. Giovanni Antonio Sacchi, t commonly called from his birthplace Pordenone, one of the most distinguished masters of the Venetian

  • The picture with a similar title in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, is by Palma Vecchio.

† Long known as Licinio — which was the name of an inferior artist, Bernardo Licinio, who chiefly painted portraits. IN VENICE. 119 X6 INUNSUNOVINKYSTMUNSTANSKSINOINNIT 50.-— " Bella di Tiziano " ( Duchess of Urbino ? ) . By Titian. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 120 PAINTING. school, who rivalled even Titian in his flesh -tints, and whose works are rarely met with out of Italy. In the cathedral at Cremona there are some finely -executed frescoes by him of Scenes from the Passion . Alessandro Bonvicino, commonly called Il Moretto da Brescia, left many fine altar-pieces to his native city, and several good easel pictures, three of which , two Portraits of Noblemen and an altar-piece of S. Bernardino of Siena and other Saints, are in the National Gallery. In the last picture his " silvery ” style may be well studied. He was less influenced by Titian than most of the Venetian painters. One of his finest pictures is the Feast of the Pharisees ( 1544) , now in S. Maria della Pietà, Venice. Giovanni Battista Moroni, who was a pupil of Bonvicino, painted a few historic subjects, but his chief title to fame lies in his portraits, which yield little if anything to those of Titian. In life - like repre sentation and masterly treatment they have been equalled by few portraits ever executed. A splendid example may be seen in the National Gallery in the Portrait of a Tailor : the Lawyer in the same collection , which contains three other works by him, is but little in ferior. The Ercole Tasso, at Stafford House, disputes with the Tailor the claim of being his masterpiece. Here, too, we must mention Girolamo Romanino of Brescia, who was a successful imitator of Titian and Giorgione, and a rival of Bonvicino. The Nativity of the year 1525 in the National Gallery is one of his best works ; but he is best studied in Brescia. Bonifazio Veronese * ( died 1540), the most important of the three artists of this name, whose works were for many years given to one man only, was a follower, if not a pupil, of Palma Vecchio : his style was also based on that of Titian and Giorgione, and several of his works have passed under the names of those masters. His Dives and Lazarus in the Venice Academy is a very fine work, " a picture of the most exquisite sentiment, still retaining much of its original gorgeous colouring.” In the National Gallery a Madonna and Child with Saints, formerly ascribed to Palma, is now given to Bonifazio. The second Bonifazio Veronese, a younger brother who died in 1553, was a

  • His surname is unknown.

51. -Christ borne to the Tomb. By Tintoretto. Ab. A.D. 1560. In S. Francesco della Vigna, Venice. 122 PAINTING. pupil of the first ; and a Bonifazio Veneziano was still painting in 1579 . All three are best studied in Venice. Greater than any of these were two masters who flourished towards the end of the sixteenth century, and kept alive the vitality of the Venetian school by the production of works of original genius and individuality long after the art of painting in the rest of Italy had fallen into the hands of mere mannerists and imitators. We allude to Jacopo Robusti, known as Tintoretto, and Paolo Caliari , called Paolo Veronese. The former studied for a very short time under Titian, and aspired to combine his excellence of colouring with Michelangelo's correctness and grandeur of form . In some few of his works he gave evidence of considerable power : his Miracle of S. Mark, in the Academy of Venice, for instance, is finely conceived and forcibly executed ; but he painted too rapidly to achieve the highest results, and his works are remarkable for their gigantic size rather than for finest artistic qualities. His chief works were those he executed for the Scuola di S. Marco, of which the famous Miracle is one ( fifty -seven of them still remain in position) , and those for the Scuola di S. Rocco, Venice. He painted also many pictures for the churches of Venice, which may still be studied there, among others Christ borne to the Tomb, a fine altar- piece in S. Francesco della Vigna ( Eng. 51 ) . The S. George destroying the Dragon of his early period is the only work by Tintoretto in the National Gallery ; but two may be seen in Hampton Court Palace, his Esther before Ahasuerus, and the Nine Muses. At Castle Howard are a Sacrifice of Isaacs and a Temptation of Christ ; and at Stafford House a celebrated Party of Musicians. Tintoretto is justly famed for his portraits ; in the representation of human flesh he is unrivalled . In the works of Paolo Veronese, the distinctive principles of the Venetian school are far more successfully fulfilled than in those of Tintoretto . He rivals in magnificence Titian himself, whilst his delicacy of chiaroscuro, the sincerity with which he brought out the true relations of objects to each other in air and light, his genuine feeling for physical beauty, the softness and freedom of his pencilling, his mastery of true symbolism, and his power of catching the essential characteristics both of men and animals, give him a high position as ERRO TUTUS பபயபப்டவழt M Joll I TIDE UgUIA NOUS AU ,Paris .Louvre the InVeronese Paolo ).Byonly (part Pharisee ofSimon house the Feast in52. —The 124 PAINTING. an independent master . The Marriage at Cana, now in the Louvre, is considered his finest work. It contains 120 figures or heads, including portraits of many of the greatest celebrities of his day, and is full of life and action. Scarcely less famous are his Feast of Levi, in the Academy of Venice ; his Feast in the house of Simon the Pharisee, in the Louvre ( Eng. 52) ; and another of the same subject in the Turin Gallery . * The Family of Darius is in the National Gallery, which also contains one of his Adorations ; and his Consecration of S. Nicholas, Bishop of Myra, and a finished study for the Rape of Europa, are in the Belvedere, Vienna. We have still to name Jacopo da Ponte, called “ Il Bassano," the chief member of a family of artists, and the founder of the Italian school of genre painting, whose works are remarkable for Venetian force of colouring and chiaroscuro. He excelled in painting landscapes, animals, and objects of still life such as the copper vessels which were made in his native town, Bassano. He is well represented in the National Gallery, which contains a Portrait of a Gentleman ; Christ and the Money- changers ; and the Good Samaritan . The S. Martin, in the Municipal Gallery, and the Baptism of S. Lucella, in S. Valentino, both in the town of Bassano, are considered his masterpieces. Jacopo had four sons, all of whom were painters: Decorative Painting. > The great Italian masters of the Renaissance devoted no inconsider able portion of their energies to decorative painting—that is to say, to paintings so arranged as to form a part of the ornament of rooms and churches : in their hands, this art attained to a perfection never before realized, except perhaps in the best days of Rome. The designs with which the Vatican and other important buildings were adorned com prised human figures, animals, flowers, and endless geometrical com binations. The early part of the fifteenth century was marked by a kind of transition from Gothic ornamentation, in which the grotesque element predominated, to that of the completed Renaissance, which

  • These four Feasts were painted for the refectories of four Venetian convents.

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15 கு VANI OM மானானனானைனானஎணணை orama 53.-- Decoration of the Farnesina Palace. After Raphael's design . 126 PAINTING. was in effect a revival of the antique style of decorative painting, discovered in such buildings as the Baths of Titus and the mural decorations of Pompeii, stamped with the impress of the original genius of Raphael, who did more than any other master to define the true limits and the true capabilities of purely decorative art. In the sixteenth century a want was felt of some greater variety of design than had hitherto been deemed admissible. As the century advanced the love of variety increased, and ideas were borrowed from every side, especially from the East, as is proved by the term “ arabesque” having been applied to the decorative designs of Raphael. We have now completed our account -necessarily incomplete - of the great Italian cinque- cento masters ; and, looking back upon the results obtained, before tracing the progress of the new movement in the rest of Europe, we find a simultaneous fulfilment of all the great principles of painting : form , design, and expression had been perfected in the Roman and Florentine schools by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael ; and colouring and chiaroscuro in the schools of Parma and Venice by Correggio, Titian and Paolo Veronese ; spiritual beauty had found its noblest exponent in Raphael, and corporeal beauty in Titian. The art of portraiture had attained to its highest development ; landscape painting, properly so called, though not much practised , had been greatly improved, and genre painting had been introduced ; the religious subjects almost exclusively favoured in the fifteenth century had given place to some extent to those of antique mythology and history ; and a general love of art pervaded all classes. Unfortunately, the high position painting had thus gloriously won was not maintained, and even at the close of the sixteenth century there were signs of its approaching decadence. RENAISSANCE PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS AND GERMANY. In the North of Europe, as in Italy, we find painting attaining to a position of the first importance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ; but, as was the case with architecture and sculpture, the art of the North of Europe differed in many essential particulars from that of the South. The Teutonic masters were uninfluenced by the models of antiquity which so strongly biassed Italian taste ; and , unfettered by the trammels of old and sacred traditions, they went straight to nature for their models, and endeavoured to express their spiritual conceptions in familiar forms and homely scenes of everyday life, attaining thereby a truth to nature never surpassed. It cannot, of course, be denied that the men we have now to consider never attained to the exceptional excellence of Da Vinci, Michelangelo, or Raphael ; but their inferiority was, in a great measure, due to acci dental and peculiar circumstances. The development of the Gothic style of architecture, and the preference in the Renaissance period for wood -carvings rather than paintings as altar-pieces, limited the northern painters in the exercise of their art to the narrow field of manuscript illuminations and easel pictures. Moreover, in the countries under notice , there were no enthusiastic patrons of art ready to recognize and encourage genius : artists were compelled to work their way up to eminence through difficulties of every kind — difficulties in which they often wasted their strength and the best years of their life ; and, above all, the Reformation was occupying the thoughts of all earnest men, and throwing every other interest into the background. With all these disadvantages, however, the simple truthfulness of Teutonic painting, its faithful rendering of individual character, its purity and distinctness of expression, and, above all , its thorough originality, gave it a charm and value of its own. To sum up, in one word, the vital difference between the painting of the South and that of the North of Europe, we may say that the former is aristocratic and the latter democratic 128 PAINTING. Early Flemish and Dutch Schools. Thirteenth and Fourteenth centuries. а . Even less is known of the Early Flemish than of the German school. The total destruction by iconoclasts in the sixteenth century of the works of the predecessors of the Van Eycks renders it impossible to trace the development of the great realistic Flemish school, of which Huibrecht van Eyck was so distinguished a member ; yet many of the miniatures of the fourteenth century give a high idea of the capabilities of their artists. One by a certain Jehan de Bruges, for instance, bearing date 1371 , now at the Hague, displays great feeling for truth of form and expression, and we think that we may fairly assume this artist to be one of many who paved the way for the great masters of the fifteenth century. We read too of several men who held the post of “ painter and varlet ” to the Dukes of Burgundy and the Counts of Flanders : of these the chief were Jean van der Asselt of Ghent, and Melchior Broederlam of Ypres, who flourished at the end of the fourteenth century. Fragments of paintings by Broederlam are pre served in the Museum at Dijon. School of Bruges. A.D. 1390-A.D. 1520. Huibrecht van Eyck, who is generally styled the father of modern painting in the North of Europe, there occupies a position some what similar to that of Masaccio and Mantegna in Italy. His chief claim to distinction rests not, as was long believed, on the invention of oil colours, but on the removal of the obstacles to their employment for important works, and on the wonderful power, transparency, depth and harmony of colouring he acquired by their use. Until the time of Huibrecht, oil colours were practically useless for any but minor purposes, as, in order to quicken the drying of the colours, a varnish of oil and resin was employed, which fatally injured their brightness. Huibrecht, by using a colourless varnish, obviated this difficulty, and, by judicious under-painting, attained an admirable balance in his tones and shadows. His manner combined the most profound and genuine realism with something of the idealism and symbolism of the Middle HHA-PAINTING LIBERO IMMUTAL K Dresden Gallery Eyck Inthe pice .ByJan v 54. -Altar .S.Catharine the Donor ,George and wings are S.Onthe 130 PAINTING Ages, and he painted his sacred figures in a portrait-like manner, giving to all his works a dramatic and picturesque cheerfulness cer tainly never surpassed in freshness and simplicity by any Italian master. He did not, however, escape the stiffness of design and hardness of outline generally characteristic of the Teutonic work of the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. The master-piece of the Van Eycks is the polyptych , begun by Huibrecht, as an altar- piece for the chapel of Judocus Vydt in the cathedral of S. Bavon at Ghent. It is formed of two rows of panels seven at the top and five at the bottom. The top row — consisting of God the Father, with the Virgin, a choir of Angels and Adam on his right hand , and S. John the Baptist, S. Cecilia and Eve on his left -is all probably by the hand of Huibrecht. The bottom row represents in the centre the Adoration of the Lamb ( which gives its name to the entire altar -piece), and on the wings groups of Hermits, Crusaders, Judges, journeying towards the centre ; it was completed by Jan after Huibrecht's death, but was not finished, however, till 1432. The exterior wings are, as was the custom, in monochrome. A predella, representing Hell, has been lost . The centre portion of this grand work is still in S. Bavon at Ghent : The Adam and Eve are in the Brussels Gallery, and the rest of the wings are in the Berlin Museum. Until quite recently the fame of Jan van Eyck entirely eclipsed that of Huibrecht, and the latter's important services to the art of painting in oils were attributed to him. It is now known, however, that Jan was indebted to his brother for instruction for many years, and that he formed his style from his works. In colouring, especially in his flesh -tints, he was pre-eminently successful, and his landscapes and portraits are remarkably true to life ; but he was wanting in feeling for spiritual beauty, and many of his saints are positively ugly. After the Agnus Dei, the Triumph of the Catholic Church, in the S. Trinità Museum at Madrid, and the Pala Madonna at Bruges, are his best works. The National Gallery contains three extremely fine portraits from his hand, one of which , Portraits of Jean Arnolfini and his wife ( Eng. 55 ) , worthy of the highest praise, is a wonderful piece of exe cution, every detail being exquisitely finished , and the colouring and chiaroscuro equal, if not superior, to anything produced at this early IN BRUGES. 131 period of the fifteenth century. The Louvre, the Belvedere, Vienna, the Berlin Museum , the Academy of Bruges, and the Dresden Gallery contain masterly portraits from the same hand. Whater the met rente mith har 1 7

55. — Jeau Arnolfini and his wife. By Jan van Eyck. A.D. 1434. In the National Gallery. The Van Eycks appear to have been an artist family. We hear of a sister Margareta, and a brother Lambert, who were skilful painters ; but no work can, with any certainty, be assigned to either of them . K 2 132 PAINTING resem to The original and realistic mode of treatment introduced by the Van Eycks, and the new method of using oils, were eagerly adopted through out Europe, and many great artists arose in the Netherlands, of whom Rogier van der Weyden, known as Roger of Bruges, was the most celebrated. He was the rival and not, as formerly thought, the pupil of Jan van Eyck ; he, how ever, imbibed much of his manner, whilst in his religious enthusiasm he rather bled Huibrecht. His colouring is powerful, but not equal that of the founders of the school ; and, un fortunately, bis love of truth sometimes led him to cultivate ugliness. Of bis numerous works only name the prin LC.H.Sc cipal : the Last 56.-- The Entombmeut. By Van der Weyden. Judgment ( his (In tempera : on linen .) In the National Gallery. master - piece, 1443) , in the Hospital at Beaune ; an altar-piece representing the Adoration of the Kings ; S. Luke painting the Virgin (long attributed to Jan van Eyck) , both in the Pinakothek, Munich ; scenes from the Life of S. John the Baptist, in the Berlin Museum ; and an Entombment of Christ ( Eng. 56) , in the National Gallery. we can

IN BRUGES. 133 To Van der Weyden is said to be due the invention of painting on fixed canvas instead of on panel. He too was one of the first of the early Flemings to visit Italy in search of art. On him it had no deteriorative effect ; but to his successors the course proved fatal in the interests of true art. He exercised an even greater influence over his cotemporaries than the Van Eycks had done. In his school were formed both Memlinc, the greatest Flemish painter of his time, and Schongauer, the best German master of the fifteenth century. Other artists who followed in the footsteps of the Van Eycks, and helped to make the school of Bruges famous, were : Petrus Cristus, who is best studied in the galleries of Frankfort and Berlin ; Hugo van der Goes, whose sole remaining work is the Nativity in S. Maria Nuova, in Florence ; and Justus van Ghent, who painted for many years in Italy. The Portrait of Marco Barbarigo in the National Gallery, there ascribed to Gerard van der Meire of Ghent, who is best known by a triptych in S. Bavon at Ghent, is by some critics attributed to Cristus. cessors. Hans Memlinc was one of the most gifted and favourite masters of his day. In him the school of the Van Eycks reached its fullest development ; his works excelled in delicacy of execution, softness of outline, and feeling for grace and beauty, those of any of his prede He also effected considerable improvements in colouring, chiaroscuro, and aërial perspective ; but was not so successful as Van der Weyden in the finishing of details. Many of his pictures are noticeable for the exquisitely painted landscape backgrounds, with minute figures, animals, &c . The National Gallery contains a Madonna and Child enthroned , from his hand. Of his numerous works scattered throughout Europe, the principal are the Last Judgment ( painted about 1470), in the church of S. Mary at Dantzic ; an altar-piece in the possession of the Comte Duchâtel at Paris ( Eng. 57) ; the Marriage of S. Catherine in the Hospital of S. John at Bruges, and the Reliquary of S. Ursula (in the same hospital, which contains several other fine works by his hand) , a shrine in the Gothic style, on which the history of the martyred princess is represented in a series of paintings in miniature, full of the tenderest feelings for beauty ; the Virgin and Child with the donors ( Sir John and Lady Donne), at Chiswick House ; and the Seven Joys of the Virgin, in the Pinakothek at Munich. KAD 0 0 3283 Virgin 57. —The and Holy Infant the :James with S.Dominic ,and Donor the Memlinc .By Inthe possession ofComte Duchâtel ,Paris . PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 135 Dieric Bouts, though a Dutchman by birth, belongs to the school of the Van Eycks. He worked chiefly at Louvain, which still preserves in its town hall his masterpiece, the Triumph of Justice. The Portrait of a Man, of the year 1462 , in the National Gallery, there ascribed to Memlinc, is given by some to Bouts. Rogier van der Weyden, the younger, pupil of his father, was celebrated for the pathos of his pictures of the Virgin . Gheerardt David, a native of Oudewater, spent the best years of his life at Bruges. A Canon of S. Donatian with his patron Saints, by him, in the National Gallery, is a very fine work . In the same collection are a few works ascribed to the masters mentioned above, and to painters of the same school. Early Dutch School. Fifteenth Century. In the fifteenth century, the Dutch school was little more than an offshoot of that of Bruges. Its chief representatives were Albert van Ouwater, of Haarlem, who may be considered its founder, the cotem porary of Rogier van der Weyden, and one of the earliest painters of Holland to represent landscape ; Geertgen van Sint Jans ( or Gerard of Haarlem ), a pupil of Van Ouwater ; Hieronymus van Aeken, commonly called from his birthplace ( Hertogenbosch ), Jerom Bosch ; Cornelis Engelbrechtsen, probably the first artist in Leyden who painted in oil, and by whom there is a Mother and Child in the National Gallery. They all preceded the more famous Lucas Jacobsz van Leyden, who adopted and exaggerated the realistic style, and excelled rather as an engraver than a painter ; he was also a wood carver. One of his most important works is a Last Judgment, in the Town Hall at Leyden ; an Adoration of the lagi by him is at Buck ingham Palace, and a Chess Party at Wilton House. Of his engravings, of which one hundred and seventy-four are known, the Ecce Homo and the Uylenspeigel, a man playing on the bagpipes, are the most famous. Early School of Antverp. A.D. 1490-A.D. 1530. Towards the close of the fifteenth century Antwerp became the commercial capital of Belgium , and at the same time the head- quarters DIISLAMU So DODU In in REGOR SAMUEL 58. - The Sibyl of the Tibur. In tempera. By Lucas van Leyden. In the Academy, Vienna. PAINTING IN ANTWERP. 137 of the school of painting. Here arose Quinten Massys, the greatest Flemish painter of his day, whose works are remarkable for beauty of form, delicacy of finish, solemnity of feeling, and softness and trans parency of colouring. His draperies have an easy grace, rare in the pictures of his school, and his sacred figures are grand and dignified . On the other hand, the minor personages in his groups are often not only coarse but vulgar. His greatest work is an altar-piece in the Antwerp Museum , consisting of a centre- piece and two wings, on which is represented the Deposition from the Cross, with Herodias's Daughter presenting the Head of John the Baptist to Herod on one side, and the Martyrdom of S. John the Evangelist on the other. It is a noble composition, full of character and energy. A very celebrated picture by Massys of Two Misers is in the Royal collection at Windsor ; the Banker and his Wife in the Louvre (Eng. 59 ) is also well known. The Misers in the National Gallery, formerly ascribed to him , is now given to his follower, Marinus de Seeuw , who may also be studied at Dresden, Munich and Madrid. But that collection possesses, in a diptych of the heads of Christ and the Virgin , a genuine work of Massys. As masters of the Early Flemish school we must also name Joachim de Patinir, of Dinant, a painter both of historic subjects and landscape, four of whose works are in the National Gallery, which also possesses a Crucifixion and Mary Magdalen , by his disciple, Herri de Bles. All these men were more or less intimately connected with the school of the Van Eycks, whilst certain peculiarities in their treatment of the nude and of life in action give them a resemblance to the masters of the sixteenth century, whom we have now to consider. We may, in fact, look upon the latter part of the fifteenth and the whole of the sixteenth century as a transition time-Flemish and Dutch art not having reached their highest development until the seventeenth century. Italianized Flemings. A.D. 1500-A.D. 1630. The sixteenth century was marked by an unfortunate attempt to combine the peculiar excellences of the school of the Van Eycks with those of the Italian cinque-cento masters. 138 PAINTING Jan Gossart, commonly called Mabuse, a native of Maubeuge, went to Antwerp, entered the Guild, and bid fair to rival the works of Words IMTVLLLLIMI DIR 59. —The Banker and his wife. By Massys. A.D. 1518. In the Louvre, Paris. Massys ; but unfortunately for the truth of his art, he went to Italy, and there lost his best qualities in attempting to emulate the works of IN ANTWERP. 139 He is repre the great Italian masters. He is well represented in England : for we have two of his masterpieces, an Adoration of the Magi at Castle Howard ; and the Children of Christian II. at Hampton Court. He was followed by Barend van Orley, a Magdalen by whom is in the National Gallery ,and Jan van Schoreel, who visited Italy and resided for three years in Rome, and who first introduced the Italian style into Holland. His later works bear evidence of the influence of his Italian visit. In the church of Ober-vellach in Carinthia is a signed altar-piece by him ( Eng. 60) . Many of his works perished in the troubles in the Low Countries, and genuine pictures by his hand are rare . sented in the National Gallery by a Repose in Egypt. Michiel van Coxcien, who, as we have seen, superintended at Arras the manufacture of the tapestries from Raphael's designs : Lambert Lombard, a native of Liege, who introduced this Italian - Flemish style into his native city, and thus materially aided in the decline of art in the Low Countries : Frans Floris, a pupil of Lombard, who from a sculptor became a painter, and is famous for having formed in Antwerp a school which was numerously attended : Pieter Brueghel, commonly called from the subjects of his paintings “ Peasant Brueghel,” and his son Pieter, or “ Hell, ” Brueghel, were among the best painters of their time in Antwerp.

At this period, a foremost place amongst portrait -painters was held by Antonis Mor, called in England Sir Antonio Moro, a Dutchman by birth, but a Fleming in art. He visited Italy, but on his return was influenced by the works of Holbein. He was court painter to Queen Mary of England, and was also patronized by Philip II. of Spain ; and many good works by him are preserved in the Brussels Gallery, and in the Museum at Madrid. There are one genuine and two doubtful portraits by him in the National Gallery. portrait painters who imitated Massys's peculiarly pronounced realistic manner, we must name Marc Garrard, a native of Antwerp, who was one of the principal portrait painters at the court of Queen Elizabeth ; and Paul van Somer, whose best years were spent in this country. His finest works are in England, e. g. a portrait of Lord 母 時 單 CH 60.- Part Altar piece of -an Ober atvellach .BySchoreel Jan A.D. 1520 PAINTING IN ANTWERP. 141 Verulam at Panshanger, and those of the Earl and Countess of Arundel at Arundel Castle. Cornelis de Vos, the elder, shows, in his portraits, the influence of Rubens. His portrait of Abraham Grapheus, a servant of the Guild of S. Luke in Ant werp, with the Guild plate, is in the Antwerp Gal lery ( Eng. 61 ). Voda more A great impulse was given to the art of landscape painting, at the close of the six teenth century, by the brothers Bril of Antwerp, Mat thys Bril, and the celebrated Pauwel Bril. The latter was one of the first to obtain harmony of light in landscape, and he greatly influenced for good the future 61. – Portrait of Abraham Grapheus. By Cornelis de Vos. masters, Rubens In the Antwerp Gallery. A.D. 1620 . and Claude Lor rain. His Tower of Babel, in the Berlin Museum, is considered one of his best works. Among the early landscape painters, we must also name Jan Brueghel, who painted landscape backgrounds in paintings by Rubens and other celebrated masters. He was son of the elder and brother of the younger Brueghel already mentioned . 142 PAINTING Dutch School of the late Sixteenth Century. to van Towards the close of the sixteenth century, numerous Dutch historic painters arose, who paved the way for a higher and more independent style of art. Of these we must name Otto van Veen, whose numerous works, many of an allegoric character — of which the principal are in the Antwerp Museum - display great force and truth nature ; Cor nelis Cornelizs, Haarlem, whose masterpiece is Bathsheba bath ing, in the Berlin Museum, distin guished by careful drawing, and ful A ness of colouring ; Abraham Bloe mart, whose best work, Joseph's second Dream , is in the Berlin Museum, who was influenced 62.–River Scene . By Jan Brueghel. by Floris, and who is chiefly famed for the harmony of tone, good taste, and right balance of his paintings ; and Adriaan van der Venne, of Delft, who excelled in portraits, land scapes, and genre paintings, and combined the realistic manner of his countrymen with something of classic feeling. One of his most re markable compositions represented the Festival in honour of the Truce between the Archduke Albert and the Dutch Provinces in 1609 ; it is now in the Louvre, dated 1616. Of Dutch portrait painters of celebrity of this time we may note Michiel Jansz Mierevelt, who especially excelled in transparency of IN HOLLAND. 143 colouring, and whose Portrait of Hugo Grotius in the town hall at Delft is considered his best work ; Jan van Ravestyn , who executed several Corporation pieces, such as his Banquet of the Town-Council, which are still in the town- hall at the Hague, his native place ; and Cornelis Janssens, van Keulen, said to have been born in England, whose best works, which display great feeling for truth and refinement of taste, are dispersed in various private English collections. 1 ie h A. Among the first Dutch marine painters were Hendrik Cornelisz Vroom , who executed a sketch of the Defeat of the Spanish Armaila for the Lord High Admiral of England ; and Jan Peeters, whose picture of a Storm, in the Pinakothek, Munich, is valuable as an early specimen of the art in which the Dutch subsequently attained to such exceptional excellence. 1 e C i 0 e

of 1 PAINTING IN GERMANY. In a previous chapter we have spoken of the early masters of the school of Cologne, who were, if we may so express it, strictly orthodox painters, expressing in their works unwavering devotion to the Church of Rome, and unfaltering allegiance to the traditional mode of treating sacred subjects. We have now to examine the productions of men imbued with the spirit of the Reformation . These men, whilst stretching forward to that freedom of conscience in art which, as in religion, was finally attained at so terrible a cost, clung with truly Teutonic steadfastness to the weird symbolism inherited from the old Norse sea -kings ; they pressed it, so to speak, into the service of the new doctrine, and hinted in their sacred pictures at a real and personal conflict between spiritual and material agencies, by the constant introduction of some weird fantastic monster, treated with a force and life which speak volumes for that deeply-rooted faith in the supernatural so startling in men of the strength of character of Dürer, Luther, and the great reformers of the day. This faith , more than any other peculiarity, separates the art of Germany from both that of Italy, with its beautiful idealization even of the powers of evil, and that of Flanders, with its stern repudi ation of all not actually manifest to the senses. Swabian School. A.D. 1470—A.D. 1540. The first great German master in whom we see the working of this double spirit -alike conservative and reformative-was Martin Schon gauer, of Colmar, commonly called Martin Schön, who began life as an engraver, and did not devote himself to painting until after a visit to Flanders, where he is supposed to have studied under Rogier van der Weyden. He adopted something of his master's realistic manner , whilst retaining the feeling for spiritual beauty characteristic of his PAINTING IN SWABIA. 145 ex German predecessors, Meister Wilhelm, Meister Stephan , and the Master of the Lyversberg Passion-combined, however, with a weird delight in physical distortion which is always painful and sometimes positively revolting. As an instance of this, we may cite his print of S. Anthony tormented by Demons, in the British Museum. Anything more grotesque and fantastic than the horrible forms wreaking their spite upon the unhappy saint it would be difficult to conceive ; yet the whole is redeemed from caricature by the nobility of the martyr's head, which admirably presses calm superiority to bodily torture, and almost absolute mastery of mind over matter. The British Museum contains many other fine engravings from the same hand, of which we must name Christ bearing His Cross, and the Foolish Virgins. Schongauer's paintings are extremely rare ; an altar-piece of a Madonna and the Infant Saviour, in the church of S. Martin at Colmar, 63.-The Crucifixion . Engraving by Schongauer. is the chief, and is re markable for purity of colouring and delicacy of finish . A small work, the Death of the Virgin , in the National Gallery, is attributed to him, but doubts have been lately thrown upon its authenticity. In our illustration ( Eng. 63) we give an example of this master's style of engraving from his own design. Bartholomäus Zeitblom , of Ulm, was, like Schongauer, a Swabian HHA — PAINTING L 146 PAINTING master of the early Reformation period , and appears to have excelled him in sublimity of design and delicacy of colouring, but to have been inferior in power of drawing. His works are essentially German, and are amongst the most important examples of Teutonic painting in the fifteenth century. His Veronica, in the British Museum, and the wings of an altar- piece , with figures of the Virgin , Mary Magdalen and other saints , in the Stuttgart Gallery, are among the principal. Martin Schaffner was also one of the painters of Ulm of this period. Augsburg School. A.D. 1490-A.D. 1545. We have now to turn to Augsburg, where we find a school arising, characterized by a more decidedly realistic tendency than that of Ulm. At the head of this school , towards the close of the fifteenth century, stands Hans Holbein the elder, in whose works the influence of the Van Eycks and of Rogier van der Weyden is ' far more noticeable than in those of the masters of Ulm. The elder Holbein's triptych, S. Sebastian, with the Annunciation , and SS. Elizabeth and Barbara on the wings, in the Pinakothek , Munich, is considered his principal work, Hans Holbein the younger, son of the painter above-named, was not only the greatest German exponent of the realistic school, but, one of the first portrait painters of any age ; and, moreover, one to whom the British school of painting owes more than to any other master. Inferior in grandeur of style and fertility of imagination to his great cotemporary Dürer, he excelled him in truth to nature, in feeling for physical beauty, and in command over all the technical processes of his art. Born of an artist family, and surrounded from childhood by artistic associations, Hans Holbein early acquired a mastery over all the elements of design, as is proved by the remains of a series of frescoes executed for the Town Hall of Basle at the age of sixteen, and by eight scenes from the Passion preserved in the Basle Museum ; and there can be no doubt that he might have rivalled even Raphael in historic painting had he devoted his attention to that branch of art. He was the one German master, not excepting even Dürer, who freed himself entirely from the insipid conventionalism in the treatment of IN AUGSBURG. 147 the human form which had so long prerailed, and his portraits have an individuality of character and clearness of colouring superior to anything 64. - Hubert Morett. By Holbein . A.D. 1537 . In the Dresden Gallery. of the kind ever produced in Germany. His Last Supper, in the Basle Gallery, the so-called Meyer Madonna, in the Darmstadt Gallery, of which there is a replica in the Dresden Gallery ( Eng. 66), and the series a L 2 148 PAINTING 10.50 of wood- cuts known as the Dance of Death ( Eng. 65) , -skilful repro ductions of which may be seen in almost every public library, —are among his best known and most spirited compositions. The last- named is a noble work, full of humour and poetry, and has been chosen by Mr. Ruskin as a specimen of the true use of the grotesque in art. As is well known, Holbein spent a great portion of his life in England, and our royal and private collections contain many authentic works from his hand. Of these we must name, as among the most remarkable, a portrait of Erasmus, and the so-called Ambassadors, both in the gallery of Longford Castle ; a series of eighteen portraits of Members of the Barber -Surgeons' Guild , in the Barber -Surgeons' Hall , London ; a portrait of Lady Vaux at Hampton Court ; that of a Young Man wearing a black dress and cap, at Windsor Castle ; and last, but not least , the portrait of the Duchess of Milan , painted by com mand of Henry VIII. , and now the property of the Duke of Norfolk : it is at present ( 1888) on loan in the National Gallery. The master's style may also be studied in the fine collection of drawings and en 65. —The Pedlar. By Holbein. From the ‘ Dance of Death .' gravings in the British Museum, and the magnificent collection of portrait studies in red chalk at Windsor Castle. * Holbein's symbolic scenes are especially remarkable for their keen irony, and their bitter satire on the follies of his age ; they express a sad and mournful realization of the power of evil, with a steadfast faith in the final triumph of good which redeems them from coarseness, and stamps them with the religious significance wanting to the works of the inferior men who copied his inanner without catching his spirit.

  • Published in autotype at the South Kensington Museum.

IN AUGSBURG. 149 66. — The Meyer Madonna. By Hans Holbein. In the Dresden Gallery. ( Later Replica of the Darmstadt picture of the year 1526. ) We must here name as artists of the Swabian school in the sixteenth 150 PAINTING. 1 century, Sigismund Holbein, uncle of the master noticed above, to whom is ascribed a Portrait of a Lady, in our National Gallery ; Christoph Amberger ; Nicolaus Manuel, called Deutsch ; and, above all , Hans Burckmair, a master of considerable genius and varied power, whose best works are in the Augsburg Gallery, but whose peculiar characteristics may be studied in an Adoration of the Shepherds in the Royal collection, Windsor, and a wonderful series of wood- cuts called the Triumph of Maximilian, copies of which may be seen in the Art Library, South Kensington Museum. Franconian School. A.D. 1450 -A.D . 1580. In the school of Franconia, with Nuremberg for its head -quarters, the realistic style of the Netherlands was adopted and perhaps some times exaggerated. We find the same tolerance of ugliness, the same sharpness of outline, as in the works of the early Dutch and Flemish masters, combined with an intensity of expression and a delight in the weird and fantastic even greater than in the productions of Swabian painters. The master in whom all these peculiarities were most strikingly manifested was Michael Wolgemut, who was the immediate predecessor of Albrecht Dürer, and did much to aid the development of German painting. His best works are at Nuremberg ; but the Liverpool Insti tution contains two fine compositions from his hand-Pilate washing his Hands, and the Descent from the Cross. His pictures have all consider able force and transparency of colouring, but are wanting in harmony of composition and general equality of tone. Albrecht Dürer was the father of German painting, and has been proudly called by his countrymen the “ prince of artists." Born at Nuremberg in 1471 , of Hungarian descent, he was intended by his father, a goldsmith , to follow his profession . But his love of drawing prevailed , and in 1486 he was apprenticed to Wolgemut. The years 1490 -1494 were spent in travel : how and where, we have no record. In 1494 he returned to Nuremberg, and married. In 1505 he visited Italy : at Venice he became acquainted with Giovanni Bellini, and enjoyed much popularity. Refusing, however, a liberal offer from the Venetian 1 M 1 67. — Christ taking leave of His Mother . By Dürer. A.D , 1511 . Fro: n the wood engraving in • The Life of the Virgin .' 1 152 PAINTING government, who wished him to remain in their city, he returned to his native Nuremberg, and in the following years produced many of his masterpieces in painting and engraving. In 1520 he started on a tour through the Netherlands, and visited, amongst other cities , Antwerp, Brussels, Cologne, Bruges, and Ghent : refusing in Antwerp, as he had previously done in Venice, an offer to stay in that city, he returned home in the following year : he died in Nuremberg in 1528. Dürer was, without doubt, a master- spirit, and had he met with the same recognition in his native land which he would have received had he been born in Italy, would probably have taken rank with the men we have named as the greatest painters of any age ; but, whilst gaining yet another finished master, we might perhaps have lost a teacher of spiritual truth whose works are, in their way, unique. Dürer was among the first to bring the laws of science to bear upon art , and to demonstrate the practical value of perspective. He was a man of rare energy, versatility, and power of work ; he excelled alike in painting, engraving, sculpture, and wood- carving ; and in the latter part of his life published works on perspective, fortification , and other abstruse subjects. The chief characteristics of his painting are forcible drawing, breadth of colouring, individuality of character, vitality of expression and highness of finish—combined, unfortunately, with a certain harsh ness of outline, an occasional stiffness in the treatment of drapery, and a want of feeling for physical grace and beauty. His works bear the impress of his own earnest yet mystic spirit, and are moreover a fitting expression of the complex German character, with its practical stead fastness of purpose, its restless intellectual cravings, never satisfied aspirations after spiritual truth, and vivid force of imagination. Ever haunted by solemn questions relating to Death and the Life to come, Dürer feared not to look the most awful possibilities full in the face ; and in his works we may-if we will throw ourselves into the experience of their author-trace the gradual winning of certainty out of doubt—the gradual solving of the problem of the meaning of existence. Unable to free himself entirely from the fantastic element, apparently inherit in the very nature of German art , Dürer touched it with his own refinement : his quaint, unearthly figures are never vulgar-his most terrible forms are never coarse. IN FRANCONIA. 153 Albrecht Dürer's earliest known portrait is that of his father, bearing date 1497 , in the possession of the Duke of Northumberland at Sion ALANSOVES TORICYS HACIE BATANNO- AVIA INIS PARTE CARACLAME 68. —The Adoration of the Trinity. By Dürer . A.D. 1511. In the Belvedere, Vienna . House. * To the first part of his career belong also a masterly series

  • Similar pictures are in the Uffizi, Florence, the Pinakothek, Munich, and the Städel, Frankfort. Passavant considers the last -named to be the original.

15+ PAINTING of woodcuts illustrative of the Apocalypse ( the first edition of which appeared in 1498), in which great power of conception and force of design are displayed, the fantastic element being kept in due sub jection ; the Portrait of Himself ( 1498) ; and an Adoration of the Kings ( 1504) , both in the Uffizi, Florence ; and an extremely fine portrait of an unknown man in the Duke of Rutland's collection at Belvoir Castle. Although Dürer visited Italy, and spent some time in Venice, he apparently lost nothing of his own individuality of style. His famous Virgin with the Rose-garlands, now in the abbey of Strahow near Prague, was painted at this time for the Fondaco de' Tedeschi, at Venice, and is distinguished for all the master's peculiar excellences. It is unfortunately much injured ; the Museum of Lyons possesses a fine copy. To the year 1507 belong a very excellent Portrait of a Young Man, in the Belvedere, Vienna, and the single figures of Adam and Eve, now in the Madrid Gallery. From the few years succeeding his visit to Venice date many of Dürer's finest works, such as the two series of woodcuts known as the Little Passion ( 1511 ) and the Great Passion (published first in book shape in the same year ), -- the former consisting of sceres from the ministry of our Lord, and the latter of scenes from the actual Passion, Death, and Burial of the Redeemer, -in all of which the central figure is majestic and dignified , and the solemn subjects are treated with genuine reverence and poetic feeling. Even more famous are the Adoration of the Trinity ( Eng. 68 ) -- now in the Belvedere,, Vienna, considered Dürer's finest painting --and the well-known engravings of the Knight, Death, and the Devil ( 1513) , and Melencolia ( 1514) : the former of which ( Eng. 69) , remarkable as it is for masterly drawing and powerful conception, is yet more valuable as an earnest of victory win , and a great problem solved . It is an expression of the artist's conviction of the final triumph of humanity over Death , the Devil, and all evil suggestions. Equally expressive of the subtle conflict in this world between joy and sorrow , good and evil , is the awful print of Melencolia, in which we see the great Genius of the toil and knowledge of the world, wearing a laurel wreath upon her brow, and with the instruments of science strewn around her, gazing with intense and melancholy foreboding into the dim future; but, above the comet of IN FRANCONIA. 155 evil omen and the winged bat bearing a scroll inscribed “ Melencolia , " தந்தை தான் mujo ) ir 69. — The Knight, Death, and the Devil. ' By Dürer. A.D. 1513. Engraving on copper . rises the rainbow of Hope, and the light of future joy is beginning to gleam in the tearful eyes of the winged spirit ; whilst the little child 156 PAINTING SO over name beside her, with his tablet and pencil, ready to carry on the work she may not finish , is a symbol of the ever-new vitality of the human race. In S. Jerome in his Study, produced about the saine time as the Melencolia , the answer to the great question is more assured and definite ; the saint has acquired ask46 thoroughaa mastery the spirit world that nothing can ruffle his holy serenity . Of Dürer's large oil paintings we must the Apostles Philip and James ( 1516) , in the Uffizi, Florence; the portrait of the Emperor Maxi milian I. ( 1519 ) , in the Belvedere, Vienna ; the half length figures of SS. Joseph and Joachim and SS. Simeon and Lazarus, in the Pin akothek , Munich, the interior wings of an altar -piece produced in 1523, 70. -Joseph sold by his Brethren . By Georg Pencz. after a visit to the Netherlands, which sensibly affected the great master's style ; and two companion pictures —one of the Apostles John and Peter , the other of Mark and Paul—also in the Munich Gallery, remarkable works, full of dignity and in dividuality of character, supposed to represent the four temperaments ; IN FRANCONIA. 157 the melancholy being embodied in the face and figure of S. John, the phlegmatic in that of S. Peter, the sanguine in that of S. Mark, and the choleric in that of S. Paul. England, we believe, contains but two paintings by Albrecht Dürer -the Portrait of his father already noticed ; and a bust portrait of a Senator, in the National Gallery. Of Dürer's later portraits the most remarkable are those engraved on copper of Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg, the Elector Frederick , Pirkheimer, Melanchthon , Erasmus, and other celebrated men of his day ; and two portraits in oil -one in the Belvedere, Vienna, of a certain Johann Kleberger ; one in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg, of Hieronymus Holzschuher. Other important engravings by him are the Passion , in 16 plates on copper ( 1509–1513) ; the Great Horse ( 1505) ; the Little Horse ( 1505) ; S. Eustachius, frequently called S. Hubert; and S. Anthony ( 1519 ) : and of his wood- cuts the series of the Life of the Virgin ( 1511 ) ; of the Triumphal Arch of Maximilian ( 1512 —1515) , and the Triumphal Car of Maximilian ( 1523) . Amongst the most important of the disciples of Dürer were Hans Burckmair ( already mentioned) ; Hans Fuss, commonly called Hans von Kulmbach ; and Hans Leonhardt Schäufelin, Dürer's favourite pupil. Dürer exercised a powerful influence throughout the whole of Europe, and had many followers and imitators, to whom the general name of the “ Little Masters ” has been given , on account of the smallness of their works. They were, however, rather engravers than painters, and on that account we shall content ourselves with merely enumerating the prin cipal : Heinrich Aldegrever, whose best works are a Portrait of a Young Man ( Eng. 71 ) of the year 1544, in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Venice, and a Resurrection in the Museum at Prague : Barthel Beham : Hans Sebald Beham : Albrecht Altdorfer, one of the greatest of Dürer's pupils, and a very successful colourist, his masterpiece is the Victory of Alexander over Darius, in the Munich Gallery : Georg Pencz, a man of considerable original genius ( Eng. 70) : and Jakob Bink . Amongst those followers of Dürer who were only engravers were Hans Brosamer, Virgilius Solis, Jost Amman, and Theodor de Bry. 158 PAINTING School of Saxony. Cotemporary with Dürer, we find a great master arising in Saxony, 1540 71. – Portrait of a Young Man. By Aldegrever. A.D. 1544. In the Liechtenstein Gallery. imbued with the same earnestness and the same love of the fantastic IN SAXONY. 159 and grotesque, Lucas Cranach, a native of Kronach in Franconia, whose style in its general characteristics resembles that of Matthius Grünewald, mentioned before, with whom he studied for some time. He was court-painter to three Electors successively, and spent a most prosperous life. Cranach was inferior to Dürer in drawing, in imagin ative force, and in feeling for truth of expression ; but his large sacred pictures are remarkable for dignity and grace , whilst some of his minor works are full of pleasant humour. Of the former, the Woman taken in Adultery, in the Pinakothek at Munich, and the altar-piece at Weimar, representing the Crucifixion - in which fine portraits of Luther and of the artist himself are introduced - may be cited as good examples ; and the Fountain of Youth, in the Berlin Museum , as an instance of the latter. Cranach's chief strength was, however , in portraiture, and in . subjects suitable for purely realistic treatment. The National Gallery contains a very fine Portrait of a Young Girl, from his hand, and portraits of the celebrities of his day are plentiful in the various continental collections ( Eng. 72 ) . Lucas Cranach, the younger, followed successfully in his parent's footsteps, and painted many pictures which have doubtless passed as the work of his father. The Cranachs left no disciples : the school of Saxony began with the father and ended with the son . Decline of Art in Germany. After Cranach, Dürer and Holbein had passed away, painting rapidly declined in Germany, as in Italy ; but, before we speak of the artists of the next two centuries, we may add that the art of glass -painting was carried to the greatest perfection in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by the Germans and Flemings, and that they maintained their superiority in this respect over the other Continental states until the close of the seventeenth century. The seventeenth century was marked by a few feeble unsuccessful attempts to imitate the great Italian masters of the Renaissance ; and it was not until the beginning of the eighteenth century, when Germany was to some extent recovering from the effects of the Thirty I.PETOT. 72. — Princess Sibylla of Saxony. By Cranach. Formerly in the Suermondt Collection . PAINTING IN GERMANY. 161 Years' War, that any artists arose of sufficient individuality to merit special notice, and to aid in the transition to better things. Of these we may name as among the more remarkable : Johann Rottenhammer, who strove to emulate Tintoretto : a Pan and Syrinx by him is in the National Gallery ; Adam Elshaimer, famous for his landscapes, many of which are in private galleries in England : Joachim van Sandrart, CHA 73. — The Fates. Nemesis, Night, and Destiny. By Carstens. In the Weimar Museum . who painted allegoric and historic pieces, but is more famous as the author of the ‘ Teutsche Academie, ' a history of German art : Balthasar Denner, a successful portrait painter, famed for the minute finish of his works, of which examples may be seen at Hampton Court : Anton Raphael Mengs, one of the first to attempt to revive the rigid correct ness of classic painting, who failed, however, to catch the spirit of antique art : Christian Dietrich, who worked chiefly at Dresden , and HHA — PAINTING M 162 PAINTING. was, perhaps, the most successful copyist that ever lived ( Italian, French, German, Flemish , Dutch -all styles came equally familiar to his facile pencil): Angelica Kauffman , whose romantic life is well known, already alluded to as a sculptor, many of whose paintings are in England, -a portrait of the Duchess of Brunswick is at Hampton Court : and Daniel Nicolaus Chodowiecky, famous for his miniature painting and his etchings. On the border - land between these masters and the revival of German art by Overbeck , stands Asmus Jacob Carstens, who first practised portrait-painting as a means of gaining a livelihood, but afterwards became successful in historic painting. He worked at various times at Copenhagen, at Mantua, where he studied Giulio Romano, Lubeck, at Berlin and at Rome, where he formed his style on the works of Michelangelo and Raphael, as may be seen from the illustration ( Eng. 73) . His principal paintings are scenes from the history of the Argonautic expedition. Carstens' works display a profound study of the productions of Raphael and Michelangelo, and are remarkable rather for their depth of thought and careful execution, than for originality, either of design or treatment. 1 PAINTING IN ITALY IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. -a In a previous chapter we alluded to the decline of painting in Italy on the death of the great masters of the Renaissance - a decline marked by the same peculiarities as that which succeeded the golden age of sculpture ; technical dexterity ranked higher than artistic genius, and the minor peculiarities of celebrated men were servilely imitated , without any endeavour to catch their spirit or grasp the meaning of their grand conceptions. As early as the close of the sixteenth century an attempt was made to revive the art of painting in Italy, and two distinct classes of artists arose to whom the general names of Eclectics and Naturalists have been given : the former endeavoured to combine the best qualities of all the great Cinque-cento masters with the imitation of nature ; the latter professed to study nature exclusively, and to imitate faithfully and boldly every detail of ordinary life. These two schools exercised great influence, alike on each other and on their cotemporaries in other countries. The Eclectic School of Bologna. The leading Eclectic school of Italy—that of Bologna-was founded by Lodovico Carracci, in conjunction with his two cousins, Agostino Carracci and Annibale Carracci. Lodovico appears to have been rather a teacher than an original painter. His principal works are at Bologna : the Enthroned Madonna with SS. Francis and Jerome, a Transfiguration and a Nativity of S. John the Baptist, are considered the finest. He is represented in our National Gallery by a group of Susannah and the Elders. His principal characteristics are easy grace of execution, power of expressing sorrow , and skilful imitation of the chiaroscuro of Correggio. Agostino Carracci is better known as an engraver than a painter ; but he produced several fine easel pictures noticeable for delicacy of M 2 164 PAINTING le execution, of which two - Cephalus and Aurora and the Triumph of Galatea- -are in the National Gallery. Annibale Carracci greatly excelled both Lodovico and Agostino, and, had he not been fettered by his mistaken desire to combine naturalism with imitation of the great masters, he would probably have worked out an original and superior style. As it is , his works have about them something of Correggio, Paolo Veronese, Michelangelo and Raphael, without any distinctive character of their own ; the artist's feeling for truth to nature and his vigour of con ception only now and then shine through the ism with which they are over laden. Many of Annibale's works are in 74.— The Three Maries. By Annibale Carracci . At Castle Howard. England -the Three Maries, at Castle Howard, for instance ( Eng. 74) ; and the eight subjects at the National Gallery - Christ appearing to Simon Peter after His Resurrec tion ; S. John in the Wilderness, two Landscapes with figures, Erminia taking refuge with the Shepherds ; Silenus gathering Grapes ; Pan and Apollo, and the Temptation of S. Anthony. His most celebrated work was the decoration of the Farnese Palace, Rome, in which he was at first assisted by his elder brother Agostino. Of the numerous pupils of the Carracci, Domenico Zampieri, commonly called Domenichino, and Guido Reni, were the chief. The manner IV BOLOGNA. 165 former was a successful imitator of Raphael's manner, and also caught much of the style of Agostino Carracci ; giving proof, lowever, of considerable individual power in the heads, and indeed in the general treatment of many of his groups. His Last Communion of S. Jerome, now in the Vatican ; his Four Evangelists, in the cupola of the church of S. Andrea delle Valle at Rome ; and his frescoes of incidents in the Life and Martyrdom of S. Cecilia, in S. Luigi, Rome, are among his most famous compositions ; the National Gallery contains two land scapes with figures ; a S. Jerome with the Angel ; and a powerful group of the Stoning of S. Stephen . Guido Reni was an artist with considerable feeling for beauty of form, and great skill in execution , especially in colouring ; but he was wanting in force of expression, and his conceptions seldom rise to the rank of the ideal. His Madonna della Pietà and the Massacre of the Innocents at Bologna , his S. Paul and S. Anthony in the Berlin Museum , the unfinished Nativity in the church of S. Martino at Naples, and above all the fresco of Aurora and Phoebus on the ceiling of a pavilion in the garden of the Rospigliosi Palace at Rome, are among his most famous works ; he is represented in our National Gallery by his well known Ecce Homo ; a Coronation of the Virgin ; a Magdalen ; The Youthful Christ embracing S. John ; S. Jerome; Lot and his Daughters ; and Susannah and the Elders. Our illustration (Eng. 75 ) will serve to give some idea of his peculiar style. Francesco Albani, a friend and fellow -pupil of Guido in the school of the Carracci, is remembered chiefly for his frescoes of classic scenes in the Verospi Palace, Rome. We must also name as distinguished members of the Eclectic schools of Italy, Giovanni Francesco Barbieri, called Guercino, who excelled in bril liancy of colouring, depth of chiaroscuro, and power of expression, as instanced in Dido's Last Moments, in the Spada Gallery, Rome, and the group of Angels weeping over the Dead Christ, in the National Gallery ; Giovanni Battista Salvi, surnamed Sassoferrato, a tolerably successful imitator of Raphael, and somewhat brilliant colourist, represented in the National Gallery by two Madonnas ; and Carlo Dolci, who painted Madonnas and Saints with considerable grace and spirit, and is best a 166 PAINTING. known by 1his S. Cecilia in the Dresden Gallery, and S. Andrew 6A022947344 75. — Christ crowned with thorns . By Guido Reni. In the Dresden Gallery . immediately before his Execution , in the Pitti Palace, Florence. NATURALISTS. 167 Naturalistic School. a The Naturalists did not found so important a school as the Eclectics , Their determination to imitate nature exactly as she appeared to them led them into many extravagances, and altogether defeated their own object. Anxious not to shrink from the representation of anything real, however terrible, they lost sight of that hidden meaning which so often removes the horror of the most awful scenes, giving to them a spiritual beauty which physical distortion cannot destroy ; and their works are pervaded by a tragic pathos, a passionate misery, inexpressibly painful. At the head of the Naturalistic school stands Michelangiolo Amerigi, known from his birthplace as Caravaggio ; his works have some affinity with those of the great artist whose Christian name he bore, and in spite of many shortcomings, give proof of much original power and poetry of feeling. His Entombment of Christ, in the Vatican , is his most famous work : the figure of the Virgin admirably expresses abandoned sorrow , and that of Christ is full of grandeur and dignity, though wanting in divinity. The Beheading of S. John , in the Cathedral of Malta, and a portrait in the Louvre of the Grand Master of Malta, are also very fine ; and we may name the Card -players - several times repeated , the best example being in the Sciarra Palace, Rome - as a spirited composition of the genre class. José de Ribera, called from the country of his birth Lo Spagnoletto, spent most of his time in Naples. He was first influenced by the Carracci, but afterwards took Caravaggio for his model. Many of his works are in the galleries of Naples and Madrid. We shall shortly come across him again when we treat of Spanish art. Salvator Rosa of Naples was a naturalistic master of secondary importance to Caravaggio, who painted landscapes, historic subjects and genre pictures, excelling principally in portraits , -- a portrait of a man by him in the Pitti Palace, Florence, is said by Kugler to be “ almost comparable to Rembrandt." In landscapes, Rosa worked out some thing of an original style, and many of his wild mountain -scenes are 168 PAINTING full of pathetic beauty. A Sea -piece in the Berlin Gallery, of a vessel being driven on rocks in a storm , is a wonderfully forcible rendering of a terrible convulsion of nature. Here we must mention the name of Claude le Lorrain , who, although a Frenchman by birth and classed with the French painters, was essentially Italian in feeling with respect to his art : 76. – Landscape. By Salvator Rosa. In the Louvre. At the close of the seventeenth century, Pietro Berrettini, called from his birthplace da Cortona, in spite of the great original talent which he possessed, exercised a most pernicious influence on Italian art by the introduction in his works of startling effects of colour and chiaroscuro, which were eagerly studied and imitated by many scholars ; thus finally sealing the fate of Italian painting, which has never really rallied from the insipid mannerism into which it sank at the beginning of the eighteenth century. IN VENICE. 169 Later Venetian School. Before closing the history of painting in Italy, we must mention one who has made Venetian painting of the eighteenth century famous, TCXWE MENU MIN 77.–View in Venice . By Canaletto. Antonio Canal, commonly called Canaletto, who devoted many years of his life to depicting architectural scenes in Venice. His paintings, executed with great truth to nature and a freedom of touch, are especially to be admired for their correctness of perspective ; they are a lasting memorial of what Venice was in his day. Canaletto spent the years 1746—1748 in England, and has left us several valuable records of his visit. This country also possesses, in the National Gallery (which has no less than ten works by him) and in private collections, many of his Italians views. 170 PAINTING. His nephew Bernardo Bellotto, who is also sometimes called Canaletto, successfully imitated his style. So also did Francesco Guardi, and Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, who frequently painted the figures in Canaletto's views. ) The influence of Winckelmann, the great German writer on antique art, who spent some time in Italy, led to a partial attempt to revive the classic style, but without producing any permanent result ; and at the present day, although taking part in the artistic activity which has marked the whole course of the nineteenth century, Italy remains far behind the other countries of Europe. Swayed at times by David's classicism, by Delacroix's romanticism, and by the style of Cornelius and Overbeck, modern Italian Art now manifestly owes something to that of France, and has not escaped the influence of impressionism . The old schools of Florence, Siena, Venice, Verona and other famous cities have faded away, and in their place have arisen new centres at Turin, Genoa, Milan, Florence and Naples ; but the individuality of their work is, in many cases, not strongly marked. If one may judge by,those examples which have from time to time been exhibited in England, and especially at the Italian Exhibition held in 1888, which claimed to be the best collection of Modern Italian Art got together north of the Alps, the earnestness of purpose, the deep religious feeling, and the originality which characterized the masterpieces of Italy, may be sought for in vain in the works of modern Italian painters. With some few notable exceptions, they are almost trivial in subject and superficial in execution, and unworthy of the land which produced Raphael and Michelangelo. PAINTING IN SPAIN. Not until the sixteenth century do we meet with what may be called a school of painting in Spain. The prevalence of Mohammedanism was antagonistic to the development of pictorial art ; and when the Moors were finally overthrown, the Roman Catholic religion brought with it the paralyzing influence of the Inquisition, beneath which it was impossible for art to progress. The first formation of the Spanish school appears to have been due to the settlement in Spain of Flemish artists ; but in its perfected character it showed considerable affinity with Italian art, especially with that of Naples and Venice - stamped, however, with a gloomy asceticism peculiarly its own, from which even the best works of its greatest masters are not free. Faithful repre sentations of Spanish life in the cloister, the palace, or the streets are plentiful; and in this peculiarity we notice a resemblance to the English school, of which the Spanish has been designated as an anticipation. Juan Sanchez Castro, about the middle of the fifteenth century, founded the early school of Seville, which was afterwards to become so famous. His pictures have nearly all disappeared . The first distinguished Spanish painter was Antonio del Rincon, of whose few remaining works , the principal is his Life of the Virgin , in the church of Robledo, near Madrid : he appears to have had con siderable power of design. Records exist of other early artists. “ But these attempts only became an art when commerce and war had opened constant communications between Italy and Spain. When Charles V. united the two peninsulas under the same government, and founded the vast empire which extended from Naples to Antwerp, Italy had just attained the zenith of her glory and splendour. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian , and Correggio had produced their incomparable masterpieces. On the other hand,, the capture of Granada, the discovery of America, and the enterprises of Charles V. had just aroused in Spain that intellectual movement which follows great commotions, and impels a nation into a career of conquests 172 PAINTING of every kind. At the first news of the treasures to be found in Italy-in the churches, in the studios of the artists , and in the palaces of the nobles-all the Spaniards interested in art, either as their profession or from love of it for its own sake, flocked to the country of so many marvels, richer in their eyes than Peru or Mexico, where numbers of adventurers were then hastening, eager to acquire more material riches. " Only choosing the most illustrious, and those merely who dis tinguished themselves in painting, we find among those who left Castile for Italy, Alonso Berruguete, Gaspar Becerra, Navarrete (el Mudo) ; from Valencia, Juan de Joanes and Francisco de Ribalta ; from Seville, Luis de Vargas ; from Cordova, the learned Pablo de Céspedes. All these eminent men brought back to their own country the taste for art and the knowledge which they had studied under Italian masters. At the same time, foreign artists, attracted to Spain by the bounty of its kings, prelates, and nobles, came to complete the work begun by the Spaniards who had studied abroad. " Four principal schools were formed in Spain, not successively, as those in Italy, but almost simultaneously. These were the schools of Valencia, Toledo, Seville, and Madrid. But the two first were soon merged into the others. The school of Valencia , which had been founded by Juan de Joanes, and rendered famous by Ribera and the Ribaltas, was united like the smaller schools of Cordova, Granada and Murcia, to the parent school of Seville (or Andalucia) ; whilst that of Toledo, as well as the local schools of Badajoz, Saragossa and Valladolid, were merged in the school of Madrid (or Castile) , when that country town had become the capital of the monarchy through the will of Philip II. , and had carried off all supremacy from the ancient capital of the Goth .” Valencian School. A.D. 1525-A.D. 1660. It is only right that this school should be mentioned before those of Andalucia and Castile, for it was especially through it that the lessons of Italy came to Spain. IN VALENCIA. 173 Of this generation of Spanish artists, formed by contact with the Italians, the first is Vicente Juan Macip, called Juan de Joanes, of Fuente la Higuera. Notwithstanding his importance as the leader of this school, and his merit as an artist , he is still almost unknown out of Spain. His works, which are austere in character, are everywhere rare, except at Valencia and in Madrid . His portraits are especially fine. So devout was Joanes, that he habitually confessed and com municated before commencing a religious picture. His son and two daughters also followed their father's profession. Pedro Nicolas Factor and his pupil Nicolas Borras were celebrated Valencian painters of this period. Francisco de Ribalta learned his art first at Valencia, but sub sequently perfected his style by studying the great masterpieces in Italy, especially Raphael and the Carracci. On his return to Spain, Ribalta was much honoured and patronized, and his works have since been highly praised . His pictures are chiefly to be seen in Valencia , and rarely to be met with out of Spain. The fine altar- piece of Christ bearing His Cross in the chapel of Magdalen College, Oxford, is, by Ford and others, attributed to Ribalta. His son, Juan de Ribalta, if he had lived to maturity would have been an excellent artist. His style is similar to that of his father. Jacinto Geronimo de Espinosa, a pupil of the elder Ribalta, painted some important works for the Carmelite Convent at Valencia . His style approached nearly to that of his master. José de Ribera, when quite young, was the pupil of Francisco de kibalta and a fellow -student with Juan . He afterwards studied in Italy (where he was called Lo Spagnoletto) —at Rome, where he studied the works of Caravaggio ; at Parma, where he was influenced by Correggio ; and at Naples, where he spent the best years of his life, and where he achieved immense success . Although he painted all his pictures in Italy, Ribera is thoroughly Spanish ; he never forgot his birth , and, indeed , showed himself so proud of it, that in signing his best pictures he always ad led the word “ Español." The paintings of Ribera, like those of the Italian artists , are scattered throughout the whole of Europe : but Naples has retained BLANPLAZ 78. –The Deposition from the Cross. By Ribera. In the Carthusian Convent of S. Martino , Naples. PAINTING IN CASTILE. 173 some of his principal works. It was for the Carthusian convent of S. Martino that he painted his great work, the Communion of the Apostles ; twelve Prophets on the windows of the different chapels ; and, lastly, the Descent from the Cross, which is almost unanimously said to be his masterpiece ( Eng. 78). Here we may find , beside the qualities enumerated above, much pathos and expression, and a power of feeling which is not usually met with in his works ; so that this picture seems to unite to the fiery energy of Caravaggio not only the grace of Correggio, but the religious fervour of Fra Angelico. In the Louvre there is only one of Ribera's works, an Adoration of the Shepherds, but in the Museum at Madrid is a great number of his works, in all his styles. His Jacob's Ladder recalls Correggio. Of his later style , when he returned to the natural bent of his genius, we find the Twelve Apostles ; a striking Mary the Egyptian ; a S. James and S. Roch, magnificent pendants brought from the Escorial; and lastly, a Martyrdom of S. Bartholomew , the most celebrated of his paintings of this terrible subject. Here he has shown as much talent in composition and power of expression , in the union of grief and beatitude, as incom parable force in the execution. The National Gallery possesses two works by him, a Pietà and a Shepherd with a lamb: and a Locksmith in the Dulwich College Gallery ( formerly given to Caravaggio ) is now catalogued as a Ribera. Pedro Orrente is said to have visited Italy and studied under Jacopo Bassano. It is doubtful whether he was the pupil of that artist, but he certainly imitated his style . Orrente was much patronized by the Duke of Olivarez, for whom he executed some works in the Palace of the Buen Retiro. His pupil, Estéban March, distinguished himself principally in painting battle-scenes . Castilian School. A.D. 1500—A.D. 1700. This cannot be called the school of Madrid , for, during the lifetime of the painters who founded it, Madrid did not as yet exist, at least, not as the capital of the Spanish monarchy. But after the caprice of Philip II. had raised Madrid to the rank of a metropolis, all the dispersed elements of the Castilian school soon assembled in that city. 176 PAINTING a > It was at Valladolid that Alonso Berruguete lived ; at Badajoz, Luis de Morales ; at Logroño, in the Rioja, Juan Fernandez Navarrete ; at Toledo, Domenico Theotocopuli. But we must not pass by these earlier masters without a short mention of Alonso Berruguete, painter, sculptor and architect, who took lessons at first from his father Pedro, and in the year 1503 went to Florence and studied under Michelangelo , whose famous Cartoon of Pisa he copied. He then went to Rome, where he assisted his master in the great works at the Vatican, ordered by Julius II. On his return to Spain in 1520 — though he found himself famous, and was appointed sculptor and painter to Charles V. , as he had been to Philip I. , before he quitted his native country-he scarcely painted anything but altar screens for churches, which required a union of the three arts which he cultivated -- painting, sculpture and architecture. Luis de Morales, called “ el Divino,” is a painter of whose life very little is known. About 1564 he was summoned to Madrid by Philip II. , but he soon returned to Badajoz. When Philip II. visited that city in 1581 , and found the artist in poverty, he gave him a yearly pension of three hundred ducats. His pictures, frequently painted on copper or wood , are as a rule very small and simple ; the most complicated are those representing the Madonna supporting a Dead Christ. There are some works, however, of Morales in which there are whole-length figures, such as the six large paintings of the Passion, which decorate the church of a small town in Estremadura, Higuera de la Serena. Madrid has only succeeded in collecting in its Museum five works by his hand, which tends to prove that they are rare, when authentic. The Circumcision is the largest, and seems to be the best of the five. Genuine works by Morales are seldom to be seen out of Spain. His efforts were cramped by the narrowing thraldom of the rules with which Spanish painters in his time were compelled to comply, and most of his heads express agonized despair or hopeless resignation. A Virgin and Child by him is in the National Gallery. Alonso Sanchez- Coello was not only the pintor de cámara to Philip II. , but also one of his intimate courtiers (el privado del rey). He painted several pictures of sacred history for different altars in the a IN CASTILE. 177 Escorial ; and also the portrait of the celebrated founder of the Order of the Jesuits, Ignatius Loyola. Our illustration ( Eng. 79) is typical 3 1 79.- Isabella, daughter of Philip II . By Coello. In the Madrid Gallery. of his style. A female portrait by him is in the possession of the Earl of Northbrook . Juan Fernandez Navarrete - called on account of bis being deaf and dumb, el Mudo-after having received instruction in the elements of HA — PAINTING N 178 PAINTING -a painting from a monk, Fray Vicente, of the Monastery at Estrella, was taken by his family to Italy, where he stayed for about twenty years. He visited Rome, Naples, Florence and Venice, and settled down near Titian , whose disciple he became. It was at the Escorial that el Mudo completed his principal work—a series of eight large pictures, some of which have since perished in a fire. Amongst those which were pre served may be mentioned a Nativity, in which el Mudo undertook to vanquish a considerable difficulty : he introduced three different lights into the picture ; one which proceeds from the Holy Child, another which descends from the Glory and extends over the whole picture, and a third from a torch held by S. Joseph. He has been called the “ Spanish Titian .” Some of his best works were done for the Monastery at Estrella. Domenico Theotocopuli, known in Spain as “ el Greco ," a Greek by parentage and perhaps by birth , was a painter, sculptor and architect, and the founder of the school of Toledo. He studied under Titian at Venice, and then settled at Toledo about 1577. He became known there by a large picture of the Parting of Christ's raiment, quite Venetian in its character. Soon after, changing his style , he adopted a pale grayish colouring, which makes all the figures appear like so many ghosts and shadows. He was a better instructor than painter. Juan Pantoja de la Cruz, the pupil of Sanchez Coello, has left a gallery of portraits, even in his historic pictures. There are twelve historic portraits by him in the Madrid Gallery. Pedro de las Cuevas is scarcely worthy of mention as an artist, but he sent forth from his academy some of the best painters of that time. Amongst these were Antonio Arias Fernandez, who was at the early age of twenty- four considered one of the best painters in Spain. In the convent of San Felipe are eleven scenes from the Passion of our Lord. Juan Carreño de Miranda, who also studied under Bartolomé Roman, a pupil of Velazquez. At Madrid, Carreño painted for the convents and churches many pictures which gained him great fame. Besides his works at Madrid, he painted at Toledo, Alcalá de Henares, Segovia, and at Pamplona. Felipe de Liano, who studied art under Alonso Sanchez- Coello, 1 IN CASTILE. 179 excelled in portraiture — especially in his small pictures, which are noticeable for the beauty of their colour, whence he has been called " el pequeñ Tiziano." Luis Tristan studied under Theotocopuli, whom he surpassed in design if not in execution, but who nevertheless was always ready to recognize his pupil's merit. Tristan's master-work was a series of pictures in the church of Yepes, a small town near Toledo, which , with Madrid, can boast of possessing the greater part of his works. Italian - Spanish Painters of Madrid. A.D. 1600—A.D. 1700. Towards the close of the sixteenth century, three families of artists, all natives of Tuscany, came to settle at Madrid . These were the Carducci, the Cajesi and the Ricci, which names were, by the Spaniards, turned into Carducho, Caxes and Rizi. We must grant a separate mention to the most famous of each family. Bartolommeo Carducci studied art under Federigo Zuccaro, whom he accompanied to Spain. He painted, in conjunction with Pellegrino Tibaldi, the ceiling of the library in the Escorial, where he also executed various frescoes. The Descent from the Cross, which he painted in the church of S. Felipe el Real at Madrid, increased his fame - already considerable. Vincenzio Carducci was a pupil of his elder brother Bartolommeo, and was by him taken to Spain, where he afterwards resided-in fact he was wont to consider himself a Spaniard rather than an Italian. He died while painting a S. Jerome, wbich bears the inscription, “ Vincensius Carducho hic vitam non opus finiit 1638.” He has left a volume of Dialogues on Painting,' published at Madrid in 1633, which has been much esteemed. The Museo Nacional, Madrid, still retains the greater number of the works which Carducho executed for one of the largest orders recorded in the history of art . The Carthusian convent of el Paular intrusted him with the entire decoration of its great cloister. He was to repre sent the Life of S. Bruno, the founder of the order, and the Martyrdoms and Miracles of the Carthusians. By a contract of August 26th, 1626, N 2 180 PAINTING between the prior and the painter, it was agreed that the latter should deliver fifty -five pictures in the space of four years, all of them to be painted entirely by himself, and the price to be fixed by competent judges. This singular contract was punctually executed. Patricio Cajesi was invited to Madrid by Philip II. , who employed him in the palaces of that city. He was also commissioned to decorate the Queen's Gallery in the Prado. The paintings which he executed there perished in the great fire in that palace. His son and pupil, Eugenio Caxes, a native of Madrid, was also a painter. He assisted his father in the works which he executed for Philip III. , who appointed him his painter, on the death of old Patricio in 1612. Eugenio painted many works in the churches and convents of Madrid , but many of them have perished by fire, as have also the frescoes which he executed in conjunction with Vincenzio Carducci in the Prado. In the Gallery at Madrid is his Landing of the English at Cadiz under Lord Wimbledon in 1625. Fray Juan Rizi and his brother Francisco Rizi, sons of Antonio Ricci of Bologna, were both born at Madrid. The former studied under Mayno, took the cowl and painted chiefly for religious houses ; and the latter , after receiving instruction from Vincenzio Carducci, was appointed painter to the cathedral of Toledo and to Philip IV. , and subsequently to Charles II. Many of Francisco Rizi's works are in the churches and convents of Madrid, but the Gallery can boast of only one work, a Portrait of an unknown knight. Velazquez. Returning to real Spanish artists, we now come to Spain's greatest painter, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velazquez, who, according to the custom of his country, retained his mother's name. He was born at Seville, and was baptized there June 6, 1599. His two masters were Herrera el Viejo and Francisco Pacheco. Velazquez must have seen, even at Seville, several paintings from Italy and Flanders ; he also saw there the works of Luis Tristan , of IN CASTILE. 181 Toledo, whose taste he admired. It was then that he felt the necessity of going to Madrid to study the works of the masters of his art. Pacheco had then just given him the hand of his daughter, Doña Juana. He started for Madrid in the spring of 1622, when twenty -three years of age, and there studied hard in the rich collections of the palaces of Madrid and the Escorial. The next year he returned to the capital. Pacheco accompanied his son - in - law in this second journey, feeling sure that glory and fortune awaited him at court. And, indeed, his first pictures showed what he could do. Philip IV. ordered a portrait of himself, with which he was so delighted, that he immediately collected and caused to be destroyed all the portraits that had yet been taken of him, and he named Velazquez his private painter ( pintor de cumara) . To this title was added later those of usher of the chamber ( ujier de camara) and of aposentador mayor. Besides this, Velazquez was admitted to intimacy with the king, and was counted all the remainder of his life among those courtiers who were called privados del rey. The following year Velazquez set out for Venice, where he studied Titian , Tintoretto and Paolo Veronese ; then he went to Rome, where he copied a large part of the Last Judgment by Michelangelo, the School of Athens by Raphael, and other works of these two great rivals in fame. After more than a year occupied with these labours done in retirement, and after having visited Naples and his fellow -countryman Ribera , Velazquez returned to Madrid in 1631 , with his talent ripened and matured. He received a splendid welcome at the court, and from that time occupied without dispute the first rank among the painters of his country. A commission given him by Philip IV. for the purchase of some works of art caused him to return to Italy in 1648. He then visited Florence, Bologna, and Parma, whither he was attracted by the works of Correggio. On his return to Madrid, Velazquez continued his labours peacefully until his death in 1660. We now pass to the consideration of his works. Sixty-nine paintings by him are collected in the Museum at Madrid , and in this number are included all his principal pictures : that is to say, except a very few carried out of Spain either as royal gifts or as the spoils of war, the whole works of Velazquez are in this museum. He tried every style, and succeeded in all ; he painted with equal 182 * PAINTING .: success history (profane, at least) , portraits, both on foot and on horse back, men and women, children and old men, historic landscapes, animals, interiors, flowers and fruits. We will notice neither his small dining -room pictures (bodegones) nor his little domestic scenes in the Flemish style. The most celebrated of his landscapes, at all events at Madrid, are a View of Aranjuez and a View of the Prado. Amongst his historic landscapes we must especially mention the Visit of S. Antony to S. Paul the Hermit. In portrait-painting Velazquez shares the glory of Titian, Van Dyck and Rembrandt. He surpassed all his fellow -countrymen, and is scarcely equalled by his great rivals in other schools. Nothing can excel his skill in depicting the human form, or his boldness in seizing it under its most difficult aspects : for example, the equestrian portrait of his royal friend, Philip IV., the queen Elizabeth of France and Maria of Austria, the young Infantá Margaret, and the Infante Don Balthazar, sometimes proudly handling an arquebus of his own height, or else galloping on a spirited Andalucian pony. The Count- duke of Olivarez, another protector of the artist, is represented on horseback and clothed in armour ; and in this picture, besides an equal amount of resemblance and life, there is also an energy and commanding grandeur which the painter could not give to the indolent monarch. Unlike the Italians and all his fellow - countrymen, Velazquez did not like to treat sacred subjects, and has left scarcely any picture of that nature. A Christ at the Column is in the National Gallery. As for the profane pictures, genre paintings in their subjects, but historic by their dimensions and style, they are sufficiently numerous to satisfy the eager curiosity of the admirers of Velazquez. There are five principal ones in the Museum at Madrid. That which is called Las Hilanderas (the tapestry weavers) shows the interior of a manufactory. In an immense room, only dimly lighted in the hottest time of the day, workwomen are occupied with the different employments of their trade, whilst some ladies are being shown some of the completed fabrics. Velazquez, who usually placed his model in the open air and sunshine, has here braved the contrary difficulty. His whole picture is in a half-light, and, playing with such a difficulty, he has succeeded in producing the most wonderful effects of light and perspective. The a a | Pintor Dieople Screr allir . 80. - Philip IV. of Spain . By Velazquez. In the National Gallery. 184 PAINTING 1 exclusive lovers of colour place Las Hilanderas as the first of his works. La Fraga de Vulcano (the Forge of Vulcan) is also reckoned among his masterpieces. The Surrender of Breda, which is usually called in Spain las Lanzas ( the Lances), is a still better work. The subject of it is very simple. The Dutch governor is presenting to Spinola, the general of the Spanish forces, the keys of the surrendered town. But of this Velazquez has made a great composition. On the left there is a part of the escort of the governor ; his soldiers still retain their arms, arquebuses and halberts. On the right, before a troop, whose raised lances have given the picture the name it bears, is the staff of the Spanish general. Velazquez has concealed his own noble and earnest face under the plumed hat of the officer who occupies the farthest corner of the picture. Every point in this immense picture is worthy of praise. As a whole it is grand, and the details are thoroughly artistic and full of truth. To pass from the Surrender of Breda to the Drinkers (Los Borrachos), is to pass from an epic poem to a drinking song, and yet, instead of being inferior to the other, it is perhaps even greater. It is merely a comic scene, and yet it is one of those pictures of the beauty of which no description can give an idea. It is said that Sir David Wilkie went to Madrid expressly to study Velazquez, and that, still further simpli fying the object of his journey, be only studied this one picture. We know only one other picture which, as an imitation of nature, equals or perhaps even surpasses that of the Drinkers ; and this other is also by Velazquez. This picture, which is usually called Las Meniñas ( the maids of honour) , represents Velazquez painting the portrait of the Infanta Margaret, who is surrounded by her maids of honour. The Belvedere, Vienna, possesses an interesting painting from the hand of Velazquez--one showing the portraits of his own family. In the National Gallery are a Boar-hunt at Aranjuez, a Nativity, and two portraits of Philip IV. of Spain ( Eng. 80) ; also a Dead Warrior - known as el Orlando Muerto. The Water - carrier ( Aguador ) at. Apsley House, his most celebrated picture in England, is well known from engravings. Everywhere else, at St. Petersburg, Munich and Dresden, we merely a IN CASTILE. 185 find simple portraits as specimens of Velazquez, and some of these are rather by his copyists than by himself. His compositions give us a vivid insight into the national life of his day ; the figures are evidently studied from the life, and the most humble scenes, whilst faithfully rendered , are never vulgar under his treatment. With a keen sense of humour, and a wide sympathy with human nature, under whatever rough disguise, he gave to his rustic groups a life and character scarcely ATLET VIUM ! 81.- View of Saragossa. By Martinez del Mazo. In the Madrid Gallery. inferior to that with which we are familiar in Hogarth's marvellous satires. Juan de Pareja, a mulatto, the slave and valet of Velazquez, whose business it was to pound the colours, clean the brushes, and put the colours on the palette, conceived a great desire to be an artist . During the day he watched his master paint, and listened to the lessons he gave to his pupils ; then, during the night, he practised the lesson with pencil and brush. Not till he was forty -five years old did he think 186 PAINTING 1 himself sufficiently skilful to reveal the secret so long kept. He then placed a picture which he had done amongst those of Velazquez, which he knew Philip IV. would look out, and thereby gained his freedom . Juan Bautista Martinez del Mazo, the son -in - law of Velazquez, was one of his most skilful pupils. He was especially celebrated for his power of imitation : Palomino relates that copies of Titian, Tintoretto and Paolo Veronese, which Mazo made in his youth, were sent into Italy, where they were, doubtless, admitted for originals. Mazo succeeded especially in copying the works of his master. He also painted portraits and landscapes. In his Vix of Saragossa, in the Madrid Gallery, it is said that Velazquez himself painted the numerous figures in the foreground ( Eng. 81 ) . Claudio Coello was in the Castilian school what Carlo Maratti had been in the Roman, “ the last of the old masters." His father, a sculptor in bronze, intended his son for the same profession, but Coello developed a decided talent for painting ; he improved his style by studying the works of Titian, Rubens, and other great masters in the royal galieries. His masterpiece, which occupied him more than two years, is still in the Escorial : it represents the Collocation of the Host (el Cuadro de la Forma) , and contains the portraits of Charles II. and many of his courtiers. Juan de Alfaro y Gamez studied first under Antonio de Castillo, but subsequently with Velazquez, in whose school he greatly improved his colouring. Alfaro is said to have been absurdly vain. It is related of him by Palomino, that being employed to paint scenes from the Life of S. Francis for the cloister of the convent to that saint, he copied his subjects from prints and then signed each picture, “ Alfaro pinxit ”" ; the historian further tells us, that Alfaro's old master Castillo , in order to rebuke him, obtained leave to execute one, and then signed it, “ Non pinxit Alfaro, " which henceforth became a proverb. The masterpiece of Alfaro is his Guardian Angel, in the church of the Imperial College at Madrid. IN ANDALUCIA . 187 Andalucian School. A.D. 1520 -A.D . 1750 . . ance Two local schools , as we have already said , arose about the same time as that of Seville, one at Cordova , the other at Granada . Let us choose the most illustrious masters from each . Luis de Vargas was first a pupil of Diego de la Barrera , and after wards of Perino del Vaga , in Italy , and had the distinguished honour of being the first to introduce and teach in his country the true method of oil and fresco painting. It was he who substituted the Renaissan art for the Gothic . Vargas passed twenty -eight years in Italy , but eventually died at his native Seville . Amongst other celebrated pictures by him , there are La Calle de la Amargura (Way of Bitterness ) , of the year 1563, which has since disappeared , owing to the injuries it received from time and unskilful restorations , and the Temporal Generation of Christ, in the chapel of the Conception in the cathedral of Seville. His works are remarkable for brilliant colouring, character and expression, but are wanting in harmony of tone. Pablo de Céspedes achieved success alike in science , literature and the fine arts . After a visit to Rome , where he was much impressed by the works of Michelangelo , he received a canonry in the chapter of Cordova, and gave up his time peacefully to the different studies to which his taste and knowledge led him . The best literary work of Céspedes is the one he wrote in 1604, the title of which is, ' Parallel between Ancient and Modern Painting and Sculpture. ' His most famous picture is an enormous Last Supper, placed over the altar in one of the chapels of the cathedral of Cordova. Almost all his other works, the names of which are preserved , have entirely disappeared , without our even knowing where to look for them . He was especially famous as a colourist . Alonso Vasquez , a pupil of Arfian , of Seville, was chiefly famous for his fruit subjects. Juan de las Roelas was brought up for the profession of a doctor , and graduated at the College of Seville , whence he is often called “ el licenciado Juan . ” He is supposed to have studied art at Venice . He 1 6 188 PAINTING. lived , latterly, chiefly at Madrid and Seville. One of the best painters of the Andalucian school , he brought to his fellow - countrymen, from Italy, the gift of Venetian colouring, which he had studied under the pupils of Titian and Tintoretto. In Seville, among his best works are, in the cathedral, Santiago Mata -Moros assisting the Spaniards at the Battle of Clavijo ; in the church of the Cardinal's hospice, the Death of S. llermenegild ; in the church S. Lucia, the Martyrdom of the patron saint ; and, lastly, in S. Isidor, the Death of the Archbishop of Seville, in a very imperfect state. Roelas was the instructor of Zurbaran. Francisco Pacheco is famous for the academy which he opened for imparting instruction to young artists, and in which, if report be true, he improved his own style. Among his pupils in this school were his son-in-law, Velazquez, and Alonso Cano. In 1618 the Inquisition appointed him one of the guardians of the public morals, in which capacity he was responsible for the sale of any picture in which the human figure was represented naked. As an artist, he succeeded best in portrait painting ; and Cean Bermudez tells us that he was the first man in Seville who properly gilded and painted statues. He was also the first to paint the backgrounds and figures of bas-reliefs. Pacheco was rather a man of letters than a painter ; he wrote a treatise on the · Arte de la Pintura ' : as a painter, he cannot take high rank, and, as a writer on art , he exercised a detrimental influence upon its develop ment in Spain. Francisco de Herrera, commonly called " el Viejo " (the elder) to distinguish him from his son , who bore the same Christian name, studied painting under Luis Fernandez, and soon became one of the most original artists of his time in Spain. He lived most of his life in Seville, but in 1650 he removed to Madrid, in which city he died. He was so gloomy and violent that he passed nearly his whole life in solitude, and was abandoned by all his pupils - amongst whom was the celebrated Velazquez, —and even by his own children. He painted his pictures, as he did everything else, in a sort of frenzy. He used reeds to draw with, and large brushes to paint with. Armed in this manner, he executed important works with incredible dexterity and prompti tude. The enormous Last Judgment which he painted for the church of S. Bernardo, at Seville, where it still hangs, proves that Herrera 6 2 5 82. - Franciscan Monk . By Zurbaran . In the National Gallery, 190 PAINTING was a painter of no mean abilities. His frescoes, too, on the cupola of S. Buena Ventura at Seville, are worthy of great praise : of these pictures Herrera made various etchings. Juan de Castillo, the younger brother of Augustin del Castillo, was a painter of no great note. He studied art under Luis Fernandez, and soon became famous as a historic painter. He is more renowned as a teacher of painters than as an artist. He can boast of having imparted instruction to Pedro de Moya, to Alonso Cano, and even to the great Murillo, Francisco de Zurbaran belongs to the Andalucian school, because he studied under Roelas at Seville, and passed the greater part of his life there. In 1630, he was invited to Madrid, and was soon after wards appointed painter to Philip IV. In 1650, the monarch employed him to paint the Labours of Hercules in the palace of Buen Retiro. It is universally acknowledged that the best of Zurbaran's composi tions, that in ' which all his good points are united, and where there is greatest display of talent, is the S. Thomas Aquinas, painted about 1625 for the church of the College of that Saint, now in the Museum of Seville, which possesses the finest collection of his works. In the Pardo at Madrid there are fourteen pictures attributed to Zurbaran. In England, where the artists of Spain are very poorly represented , * the National Gallery has but one picture by this artist ;; it is a vividly natural portrait of a Franciscan Monk (( Eng. 82)).. In the Duke of Sutherland's collection at Stafford House, there is a fine example of Zurbaran, a Madonna and Child with the Infant S. John . Zurbaran was one of the first Spanish painters in whom we recognize an independent and national style. In his works the strength and weakness of his school are alike strongly brought out ; the heads are powerful and lifelike, admirably expressing religious fervour, mental agony, or triumphant faith. The colouring and chiaroscuro are re

  • If we class Ribera with the Neapolitan school, there are but four Spanish artists represented in the National Gallery — Zurbaran by one work, Morales by one, Murillo by three, and Velazquez by four : the Dulwich College Gallery is slightly richer ; it has in all 16 Spanish works — 4 by Murillo, 6 by his school, 1 by Velazquez, 1 after him, and 4 by unknown masters.

It would be, perhaps, within the mark to say that fully two - thirds of the Spanish pictures in this country are attributed either to Murillo or Velazquez. IN ANDALUCIA. 191 markable for depth and breadth ; but the design of large groups is wanting in harmony, and there is no attempt to idealize or tone down the expression of suffering. Alonso Cano has been termed the “ Spanish Michelangelo ," merely 66 Dale 1 83.-S. John the Evangelist. By Alonso Cano. In the Madrid Gallery. because he was a painter, sculptor and architect. Like Michelangelo, he was a better sculptor than painter, but his only works in architec ture were those heavy church decorations called retablos ( church screens ), which he not only designed, but for which he himself made all the ornaments, either statues or pictures. Cano lived for some time at 192 PAINTING. Seville, afterwards at Madrid , and towards the close of his life at Granada, his birthplace ; and, provided with a rich benefice, tranquilly passed the last years of his life which had been agitated by travels, passions and adventures. He left seven of his works to the Museum Amongst these are a S. John writing the Apocalypse ( Eng. 83) ; the Dead Christ mourned by an Angel, and a fine Portrait. Antonio de Castillo y Saavedra, the son of Augustin de Castillo, and the nephew of Juan de Castillo, studied first under his father, and, after his father's death, with Francisco Zurbaran. He painted chiefly at Cordova, which city possesses many of his works. Francisco Varela was one of the best of Roelas's pupils. He executed chiefly historic subjects. Bermudez praises the correctness of his drawing and his Venetian- like colouring. Pedro de Moya, who was at first a pupil of Juan de Castillo, enlisted in the Flemish army, but still continued to practise art. Having seen and admired the works of Van Dyck in the Low Countries, Moya, in 1641 , went to London in order to study under the great artist, who unfortunately died a few months after his arrival. He then returned to Granada, where he executed several works of merit. The Louvre possesses an Adoration of the Shepherds by him. Bartolomé Estéban Murillo, the most renowned painter of the Spanish school, was born at Seville, and baptized on the 1st of January, 1618. He passed a melancholy youth in ignorance and neglect. Juan de Castillo, a distant relation , gave him, out of charity, his first lessons in an art in which he was to find fortune and renown. Eut Murillo soon lost his teacher, who went to live in Cadiz, and for a long time he had no master but himself. Deprived of an intelligent guide and of all regular study, obliged to live by his pencil before he had learned to use it, he was compelled to paint hastily-executed works, either for sale in the weekly fair, or for exportation to America . Murillo was already twenty-four years old when the painter Pedro de Moya passed through Seville on his return from London to Granada , having with him copies of Van Dyck, of whom he had received a few lessons. At the sight of the works of Moya, Murillo was in ecstasies, and felt his true vocation. With a few reales in his pocket, acquired by much labour, and without asking advice or taking leave of any one, I Boja 84.- The Immaculate Conception. By Murillo. In the Museo del Prado, Madrid , HHA - PAINTING O 194 PAINTING he set out on foot for Madrid. On his arrival at the capital, he went at once to present himself to his fellow - countryman Velazquez, who was nineteen years older than himself, and then in the height of his glory. The king's painter received the young traveller with kindness ; he encouraged him, brought him forward, and procured him useful work and an entrance to the royal palaces and the Escorial, besides admitting him to his own studio, and giving him advice and lessons. After two years of study in Madrid, Murillo returned to Seville, where his first works were for the convent of S. Francisco. In 1660 he established the Academy of Seville, but he held the presidentship for one year only. He had returned to Seville in 1645, and, until his death, which occurred at that city on the 3rd of April in 1682—in consequence of a fall from a scaffold while engaged on painting an altar- piece of S. Catherine for the church of the Capuchins at Cadiz he scarcely left his native town ; and it was during these thirty -seven years that his numerous paintings were executed. Murillo had three styles, which are termed by the Spaniards, frio, cálido and vaporoso (cold, warm and aërial) . Seville at first was filled to overflowing with Murillo's works ; and it has retained a large number of the best. In one of the chapels of its cathedral may be seen his largest painting, the Ecstasy of S. Antony of Padua. In the gallery of pictures formed in an old convent are the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes, and Moses striking the Rock ; and in the Provincial Museum are S. Felix of Cantalisi ; the Madonna de la Servilleta ; S. Thomas of Villanueva distributing alms to the poor --the painting which Murillo himself preferred of all his works - and lastly, the one of his numerous Conceptions which is called the Perla de las Concepciones. This is a symbolic representation of the favourite doctrine of the Spaniards, which has become the dogma of the Immacu late Conception. It is, in reality, an apotheosis of the Virgin . Forty- seven pictures by Murillo are collected in the National Museum at Madrid. From this number we must choose a few for special mention . Of the cold style we may note a Holy Family, usually termed with the little dog ; the Martyrdom of S. Andreu ; and the smallest of his Annunciations. The warm style was that which Murillo himself seems to have preferred. All his “ Ecstasies of Saints ,” and IN ANDALUCIA. 195 the number of these is great, were treated in this manner. The Museum at Madrid possesses a fine example, S. Ildefonso. The Virgin appears to the Saint and presents him with a chasuble for his new dignity of archbishop. It is in these scenes of supernatural poetry that the pencil of Murillo, like the wand of an enchanter, produces marvels. It might be said of the two great Spanish masters, that Velazquez is the painter of the earth, and Murillo of heaven . Although the Academy of S. Fernando at Madrid can only show four pictures by Murillo, yet these are masterpieces — the Resurrection , the S. Elizabeth of Hungary, sometimes called el Tiñoso, and the two vast pendents, usually called los Medios puntos, relating the legend of S. Maria in Neve. Murillo, having been far more fertile than Velazquez, is much better known out of Spain. The Hermitage of S. Petersburg has twenty pictures by him in its catalogue. Without accepting all of these, we may, at least, mention a Conception, beautiful even among so many others ; and a Nativity which, in its arrangement, reminds us of Cor reggio's Notte. At Berlin there is an Ecstasy of S. Antony of Padua, which, without equalling the brilliant masterpiece which Murillo left as a last gift to the cathedral of his native city, yet, at all events , recalls the highest qualities of the painter of Seville . It is in his tender passionate style. Munich is still richer in possessing excellent works in different styles : S. Francis de Paula curing a Paralytic at the door of a church, and five of the best of his beggar subjects. A large picture, formerly an heirloom of the Marquis of Pedroso, at Cadiz, was in 1837 bought by the National Gallery in London for about four thousand guineas. It is a Holy Family : in this picture, between His mother and Joseph, who are worshipping on their knees, the Child Jesus stands on the broken shaft of a column, gazing towards heaven as if wishing to leave earth, and united in thought to the two other persons of the Trinity — the Holy Spirit, who, in the form of a dove, is hovering over his head, and the Father, who is above, amidst a choir of seraphim . The National Gallery also possesses three other pictures by Murillo, à Spanish Peasant Boy, doubted by some critics ; a S. John and the Lamb ; and a sketch for his Birth of the Virgin ( now in the Louvre ), recently presented. In the Duke of Sutherland's gallery a 0 2 196 PAINTING the places of honour are justly occupied by two large pictures by Murillo , ຊານ

6.SINGER SC 85.—The Melon Eaters. By Murillo. In the Pinakothek, Munich. brought from Seville to London through the collection of Marshal IN ANDALUCIA. 197 Soult- Abraham receiving the three Angels, and the Return of the Prodigal Son. They have been provided with magnificent frames, in which are the verses of Scripture which explain the subject, and surmounted by gilded busts of the painter whose life was so simple and devoid of pomp. The Proligal Son is, however, far superior to the Abraham . The group of the wretched and repentant son kneeling at the feet of his noble and affectionate father ; the group of the servants hastening to bring food and clothes ; even to the little dog of the family, who has come to recognize and caress the fugitive, and the fat calf which is to be killed for the rejoicings ; all is great and wonderful in composition, expression and incomparable colouring. This Prodigal Son deserves, perhaps, to be called the greatest work of Murillo out of Spain. In the Dulwich Gallery are a Madonna del Rosario, a beautiful Flower Girl and two fine pictures of Peasant Boys, besides various works of his school. The private galleries of England are tolerably rich in works by and attributed to Murillo. Of his ten works in the Louvre the most famous are the Immaculate Conception , for which the enormous sum of 615,300 francs was paid, and the Beggar Boy, who is crouching on the stone floor of a prison or a garret, with a pitcher by his side. Our illustration ( Eng. 85) gives a good idea of his beggar subjects. Ignacio de Iriarte was famous as a landscape painter. Murillo frequently painted figures in his landscapes, but this partnership which was beneficial to both - was unfortunately dissolved by a quarrel as to who should paint first and who last on the Life of David which had been ordered by the Marquis of Villamanrique. Murillo finally changed the subject to the Life of Jacob, and executed the whole work himself : it is now in the Grosvenor House Gallery. Madrid possesses several of Iriarte's best pictures. The Louvre has a Jacob's Dream . Francisco de Herrera, called “ el Mozo ” (the younger) , to distinguish him from “ el Viejo," after studying for some time with his father, left him on account of his violence, and went to Rome, and there improved his style by close attention to the works of the great Italian painters. Besides historic pictures, he excelled in painting flowers and still life, and especially fish, whence he was called by the Italians “ lo Spagnuolo degli Pesci." 198 PAINTING Sebastian Gomez, commonly called the “ Mulatto of Murillo," was in a great measure self -taught. As Pareja learned his art by secretly studying the works of Velazquez, so did Gomez, by attention to the productions of Murillo. After years of careful study, Gomez ventured to complete an unfinished sketch of the Head ofthe Virgin by his master. Murillo was pleased with the attempt, and encouraged Gomez to go on with his adopted profession. His paintings are defective in drawing and composition, but in colour they imitate successfully the great Murillo . Juan de Valdés Leal, the sculptor, architect and painter, studied in the school of Antonio de Castillo, and was subsequently one of the most famous painters in Seville : indeed, after the death of Murillo in 1682 , he was second to none. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Seville. His works are to be seen in churches of Seville and Cordova. Pedro Nuñez de Villavicencio, of a noble family, studied art for amusement under Murillo as Beltraffio did under Leonardo da Vinci. Bermudez tells us that he painted children, especially of the poorer class, in a manner little inferior to that of Murillo. He was one of his master's executors. Acisclo Antonio Palomino y Velasco, the Vasari of Spain , was first destined for the Church, but soon gave proofs of his love of art . Palomino subsequently painted at Madrid, where he became quite a famous artist, in the Alcazar, the Escorial, at Salamanca and at Granada. Though a very fair artist, he is much more famous as the historian of the artists of Spain . Scarcely resembling Vasari in his pleasing style of narrative, he is unfortunately like him in being, as regards dates, open to criticism-not to say untrustworthy . Alonso Miguel de Tobar, though scarcely worthy of much praise as an artist, is noticeable for the exactitude with which he succeeded in imitating the works of the great Murillo. A copy by him of Murillo's portrait of himself, now at Althorp, is in the Madrid Gallery Of other copies of Murillo's works, we may mention a Holy Family, painted for the church of Maria la Blanca de Seville, which was at the time thought to be the original ; and a S. John and the Lamb after the picture now in the National Gallery. It is probable that many pictures, commonly called replicas by Murillo, are copies by Tobar. Of IN SPAIN . 199 his best original works , we may notice an Enthroned Madonna in the cathedral of Seville . Francisco Meneses Osorio is also chiefly famous for his exact copies of Murillo's works; he excelled especially in representing beggar boys and similar subjects . He is said to have partly finished the S. Catherine left uncompleted at Murillo's death . Seville possesses the greater part of Osorio's works. After the death of Coello , the kings of Spain had , for many years , none but foreign painters. Charles II . sent for Luca Giordano , by whom there are no less than sixty - five works in the Madrid Gallery

Philip V. to France for Jean Ranc and Michel Ange Houasse

and Charles III . to Italy for the German, Raphael Mengs.

To come down nearer to the present time, we have but to mention one name ! Francisco Goya y Lucientes , who lived towards the close of the last and the beginning of the present century . He was his own instructor, and took lessons only of the old masters . From this singular education , his talent took a peculiar bent -inaccurate , wild and without method or style , but full of nerve, boldness and originality. Goya is the last heir , in a very distant degree , of the great Velazquez . His is the same manner, but looser and more fiery . In this genre he is full of wit , and his execution is always superior to the subjects. But, like Velazquez, Goya founds his best title to celebrity on his portraits . His equestrian portraits of Charles IV . and Maria Louisa are in the Madrid Gallery. He is best known for his etchings , which are very good . Eighty of these have been collected into a volume , which is called the “ Works of Goya . ' These are witty allegories on the persons and things of his own time , and remind us of Rembrandt in their point and vigour , of Callot in their invention , and of Hogarth in their humour . Painting in Spain in the Nineteenth Century . After the long period of stagnation into wbich Spanish painting had drifted between the death of Coello in 1693 , and the rise of the present important school - a period in which the only artist worthy of 200 PAINTING. note was the already-mentioned Goya-a new impulse was given to the art by the influence of the strongly original genius of Fortuny, the best known, but not by any means the only remarkable member of the modern painters of Spanish birth. Mariano Fortuny was born at Reus, near Barcelona, in 1838. He was the child of humble parents, who were quite unable to afford him even a rudimentary education. After their death, which took place when he was at a very early age, he was brought up by his grandfather, and received instruction at the Barcelona Academy. Curiously enough , Fortuny, though afterwards so brilliant a colourist, at first painted in such low, cool tones, that his earliest works are said to resemble tinted engravings. In 1858 he gained the Prix de Rome, and being almost at the same time also drawn for the conscription , was rescued from the adverse fate of serving in the army, by the generosity of a noble and wealthy fellow-townsmen, who paid the fine required to cancel his engagement. This allowed him to proceed at once to Rome, where there was already established a small settlement of Spanish painters, among whom were Vera, Alvarez, Valles, Casado, Rosales, Federico Madrazo, and Palmaroli who subsequently became director of the well-known Spanish Academy there. In Rome, Fortuny was very industrious, copying from the old masters as well as making studies from everything, animate or inanimate, that attracted his notice. But his studies were rupted by a summons to return to Spain in order to accompany General Prim in an expedi tion to Morocco ; during this campaign he gained many impressions of value to him in his subsequent work, one of which, A Moor of Tangiers, is represented on the next page ( Eng. 86 ) . After his return to Rome he was commissioned by Queen Christina to decorate her residence in Paris. The subjects chosen were scenes from the recent Carlist wars : these Fortuny preferred to paint in his own studio in Rome, but when placed in their destined positions, they excited so much admiration that the connoisseurs who saw them there urged Fortuny to follow them and fortune to Paris. He decided to do so, and at once received several commissions for works which he executed on his return to Rome, where, in spite of the many attractions of Paris, he continued to make his home. Before, however, returning

  • 105)。

86. - A Moor of Tangiers. By Fortuny. A.D. 1869. 202 PAINTING thither, he paid a visit to Madrid, in order to copy some of the works of Velazquez, Murillo, Ribera, and others of his national old masters ; and it was about this time that he made the acquaintance of Señorita Madrazo, who came of a family of painters * well known to fame, and whom he shortly afterwards married, and took with him to Rome. The influence of these visits to Paris and Madrid is plainly visible in the increased originality and force of the pictures he painted at this period, at which were produced The Snake Charmers ; The Selection of a Model ; and, just after he arrived in Rome with his bride, the famous Spanish Marriage, by which his name will probably be best known to fame. He was now at the height of prosperity, and orders flowed in rapidly. He died rather suddenly from exhaustion following a severe attack of fever, in 1874. During a visit to Naples in the last days of his life he is said to have entertained an idea of employing some of the characteristics of Japanese art in his painting, but this -- a project which it would have been interesting to have seen in practice—was never carried out . When possible, he painted out of doors. Eduardo Zamacois went in early life to Paris, where he became a pupil of Meissonier, and imbibed so much of French taste that his style is less conspicuously national than that of the other members of the modern Spanish school. It is characterized by a keen faculty of representing humour. His chief works are A Proposal of Marriage ; The Education of a Prince ; and The King's Favourite. He made an especial butt of the Church, and indeed of monastic institutions generally. By the majority of classic Spanish artists, among whom dignified traditions are still paramount, he is regarded as somewhat frivolous. Eduardo Rosales, after a course of study at Madrid, went to Rome, and there came under the influence of the old Italian Masters. He was subsequently appointed Director of the Spanish Academy in that city, and thus had a great influence on the work of many of the best modern Spanish artists. His pictures are chiefly historic subjects and portraits. The best are Isabella dictating her Will, of the year 1867, King Amadeo's Entry into Madrid, and the Death of Lucretia, his masterpiece.

  • Her father is Director of the Museum of Art at Madrid .

IN SPAIN. 203 The work of the Renaissance of Art in Spain, so gloriously com menced by Fortuny, was not destined to die with him . Many of his cotemporaries and followers still uphold the excellence of modern Spanish Art. But owing partly to their exclusiveness, to their disin clination to exhibit their works, and to the comparatively isolated position of their country, their pictures are not so well known in England as those of other countries, although their merits are better recognized in America. The space at disposal does not permit us to dwell on living artists, but we must mention the names of Pradilla, Casado del Alisal, Valles, Alvarez, Villegas and Galofré as those who are the most distinguished of the modern Spanish school, and whose work is to be noted for the brilliancy of colouring, forcible handling, and originality alike of subject and treatment, which Fortuny led them to adopt, and in which, as in his case, the influence of Italian teaching is evident. This teaching has been more readily obtained since the formation of the Spanish Academy in Rome, an institution where the artistic sons of Spain find not only unfailing assistance in their studies, but a pleasant and most congenial home amidst all that is greatest and most worthy of their admiration in Art. PAINTING IN PORTUGAL. 1LITTLE known and appreciated in comparison to that of other European countries as is the art of Spain, the history of painting in Portugal may almost be said to be a dead letter in England. Except Sir J.C. Robinson, but few English writers * have noticed Portuguese Art ; and in view of the paucity of historic detail that is met with, this is hardly to be wondered at. But in a general history of painting of all schools, some notice of that of Portugal, however brief, seems necessary. Three countries bad a decided influence on Portuguese painters Flanders, with which Portugal was closely allied by reason of her commerce, Germany and Italy. The art of these countries was treated by the artists of Lisbon and Viseu, where painting chiefly flourished , in a manner entirely their own ; but the result was a “ rich confusion of style." Their history has been divided into three periods--the first, extending from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, when art flourished under the patronage of the kings ; the second or culmin ation, limited to the close of the fifteenth and the early years of the sixteenth centuries ; and the third or decay, which extended long into the nineteenth century. Fame was first achieved in Portugal in the realm of Painting by the Illuminadores, whose talents have been sung by one of their number, Garcia de Rezende, who, about the close of the fifteenth century, was • Chronicler to John II. He was followed by Alvarus, who illumin ated the Books of Reform of Emmanuel the Great ; and by Antonio de Holanda, who was the chief painter during the reigns of Emmanuel and John III. , and who is only one of several artists whose names indicate a Netherlandish origin. And indeed the majority of the illuminators were foreigners, and mostly Flemings, who at that time were second to none in that branch of art. In 1428, Van Eyck visited Lisbon to paint a portrait of Isabel ,

  • In Painting, Spanish and French , by Gerard W. Smith, a chapter is devoted to Portuguese Art, from which much of the details of the following short notice has been gathered.

! PAINTING IN PORTUGAL. 205 daughter of John I. , and the influence of his visit on Portuguese painting was long felt. Emmanuel, in his desire to improve the art of his country, not only encouraged the visits of foreign artists , but also 74 87. — Calvary. Altar - piece by Velasco . About A.D. 1530. In the Capella de Jesus, Viseu Cathedral. sent his countrymen to the Low Countries and to Italy, to study under the most celebrated painters. As in the neighbouring country, paint ing was early devoted to religion, and the best works of Portugal are those which were executed in the service of the Church. As we have 206 PAINTING a already said, the cities of Lisbon and Viseu divided ' between them the honour of maintaining their National Art. Traditions of the artists of Lisbon are veiled in obscurity, and the records of the painters of Viseu are but scanty and vague. In the early years of the sixteenth century were executed the fourteen pictures of the Life and Passion of Christ in Viseu Cathedral, which display in their technique a Flemish influence. The name of their painter is unknown. To Velasco, who painted from about 1520 to 1540, are attributed a Calvary ( Eng. 87) , in the Capella de Jesus in Viseu Cathedral, which was formerly ascribed to Vasco ; S. Peter, clad in Pontifical Robes ; and a Pentecost at Coimbra. “ The style of Velasco is marked by depth of dramatic expression. It recalls that of Campaña, and is more advanced than that of the painter of the Chapter House pictures." In the Calvary may be seen, in the realistic treatment of the soldiers in the middle distance, the result of Netherlandish influence, and in the ecstatic group of the Virgin supported by the holy women, the impress of Italian feeling Vasco Fernandez, commonly called Gran Vasco, was a celebrated Portuguese artist, who painted in the first quarter of the sixteenth century. But only one painting exists which can be assigned to him. It consists of three panels, representing in the centre the Descent from the Cross, and on the wings S. Francis in Ecstasy, and S. Anthony of Lisbon preaching to the fishes, and is now in the collection of the Director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Lisbon. Like the works of Velasco, it bears trace of Flemish and Italian influences. Gran Vasco has by various writers been confused with another Vasco, * who was miniature-painter to Alphonso in 1455, and also with Francisco Fernandez (living in 1552) , and Vasco Fernandez his son, who both belong to the school of Viseu. In the later years of the sixteenth century the Netherlandish in fluence, which had dominated Portuguese Art, was superseded by that of Italy. This was in no small measure due to the visit of Francisco de Holanda , the son of the Antonio mentioned above, who, sent to Italy by John III. , made the acquaintance and friendship of Michel angelo, and successfully introduced the style of the cinque-cento into

  • The name is common in Portugal.

IN PORTUGAL. 207 Lisbon. Antonio Campello and Gaspard Diaz, known as the " Portu guese Raphael," also studied in Italy. With the loss of national independence, the art of Portugal rapidly declined. Her artists eitner copied the works of Rome or became subservient to the painters of the conquering Spaniards, and towards the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the present century, French art had a decided influence. But a few artists of the decline call for special notice, by reason of their individual talents. Bento Coelho da Silveira, who died in 1708 , was influenced by Tintoretto. Gioseffo d'Avellar was a favourite painter of John IV. Francisco Viera de Mattos, called “ Lusitano,” studied for many years in Rome, and produced good historic and religious paintings. His namesake, Francisco Viera ( called Portuense), also studied in Italy ; as did Domenico Antonio Sequeira, an artist of unequal talents, who was influenced by the works of Rembrandt. His Death of Camoens was painted in Paris in 1823. Lastly we must mention Cyrillo Volkmar Machado, the Vasari of Portugal, whose memoirs tells us much of the little that is known about the artists of his native country. As an artist, he is hardly worthy of mention. A revival in art is manifestly taking place in Portugal ; but the works of modern Portuguese artists are rarely seen in this country, and the limited space at our disposal may be more profitably occupied with a consideration of other European schools of the past rather than of this, the history of which belongs to the future. Borkace Rottume Schiama Arneland Schelling Emden Dokigum Tie and Leeuwarden Groningen Hariznym TEXEI Bolsward Assina Ilearnerven SE A Hosset YHIVER 1Madenblue Sueennak Enthiisen herol , Pollenhoven Koevende Schoklat Tkaninar VOEDER ZEE Etam Zwolle Haarlem Elur Ainsterdam kuidar Haarlem Mango Mare llardawyd Donec Leyden Junarsfoort Learon Zutphen Woerdery •Delfteprudami Arnhen Schoonhoven Deutichem Nieuwpool Byron Third Lumang Red Viner ( lries Calcar unudur Wese ) Learn Maarsen Τ Η San Maruthori . Utrecht HOME . Rotterdam Schenglum Bm Münster RIVER BEVERLAND o R CHOUWEN He wobosch lidor Pancern HIVER LIPPE NBEVELARE Mehe ofthe Maasg Maista LCHERO E Tholen Banda Orsterwyl Middelburg Dogtrnuna Generdor Essen -ABEVELAN en op Zoom Woenne Gelders Hoogstrautai Pyruth her Worden Elberfeld ! Ostond Antwerp Dussdo Bruges Ben hem Maisrye Dunkirk Mochin Nadeeks Bergacor Afsted Colone Ypres Courtray Oudmarle 1.ouvnih Maniche Brussels Inau SPAN ş.zhen Sigurg H Aix la Chapelle RIVER SIEG Wajeriod Tongos Bunra Enyhigai LiegenWimbo Lille Ghent Deporte T HE Alham They Coblenz N Mons Douay Chartery mamur Runnin RIVER Dis Hildurun Valears Malplugue Wow Arres Maubeuge 88.-Sketch Map of the Low Countries in the seventeenth century. PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. In a previous chapter we spoke of the decline of Flemish and Dutch art in the sixteenth century, in consequence of a mistaken attempt to imitate the great masters of Italy. It is now necessary to notice a revival of painting in the seventeenth century, both in Flanders and Holland, characterized by a return to the realism of the Van Eycks, combined with something of Venetian breadth, great harmony of colouring, and general balance of tone. Antwerp School. A.D. 1590—A.D. 1720. Rubens and his Cotemporaries. In Flanders, the leader of the new movement was Peter Paul Rubens, a native of Siegen in Westphalia, who brought about a complete reform in Flemish painting. Gifted with a powerful original genius, Rubens threw into his works something of the fire and energy which we have noticed in those of Michelangelo : his mastery of colouring, his brilliant execution , fertility of imagination, and vitality of expression, are acknowledged by all-although it is impossible to deny that his figures are sometimes coarse, and that he betrayed a want of feeling for spiritual beauty, especially noticeable in his sacred subjects. He first studied under one Tobias Verhaeght and Adam von Noort ; he then, in 1596, entered the atelier of Othon van Veen, with whom he remained four years. In 1597 he joined the Guild of Painters of Antwerp ; and on leaving Van Veen, in 1600, he paid a visit to Italy. At Venice he studied the works of Titian and Paolo Veronese, and was much patronized by the Duke of Milan. In 1605 he went on a diplomatic visit to Philip III . of Spain. There he executed portraits of eminent HHA --- PAINTING P 210 PAINTING. > personages of the Court. On his return to Italy, Rubens went again to Rome, then through Milan to Genoa, where he painted many pictures for the palaces of the Genoese nobles. In 1608, on hearing that his mother was dạngerously ill , Rubens quitted Genoa in haste. He had intended to return to Mantua, but the Archduke Albert persuaded him, much against his inclination, to remain in the Netherlands, and in 1609 appointed him court painter to himself and his Duchess Isabella. Rubens consented, on the understanding tbat he might reside in Antwerp. There he married his first wife, Isabella Brandt ; and in the following year he erected a magnificent mansion for himself, and became the head of an illustrious school of painters. From 1621 to 1625 , Rubens was at work, in Paris and in Antwerp, on the series of paintings to illustrate the Life of Marie de Médicis, for the decoration of the Luxembourg : the series is now in the Louvre. Soon after his return to Antwerp from Paris, he started in 1626 on a tour through Holland, and during his journey visited many Dutch painters of importance. In this year his wife Isabella died, leaving him Two Sons, whese well-known portraits are in the Liechtenstein Gallery in Vienna. In 1627 he was employed in diplomatic service at the Hague, and in the following year he was sent by the widow of the Arehduke Albert, the Infanta Isabella, as ambassador to Philip IV. of Spain. In the following year the Infanta sent him, in the same capacity, to Charles I. of England. Rubens was kindly and graciously received by Charles I. , who conferred on him the honour of knighthood , at the same time presenting him with his own sword, and throwing round his neck a costly chain, which the painter ever afterwards wore in remembrance of the monarch. He was in the same year knighted by Philip IV. of Spain. Rubens, while in England, made the designs for the great ceiling piece for Whitehall, which was completed later at Antwerp. He is said to have received as much as £3000 for it. He returned to Antwerp in 1630, and in the following year married his second wife, Helena Fourment, when she was but sixteen years of age. By this marriage he had five children, all of whom survived him. In May 1640, this great painter, the protector of artists and friend of kings and nobles, died, possessed of great wealth, celebrated and BE نے ان ها 02 E 89.- Archbis.op Ambrose refusing toadmit the Emperor Theodosius into Milan Cathedral .ByRubens Inthe Belvedere Vienna ,. - P 2 212 PAINTING much honoured, at Antwerp, where he was buried with great pomp in the church of S. Jacques. It would be utterly impossible here even to name a tenth part of Rubens's paintings, for his love of work was so constant, and his fertility so wonderful, that there are nearly fifteen hundred of his pictures which have been engraved, and this enormous number is scarcely half his productions . At the same time it must be remem bered that many works attributed to him . were executed by his pupils from bis designs. The celebrated Descent from the Cross, which is unanimously con sidered the finest of all his works, is in the Cathedral of Antwerp. It is needless to describe the subject. It is a large scene of high character, in which we find a nobler conception and more finished execution than usual, besides calmness in the midst of energetic movement, and also, in this instance, no less grandeur than fire and energy. The merits of the work are much increased by its perfect unity. On the wings are the Visitation and S. Simon. Of the other pictures by Rubens at Antwerp we must mention the Raising of the Cross, the pendent of the Descent ; a vast Assumption of the Virgin , placed over the high altar in the same cathedral, the colcuring of which is magnificent ; besides the eighteen pictures in the Museum, amongst which may be found a Last Communion of S. Francis, unsurpassed, perhaps, by any other work of Rubens. In the Pinakothek at Munich are nearly a hundred pictures by him : of these the principal are a Last Judgment ; the Battle of the Amazons ; Castor and Pollux carrying off the daughters of Leucippus ; Children carrying flowers ; and several portraits of Himself and his Two Wives. The Belvedere, Vienna, possesses a Portrait of Helena Fourment ; a Festival of Venus ; an Assumption ; Ignatius Loyola curing a demoniac; and its companion, Francisco Xavier preaching to the Indians ; the Four Quarters of the Globe ; S. Ambrose refusing to allow the Emperor Theodosius to enter the Cathedral of Milan ( Eng. 89 ) (of which a copy by Van Dyck is in the National Gallery ); and one of his best pictures, the Appearance of the Virgin to S. Ildefonso. In the Liechten stein Gallery at Vienna are the well-known picture of his Two Sons, and a series illustrating the History of Decius.

IN ANTWERP. 213 In the Louvre there are forty -three of Rubens's paintings: the highest number by any single master to be found in the whole AJ's.4.2.v.get 90. - Rubens and his second wife, Helena Fourment. About A.D. 1633. In the possession of Mr. Leopold de Rothschild . catalogue. The greater part of this number, and certainly the most important, form a series, and may be considered as a single work. 214 PAINTING This is called the History of Marie de Médicis. Intended merely as the decoration of a palace, these paintings are among the finest works of the master. There are also two Landscapes, one of which is lighted up by a rainbow ; and a large Kermesse (or Fair ), which is no less gay and animated than if it were by Jan Steen. In the Hermitage at S. Petersburg are the Feast in the House of Simon the Pharisee and many other works . Formerly at Blenheim, the seat of the Duke of Marlborough, were, among other of his works, the Rape of Proserpine ; a portrait of his second wife, Helena Fourment with her page ; and portraits of Himself, his Wife Helena and a Child ( Eng. 90) , in one picture. The two last were sold, in 1884, to Mr. Leopold de Rothschild for £52,500. In the National Gallery there are fourteen works by Rubens. Of these we must notice the Peace and War ; the Abduction of the Sabine Women ; the Horrors of War ; the famous Chapeau de Poil ( Het Spaansch Hoedje) ; the Triumph of Julius Cæsar ( after a part of that of Mantegna in the gallery at Hampton Court) ; and two fine Landscapes. At Grosvenor House, the Duke of Westminster possesses a fine work, the History of Ixion and the Cloud, and at Hampton Court is Diana and her Nymphs. Good examples of Rubens are also to be found at Buckingham Palace, Leigh Court, Longford and Warwick Castle. We have now to mention of a few Flemish painters who were cotemporary with Rubens. Abraham Janssens, van Nuyssen, visited Italy, but his pictures, frequently showing the effect of torchlight, are more after the style of Rubens than of the transalpine masters. Though sometimes a better draughtsman than Rubens , Janssens is far inferior to him in colour. Martin Pepyn is a painter who maintains a half-way position between the first decline of Flemish art and its revival under Rubens. He went when young to Italy, where he resided for some time and executed several in portant works. Frans Snyders — who, among the Flemish animal painters of the time, was second only to Rubens-studied art under “ Hell ” Brueghel, and also, it is said under Hendrik van Balen, from whom he पत IN ANTWERP . 215 acquired the art of flower and fruit painting . Snyders subsequently changed his subjects to wild animals, in the representation of which , in their untamed and savage natures , he specially excels . It is said that he studied for some time in Italy -- chiefly at Rome. He was invited to Brussels by the Archduke Albert , Governor of the Nether lands, for whom he executed numerous works ; and he was also employed by Philip III. of Spain . He often worked in conjunction with Rubens and Jordaens. Pictures by him are common on the continent , but are only seen in private collections in England . The National Gallery does not possess a specimen of this master. A Bear hunt by him is in the possession of the Duke of Westminster at Grosvenor House . Kasper de Crayer studied at Brussels under Raphael van Coscien ( the son of Michiel van Coscien ) . His most famous pictures were those he executed for the Abbey of Affleghem

of these

, the Centurion before Christ is the principal. The Ghent Museum possesses the Coronation of S. Rosalia and the Martyrdom of S. Blaize. Jan Wildens and Lucas van Uden were celebrated for their land sca pes . They frequently painted backgrounds to the pictures of Rubens and other figure painters . Van Uden may be well studied in the Dresden Gallery . Gerard Zegers , a pupil of Van Balen and Abraham Janssens , painted in Italy and Spain . The Antwerp Museum possesses his masterpiece , the Marriage of the Virgin . Joost Suttermans, though a Fleming by birth , really belongs to the Florentine school . He went to Italy in early life , and was chiefly employed by the Grand Dukes of Tuscany . Theodoor Rombouts also painted at first in Italy , but returned to Antwerp , and became famous for his sacred pictures. His masterpiece is the Deposition from the Cross , in the Cathedral at Ghent . ! Pupils of Rubens. Of Rubens's numerous pupils the chief was Antoon van Dyck , whose works are as well known in England as those of any other master . Inferior to Rubens in imagination and energy of character, 216 PAINTING he excelled him in feeling for spiritual beauty, in elevation of senti ment, and refinement of execution . Van Dyck was pre-eminently a portrait painter, and as such is admitted to rank with Titian ; but he also attained to high excellence in the treatment of sacred subjects. Antoon van Dyck, of Antwerp, known in England as Sir Anthony Van Dyck, originally studied under Van Balen, and was, then , first 1 91. — Three of the Children of Charles I. By Van Dyck. About A.D: 1637-39. In the Dresden Gallery. pupil and subsequently assistant of Rubens. In 1621 , when twenty two years of age, he paid a short visit to England, and two years later set out for Italy, and chiefly resided at Genoa. He returned to Antwerp in 1626 , and in 1630 went by way of the Hague to London ; he did not stay here long, as he did not receive the patronage he had been led to expect. But shortly after his return to Flanders, Charles I. sent for him in 1632) , and gave him apartments at Blackfriars, IN ANTWERP . 217 a granted him a pension , appointed him court painter , and conferred on him the honour of knighthood ; and for several years he enjoyed great popularity. We shall have occasion to notice the effect of his style upon the art of English painters in our notice of the British school. Although his life was far shorter than that of Rubens, Van Dyck executed a very large number of paintings. Of his sacred subjects we may name the Crucifixion , in the cathedral of Mechlin , a fine example of this class

a Pietà and a Crucifixion , both in the Pinakothek , Munich

à small Entombment, in Antwerp Cathedral

and the

Virgin and Child enthroned with SS . Peter and Paul, and the Vision of Hermann Joseph , both in the Belvedere , Vienna

the Betrayal of

Christ , in the Madrid Gallery

the Martyrdom of S. Peter

, in the Brussels Gallery ; the Madonna with the Partridges, in the Hermitage, S. Petersburg

and

a Pietà , in the Louvre. In portraiture Van Dyck rises to the greatest height, and fears no rival but Titian , Holbein , Velasquez and Rembrandt. We have merely time to take a rapid survey of the most celebrated of his portraits, which have been dispersed over Europe . Italy - where Van Dyck remained for five years in order to complete before the works of Titian the lessons of Rubens —has retained several of his portraits. In England , the National Gallery shows with pride one of the greatest works of Van Dyck . This is the bust of an old man of a grave and noble countenance , who is said to be the learned Gerartius ( Gevaerts , historiographer of Antwerp ) , but who is rather , according to the engraving by P. Pontius, Cornelis van der Geest, artis pictoria amator . The Gallery also contains the equestrian Portrait of Charles I. from Blenheim Palace ; a Portrait of Rubens ; a Study of Horses ; His own Portrait

and copies of two of Rubens's pictures

— The Emperor Theodosius refused admission into the church by S. Ambrose ( see Eng. 89 ) , and the Miraculous Draught of Fishes. At Windsor , among many other of his works , there are the portrait of a Mrs. Margaret Lemon , beautiful , both in nature and art , and Charles I. on horseback , of which a replica is at Hampton Court. It would be useless to attempt to mention the works by Van Dyck in private collections in England. They abound in all the great houses of the nobility. In the National Portrait Exhibition of 1866 seventy- two of his pictures were 1 218 . PAINTING > one ings shown ; at the Grosvenor Gal lery in 1887, no less than hundred and sixty -six paint and sketches by him were gathered together ; and they frequently appear in the yearly exhibi tions of works by the “ Old Masters' at Burlington House. But his pictures never appear to such advantage as when hanging on the walls of those country mansions which they were in tended to grace. In the Pina kothek , Mun ich, the finest portraits pendents repre 92.—The wife of a Burgomaster of Antwerp. By Van Dyck. senting a Bur. In the Pinakothek, Munich. gomaster of Antwerp and His Wife ( Eng. 92), both clothed in rich black robes. The pride are IN ANTWERP . 219 > of the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna are a Princess of Thurn -and Taxis, and a Head of a Warrior, full of energy and power, said to be the famous Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland, the adversary of Gustavus Adolphus , and one of the most prominent chieftains in the Thirty Years' War. In the Dresden Gallery is a charming group of Three of the Children of Charles I., which , to judge from their ages , must have been painted about A.D. 1637-39 ( Eng. 91 ) . The Hermitage also possesses a fine collection of portraits by Van Dyck

one of Charles I. of England

, at twenty -five years of age , and Henrietta Maria , at twenty six

the former in armour and the latter in court dress ; and others. The Louvre is not less rich . It possesses a Portrait of Charles I., life- size , in the elegant costume of the cavaliers,

and the Three Children of Charles, all celebrated , all crowned after their exile - Charles II ., James II. , and Mary , wife of William of Orange, whose son became William III . of England . There are , besides, the portraits of two other brothers

these are Ludwig I.

, Duke of Bavaria , and his younger brother , Prince Rupert

and Don Francisco de

Monçada , on horseback and in armour , perhaps the finest of the rare equestrian portraits by Van Dyck. Jacob Jordaens , a pupil of Van Noort , was Rubens's most intimate friend and collaborateur , but , though he is not inferior to the great master in colour , yet he frequently degenerates into coarseness and vulgarity. His pictures abound in the Netherlands, in churches, public buildings, and private galleries. His Triumphal Entry of the Prince of Nassau , executed in fresco , in the House in the Wood , near the Hague, is usually considered his masterpiece . Another fine work by Jordaens is a Young Satyr in the Amsterdam Gallery . An Adoration of the Shepherds, and a Last Supper in the Antwerp Gallery, also a Crucifixion in the church of S. Paul in the same city, only show how ill -adapted his style is for sacred subjects . His favourite subject was the old Flemish proverb, “ Zo de Ouden zongen, zo pypen de Jongen . " Ex amples are to be met with in several galleries. The Miracle of S. Martin , who is healing a demoniac before the pro - consul , and an allegory of the occupations and gifts of Autumn, of much more sober colouring, though not less brilliant, both in the Brussels Gallery , are two of his best works . 1 220 PAINTING. Abraham van Diepenbeeck first studied art as a painter on glass, but afterwards gave himself up to acquiring acquiring,, as far as possible, the style of his great master, Rubens. He painted in Italy and in Antwerp. He stayed in England for several years during the reign of Charles I. , and was much patronized by the Duke of Newcastle. His so- called chef-d'oeuvre, an altar-piece in the church of Deurne, near Antwerp, was long ascribed to Rubens. Sandrart and Houbraken consider him the best painter on glass of his time. He is also famous for his designs for book illustrations. Theodoor van Tuldeņ, painter and engraver, was one of Rubens's favourite pupils ; he helped him in his design for the triumphal arches erected on the occasion of the entry of Ferdinand into Antwerp, and also assisted in his Apotheosis of Marie de Médicis. Erasmus Quellinus, under Rubens's able tuition , became a tolerably good painter. He aimed higher than his master's style, but did not reach his mark. The Museum and churches of Antwerp possess good specimens of this master. His son, Jan Erasmus Quellinus, also a painter, visited Italy in 1640, and there studied the works of Paolo Veronese. His works are usually large and by no means good, and in them, more especially as regards colour, one sees signs of the decline of Flemish art. His chief claim to fame is based on his composition, which is generally very fair. The Museum and churches of Antwerp contain several of his works. Other disciples of Rubens, who are not worthy of separate notice, were Deodaat del Mont, Cornelis Schut, Frans Wouters, Willem van Herp, and Pieter van Mol. Later Antwerp School. A.D. 1600-A.D . 1680. We must now return to the painters of Flanders who were not pupils of Rubens, though a few of them were imitators of his style . David Teniers, called “ the elder ” to distinguish him from his more illustrious son, learned first from his father Julian Teniers, and is also said to have studied under Rubens. After a lengthened residence at Rome, where he received instruction from Elshaimer, Teniers returned to Antwerp, where he painted until his death. The Dresden Gallery E 93. —Archery The Meting .Teniers ByInBelvedere the Vienna ,. 222 PAINTING contains seven works by him, all landscapes, or genre pictures, his favourite subjects. The National Gallery possesses three of these Landscapes with figures. Daniel Zegers, the " Jesuit of Antwerp," studied under Jan Brueghel at the time when that artist was a lower- painter. Of his pictures the Dresden Gallery contains six, and numerous specimens are in most of the public galleries of the continent. He was, without exception, the best flower -painter of his time. Jan Fyt is without doubt, next to Snyders, the finest of the Flemish animal painters. He especially excelled in painting the fur of animals and the plumage of birds. Of the numerous genre painters of Belgium of the period under review, David Teniers holds the very highest rank. The son of the artist of the same name just mentioned, he possessed considerable power, and is recognized as the founder of the great Flemish school of genre painting ; he enjoyed the instruction both of his father and of Rubens, without, however, being sufficiently influenced by either of them to lose anything of his own distinctive character. He was not only the best delineator of his day of the manners and customs of his cötemporaries in every rank, but the greatest genre painter of any period . The leading characteristics of his style are force, com bined with lightness of touch-every dash of his brush being full of meaning and character—harmonious balance of grouping, delicacy of execution of details, and spirited arrangement of figures ; and a keen and irrepressible spirit of humour breaking out at every turn. No rank, however elevated , was safe from his satire : the guard-hcuse and castle, the philosopher's study, the cell of the saint , were all vividly portrayed ; and it cannot be denied that the master's intense love of truth at all costs led him sometimes into coarseness and vulgarity, and that he evi dently revelled in the representation of physical misery and discomfort. Teniers is well represented in the National Gallery, which contains, amongst fifteen works, the well-known Players at Tric - trac or Back gammon, Boors regaling, an Old Woman peeling a Pear, his own Château at Perck, and the Fête aux Chaudrons, with several other genre pictures and landscapes. Of his works on the continent, the following are among the most remarkable : —a Guard Room, with Peter denying Christ IN ANTWERP. 223 in the background, in the Louvre ; a Peasant Wedding, the Sacrifice of Isaac, and the Archery Meeting ( Eng. 93) , in the Belvedere, Vienna ; the Temptation of S.Anthony, in the Berlin Museum ; the great Italian Fair, measuring three yards by four, a Drinking Party, and a Monkey. and- Cat Concert, all in the Pinakothek, Munich ; the magnificent Fête de Sablons, in the gallery of the Archduke Leopold ; and the Seren Works of Mercy, three Temptations, and the King drinking, a charm ing table scene, in the Buda-Pesth Gallery ; and several Festivals, amongst which there is one dated 1637, of extraordinary size and wonderful colour ing ; and the twelve pic tures of the same size illustrating the story of Rinaldo and Armida, all in the Madrid Gallery. At the Hermitage, S. Petersburg, there is a Kitchen full of game, fish , vegetables and fruit, in which Teniers has painted his father as an old blind fisherman , and himself 94.— The Knife-grinder. By Teniers. as a falconer ; In the Louvre. and beautiful and curious View of the Château of de Drij Toren ; and lastly, the great picture, four feet high by seven or eight wide, which was painted in 1643 for the Guild of Archers, and which is called the Archers of Antwerp. Teniers had numerous pupils, who, though they succeeded to some extent in imitating his work, are far inferior to him. Gonzales Cocx, the pupil of Pieter Brueghel and Ryckaert the a K. PAINTING IN ANTWERP. 225 younger, has been called “ the little Van Dyck ,” because of his partiality for the style of that artist, and the smallness of his works. Cocx's pictures are not commonly seen in the continental galleries. In the Dresden Gallery there is an excellent group of the Ryckaert Family ( Eng. 95) , which affords a good illustration of his success in imitating Van Dyck, and challenges comparison with that painter's masterly Pembroke Family. The figure seen on the extreme right is the painter himself, that on the extreme left , his master Ryckaert. But bis best works are in England. The National Gallery bas a Portrait of a Lady, and a fine Family Portrait, a group of eight figures ; a subject in which Cocx excelled rather than in single figures. In the Bridgwater House Gallery there are two full- length portraits of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria . Wallerant Vaillant studied at Antwerp under Erasmus Quellinus, and became one of the best portrait-painters of the time, both in Flanders and at the French Court. He executed, besides portraits, numerous genre and historic pictures ; he was also an engraver in the newly-discovered process of mezzotint-invented by Ludwig von Siegen -the secret of which he was shown by Prince Rupert himself, who has frequently been credited with the invention. Pieter van der Faes, known to us as Sir Peter Lely , studied for two years under Pieter de Grebber at Haarlem, and, after the death of Van Dyck in 1641 , went to England, where he became the best portrait-painter of the time. Lely managed always to keep in favour with the ruling power ; he painted first for Charles I. , then for Cromwell ( Eng. 96 ) , and then again for the monarchy under Charles II. , by whom he was knighted. His best works are the Beauties of the Court of Charles II . , which are hung together at Hampton Court. They display great technical abilities, but an unpleasant sameness in treatment. In the National Gallery, he is only represented by a Portrait of a Girl. Pieter van Bloemen went when still young to Rome, where he remained some considerable time - sufficient to become imbued with an entirely Italian style of painting. His pictures frequently represent skirmishes of cavalry - whence his name of Standaart - and landscapes ornamented with figures and architecture. HHA — Q. PAINTING C.METTAISI IZ.CHAPONI 96. - Oliver Cromwell. By Sir Peter Lely . PAINTING IN FLANDERS. 227 Franco - Flemish Painters. A.D. 1620--1740. We may here mention a few artists who all copied the French style of painting of the period — more especially in regard to landscape and who stand in a half- way position between the painters of the Flemish revival under Rubens and the new school which has lately arisen in Belgium. Several of them became disciples of Gaspard Poussin, at Rome. Philippe de Champaigne spent the greater part of his life in Paris . In the Louvre there are the Legend of S. Gervasius and S. Protasius ; a Last Supper, a cold imitation of the celebrated one by Leonardo da Vinci ; a Dead Christ, lying on a winding -sheet; the Education of Achilles ; and a portrait of Richelieu ( Eng. 97 ) . As a portrait painter De Champaigne is greater than as a historic painter. His faults are less sensible, his good qualities more prominent. In the National Gallery are his Three Portraits of Cardinal de Richelieu - a full face and two profiles, in one frame - painted for the Roman sculptor, Mocchi, to make a bust from. Jacobus van Artois, frequently called Jacques d'Arthois, was a popular landscape painter of this pericd. He frequently worked in conjunction with well-known figure-painters. Bertholet Flemalle, of Liege, first turned his attention towards music, which he soon abandoned in favour of painting ; he was accord ingly apprenticed to Gérard Douffet, an artist of second -rate ability. He painted in Italy and at Paris, but principally in his native Liege. Flemalle's pictures present a mixture of the Roman and the French classic school ; his historic pieces are especially in the style of the latter. His native city possesses several of his best works. Anton Frans van der Meulen was appointed by Louis XIV. court painter, with a salary and apartments at the Gobelins ; and he became one of the greatest historiographers of that monarch . His pictures are veritable annals, as interesting as those of S. Simon. It will suffice to mention among the twenty- three pictures in the Louvre, the Taking of Dinan, on the Meuse, and the magnificent Entrance of Louis XIV. and Marie Thérèse into Arras, in August, 1667. 228 PAINTING Gérard de Lairesse, the “ Poussin of Belgium ,” celebrated by Mr. cu 97.- Cardinal de Richelieu . A.D. 1585–16 12. By Philippe de Champaigne . In the Louvre. Browning in his " Parleyings," painted for some time at Utrecht, and IN BELGIUM . 229 then removed to Amsterdam , where he became very famous. In 1690 be unfortunately lost his sight, which he never recovered. Lairesse's works are executed in a classic style, with much ability. Cornelis Huysmans was a good landscape painter. The forest of Soignes, near Brussels, was his favourite resort for study He occa siopally introduced cattle in his works, which are noticeable for their powerful drawing and good colour. Jean François Millet, and his pupil Pieter Rysbraek, were both imitators of the style of Gaspard Poussin, whom we shall come across when we read of the French school . Jan Frans van Bloemen, brother of Pieter van Bloemen , was called , from the beauty of the distances in his landscapes, Orizonte . After he had received an elementary education in art in his native city, he went to Rome, where he studied the works of Gaspard Poussin. . Modern Belgian School. A.D. 1830-A.D. 1886. After the close of the seventeenth century, art in Flanders was for a time forgotten ; nor did it revive until the time of the French painter David, and his school , who, to some extent, reanimated it ; and the only artist to offer any resistance to his classicism was Guillaume Herreyns, the director of the Academy of Art at Antwerp ; but his influence was of little avail against that of David , and his chief disciple, François Navez, who was particularly successful in portraiture, and who was the master of many good painters. Classic by instinct and training, he became the instructor of many romantic painters, and paved the way for the subsequent realistic school. In 1830 a revolt against this classicism was led by Gustavus Wappers, who was influenced , first by the works of Rubens and Van Dyck, and subsequently by the Romantic School of Paris. His picture of an Episode of the Belgian Revolution, exhibited in 1833, and now in the Brussels Museum, made for him a reputation which bis subsequent works amply justified, and served to mark a new era in the art of Belgium . At this time flourished that original but somewhat strange 230 PAINTING artist, Antoine Wiertz, whose work may be fully studied in the museum called by his name at Brussels. His best pictures are the Contest for the Body of Patroclus ( 1845) , and the Triumph of Christ ( 1848 ) , but, though bearing evident traces of genius, they lack the highest qualities of art, and their author is now but little regarded. We have now to notice a talented artist who had a great influence ENOU 98.-Luther as a Choir-boy in the Streets of Eisenach . By Leys. on modern Belgian Art, Louis Gallait. He was born at Tournay,9 studied for some years at Antwerp, and became so celebrated that the citizens of his native town bought his picture Christ restoring Sight to the Blind Man , and hung it in their cathedral. They also voted him a sum of money to enable him to stay in Paris, where he was very successful. He drew the subjects of many of his finest works from the pages of the history of the Low Countries in the Middle Ages. His best known pictures are the Abdication of IN BELGIUM. 231 a Three years honour. Charles V., in the Brussels Gallery ; the Last Honours rendered to Counts Egmont and Horn, in the Museum at Tournay ; and the Last Moments of Count Egmont ,, in the Berlin Gallery.. When exhibited in London in 1862, his works created a most favourable impression with the English artists, who honoured him with a banquet. At Brussels, Gallait had a considerable number of followers, many of whom are still among Belgium's best artists . Another important and criginal artist of this period was Henri Leys, who was intended for the Church , and received an education befitting that profession. But his early-pronounced love of art prevailed, and in 1830 he entered the studio of his brother-in -law , Ferdinandus de Braekeleer, a genre painter of considerable renown. later, Leys produced a picture of a Combat between a Grenadier and a Cossack , which was exhibited at Antwerp ; and at Brussels, La Furie Espagnole, a work which excited much criticism . Henceforth a brilliant career was open to him. Commission followed commission , and honour followed upon Much influenced at first by the works of Rembrandt and De Hooch , in 1852 a journey through Germany appears to have had a great effect on him. He adopted a style based on the works of the early Teutonic and Flemish painters, and he inaugurated a return to the severity of the old masters which may perhaps be compared to the Pre- Raphaelite movement in England. The manners and customs and life of his own city in the Middle Ages live again on his canvas, treated with a hard distinctness that recalls medieval paintings, and justifies the comparison of his work to that of the eldest of the Brueghel family. To the Paris Exhibition of 1855, he sent Les trentaines de Bertall de Haze, La Promenade hors des Murs, and Le Nouvel An en Flandre, for which works he received a medal of honour. In the London Exhibition of 1862, appeared, among others of his works, part of the series of pictures executed for the Town -hall of Antwerp, illustrating the Freedom of Belgium . Learning, power and skill are so combined by him with genius, that his quaint original work took a high place during his life, and seems destined to exercise a lasting influence. Several of his best works are in the Brussels Gallery. The Queen possesses, at Windsor, the Armourer by him . 232 PAINTING. While Leys was forming a quasi-medieval style of his own, the spirit of realism which began in Paris spread to Belgium, and found one of its first disciples in Charles Degroux, who delighted in melancholy pictures of peasant life, and who was followed by a large number of other realistic artists. The recently deceased Eugène Joseph Verboeckhoven must be men tioned as a very successful animal painter, and not because of any influence that he will have on the art of his country. He is as popular in Belgium as Sir Edwin Landseer is in England , but his works lack the sentiment of that famous artist. They are, however, executed with great truth to nature. Examples have been exhibited in England from time to time. Sheep formed his favourite subject.. 1Speaking of modern Belgian art ,, M. Wauters * says that it " has resumed among the schools of painting in Europe a rank worthy of the great Flemish school. If her painters have no longer so much the characteristic style , the clear colouring and the particular way of understanding a subject of their illustrious predecessors of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, the cause is due to the movement of centuries, which causes both men and things to change. . . . Apart then from a few of the best, who keep more life and explain more faith fully the national character, the Belgian school has a tendency to lose itself in the European school generally. But the culture of art has not diminished ; painting remains, in Belgium, the poetic language of the country. Each time that Europe has invited the Belgian artists to her great international contests, many have accepted, and have shown works which have received commendation , and have carried off the highest distinctions.” ' La Peinture Flamande, ' Paris, 1883 .

DUTCH SCHOOL.A.D. 1600-— A.D. 1750. Turning now to Holland, we find the Dutch school — no longer an offshoot of that of Flanders - occupying in the middle of the seven teenth century an important in dependent posi tion, its masters painting chiefly familiar subjects of every- day life, landscapes, sea pieces and battle . scenes - large historic and al legoric composi tions being sel dom attempted. - axi Before we come to the great. Dutch Revival under Rem brandt, we must notice one mas ter who, when regarded histori 99, -Portrait of a Cavalier. By Frans Hals. About A.D. 1624. cally, stands In the possession of Sir Richard Wallace. almost alone. Frans Hals, the celebrated portrait -painter, is supposed to have studied under Carel van Mander, the painter and historian . In 1611 he was in Haarlem : and in that town he passed a not too reputable life, and there his best works are still to be found. Whatever Hals's private life may have been, few painters have a 234 PAINTING equalled him in his branch of art. He stands pre-eminent among the Dutch portrait-painters, and has very few superiors in the whole realm of portraiture. Among the best of his paintings we may mention the Portrait of himself and his wife Lysbeth, in the Amsterdam Museum ; a Young man with a flat cap, and Two Boys singing, both in the Cassel Gallery ; the Banquet of the Officers of the Civic Guard, and the Regents and Regentes of the hospital, in which he died, painted when he was eighty years of age, all in the Haarlem Museum ; a Portrait of Hille Bobbe, of Haarlem, in the Berlin Museum ; and lastly, three portraits in the Dresden Gallery. Numerous good pictures by Hals are in private galleries in England. Sir Richard Wallace has, among others, a splendid Portrait of a Cavalier , one of the best works by the artist in this country ( Eng. 99 ) : and a Portrait of a Woman , and a fine one of a man said to be Himself, painted in 1633, by him, are in the National Gallery. Frans Hals had five sons, all of whom were painters, but none of them ranks above mediocrity. We must, however, mention his brother Dirk Hals, who studied under Bloemart, and painted in early life animals and hunting scenes ; subsequently he changed his style for genre subjects. A Convivial Party, a typical work, by him, is in the National Gallery. > Rembrandt and his Pupils. The tendency of the Dutch school had always been realistic, and in the period under review this tendency found its highest development, and was carried up to quite a noble range of art by Rembrandt, a master who changed the school, and raised it to the high position it so long held . Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Ryn was born at Leyden, in 1607. He was first a pupil of an unimportant artist, Jacob van Swanenburch, with whom he remained three years ; he then studied under Lastman at Amsterdam, and Jacob Pynas at Haarlem. In 1630, the year in which he painted his earliest-known oil-picture-the Portrait of an cld Man , now in the Cassel Gallery–he was so far advanced in art that he left Leyden, where he had been living since the completion of his education , and established himself as a painter at Amsterdam, in which 1 IN HOLLAND. 235 city he thenceforth resided . He gave himself up, like Teniers, to the instruction of his pupils, rather than become a friend of princes and nobles, like Rubens or Van Dyck. In 1632 he produced the celebrated Lesson in Anatomy ; and two years later he married Saskia , the daughter of Rombertus Ulenburch, burgomaster of Leeuwarden . Saskia was the wife whose portrait he loved to paint, though not to the same extent as he did his old mother. The Dresden Gallery has the beautiful and justly -famous picture of Rembrandt with his Wife on his knee ; and in the Cassel Gallery is one of Saskia alone. Saskia died in 1642 , and Rembrandt married again , about 1653 , to Hen dricktie Stoffels. Catharina van Wyck is usually said to have been his third wife. This has now been shown to be an error, arising from a mis- reading of the marriage register, and Rembrandt, therefore, so far as we know, was married but twice. He continued to paint at Amsterdam till his death in 1669. Rembrandt excelled alike in every style, and treated, with equal felicity, the noblest subjects — such as Christ healing the Sick — and the most homely scenes, such as a cook tossing her cakes in a pan . His works are principally remarkable for perfect command of chiaroscuro, picturesque effect, and truth to nature. He combined the greatest freedom and grace of execution with thorough knowledge of all the technical processes alike of painting, engraving and etching. The effects of light and shade in his etchings have never been surpassed ; and he has been justly called the Dutch Correggio. His landscapes and sea- pieces are vividly faithful representations of the inhospitable North, with its dull level stretch of ocean and dreary shores ; whilst his interiors give us lifelike glimpses of the domestic life of the home loving Dutch people. The want of feeling for refined physical beauty with which he, in common with all his countrymen, has been charged, is perhaps to some extent to be accounted for by his intense sympathy with the people with whom he was brought in contact - a sympathy which enabled him to catch and fix a likeness on canvas or on copper with the fidelity of photography without its coldness. That he was not without the power of appreciating spiritual elevation of sentiment is proved by the pathos of some of the heads in his Descent from the Cross, in the Pinakothek, Munich, and in a similar subject in our National Gallery. ROHLING DEL 100. -Sortie ofthe Civic Guard .ByRembrandt A.D. 1642. Inthe Amsterdam Gallery . PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 237 Of his numerous works we can only name a few of the most celebrated. The Lesson in Anatomy, in the gallery of the Hague representing the dissection of a corpse by a celebrated surgeon of the time, the professor Tulp, before seven other doctors—is universally considered the most excellent work of the master's earlier period. In the Museum of Amsterdam is the celebrated Sortie of the Frans Banning Cock Company ( Eng. 100 ) . This famous picture, which contains twenty-three persons of life-size, represents a platoon of the civic guard - officers, soldiers, standard -bearer and drummer - starting to patrol the streets of Amsterdam . It is usually called , in error, the Night Watch ; the scene is in daylight. But the popular misnomer arises from the luminous and transparent tints, the great effects of light and shade, which seem produced by an artificial light rather than by the sun. Another picture by Rembrandt in the Amsterdam Gallery, the Syndics of the Staalhof ( the Clothweavers' Hall), although only a simple collection of portraits, shares the renown of the Night Watch . In Italy there are only a few portraits dispersed in Florence, Naples and Turin. In the rich Museum of Madrid there is only one Portrait of a Lady, the date of which shows it to be one of his earliest works. Of the eight paintings by his hand, in the Louvre, there are only three which deserve a high place amɔng his works - the Angel Raphael leaving the family of Tobit ; the Disciples going to Emmaus ; and th Good Samaritan . There are, however, some very small pictures, almost miniatures in oil , in which Rembrandt rises to the greatest height. Two analogous pictures are in the National Gallery. Although also very small, the Woman taken in Adultery, and the Adoration of the Shepherds, must take the name and rank of historic pictures. The National Gallery has, amongst others, two Portraits of the painter himself, one at the age of about thirty -two - signed “ Rembrandt, f. 1610 ,” and the other when quite an old man. Well worthy of notice is a Christ blessing little children , mentioned by “ Bürger," among the four best pictures of Rembrandt. The finest of Rembrandt's portraits in England are in private collections , especially at Buckingham Palace and Grosvenor House. Germany and Russia are almost as rich as Holland. Various 238 PAINTING a historic pictures, of small dimensions, but great in arrangement and touch , are collected at the Pinakothek at Munich — a Crucifixion, in dark , stormy weather ; an Entombment, in the obscurity of a deep vault ; a Nativity, illumined by the pale rays of a lamp; an Ascen sion, where Christ lights up the whole scene with the brilli ancy emanating from Himself ; and lastly, a De scent from the Cross, which is known every where by the celebrated etch ing Rembrandt himself made of it. Vienna has, preserved, in its Belvedere, several portraits by Rembrandt, amongst which one of his Mother, very old 101. —The Raising of Lazarus. and very much From an etching by Rembrandt. A.D. 1632. adorned, and two of Himself at different ages, first young and elegant, then old and At Cassel, are the Blessing of Jacob, which contains five or six figures ; and his first wife, Saskia Ulenburch. Near her are different friends of the painter, the poet Croll ; the burgomaster Six ; the 1 KOVRSNUTESDRINKS are careworn. IN HOLLAND. 239 l'are -we see writing master Koppenol ; and Rembrandt himself, in a black cap and brown cloak. At Dresden may be seen the Rape of Ganymede ; his old Mother weighing golden pieces ; Rembrandt and his young wife, who is seated on his knees ; and still more a Young Girl ( perhaps Saskia herself) holding a pink in her hand ; and two old Grey -bearded Men , with black caps on, clothed in rich dark stuffs . The Hermitage, S. Petersburg, contains forty- one of his works. In landscape, we find a View of Julea. In marine pictures still- more a Coast of Holland, of a warm , golden tint , in which the sky and water seem to melt into each other in the distant horizon . Rembrandt's etchings are as celebrated as his paintings : there are nearly four hundred of them - scriptural subjects, portraits and land scapes, dated from 1628 to 1661 -to be found in various collections. The Print - Room in the British Museum bas a magnificent series. An early proof- impression of Christ healing the Sick (known as the Hundred Guilder Print) was sold by auction in 1867 for £ 1180. It is, of course, beyond the scope of the present work to enumerate even the principal of the etchings hy which Rembrandt is so well known ; but the example which we give ( Eng. 101 ) may serve to afford some very faint notion of the marvellous effects of light and shade which he obtained with the simple means at his disposal. (See also page 3. ) The pupils of Rembrandt — those, at least, who remained faithful to him - only attained an excellence which makes them approach in some degree to their master in portrait painting. Ferdinand Bol painted several historic works without much success , but excelled in portraiture. Of his works, his masterpiece is the Four Regents of the Hospital in the town-hall at Amsterdam. In England we find, in the National Gallery, a Portrait of an Astronomer ; and several good pictures by him are in private collections. He was also an engraver. Jacob Backer adhered in early life to the style of his great master, Rembrandt. He is chiefly famous for his portraits, but occasionally executed historic pieces. 240 PAINTING 1 Philips de Koninck made for bimself a distinct branch in landscape painting. The endless depths of a smooth plain, intersected by alter nate shadow and light, was his usual and favourite subject. He appears to have endeavoured to give an idea of infinite distance . The National Gallery has two typical Landscapes, and Grosvenor House has fine examples of this master. Lingelbach frequently painted figures in his landscapes. Govaert Flinck, one of Rembrandt's best pupils, painted historic and genre subjects, and portraits. His best work is an Isaac blessing Jacob, in the Six Gallery at Amsterdam ; a replica is in the Museum. Gerbrandt van den Eeckhout so far succeeded in imitating Rem brandt's style, that his works have often been mistaken for those of his master. Jan Victors, of whose life little is known, painted sacred history and genre subjects. Most of the Dutch galleries contain examples of his art. An Isaac blessing Jacob, in the Dulwich College Gallery, formerly ascribed to Rembrandt, is now catalogued as a work by Victors. Karel Fabritius would doubtless have become more famous had he lived longer. He left very few pictures, and his name is consequently little known. His fine Head of a Man , in the Rotterdam Museum , was long ascribed to Rembrandt. Samuel van Hoogstraeten painted portraits, landscapes and still life. Houbraken tells us that he visited England and Italy. Nicolas Maes first painted genre subjects, but on settling at Amsterdam in 1678 gave himself up to portraiture, in which branch of art he was very successful. The Amsterdam Gallery has an Old Woman Spinning, and a Girl at a Window , noteworthy for the beauty of their colouring. In England, the National Gallery has four good examples - The Cradle ; the Dutch Housewife ; the Idle Servant, one of Maes's masterpieces, and the Card -players, a fine work . Many private galleries in England possess specimens of this master. 1 From the immediate pupils of Rembrandt we now turn to those artists who were only his followers or imitators. We may con veniently divide these masters into four classes—those who painted (i ) conversation - pieces, domestic life, interiors and portraits ; ( ii) IN HOLLAND. 241 landscapes and battle -scenes ; (iii ) marine subjects ; and (iv) still- life, game and architecture. The later Dutch Painters of domestic life. Jan Livens, who studied at the same time as Rembrandt, under Lastman , went to England in 1630, and painted the portraits of Charles I. , his family, and his court. On quitting England he settled at Antwerp, and gave himself up to painting biblical subjects, which he executed in a very realistic manner. Adriaen Brouwer, as an artist, was much admired by Rubens, who, it is said, rescued him from a prison , into which his own imprudence bad caused him to be thrown. Of his works the most noteworthy are, Players disputing over their cards and a Surgeon removing a plaster, both in the Pinakothek , Munich. Brouwer's works are rarely seen in England, and, in fact, they are scarce everywhere, even in his own country . Gerard Terborch, the painter par excellence of white satin , learned the rudiments of his art from his father, an otherwise unknown painter. Some time after the completion of his studies, Terborch paid a visit to Italy, which had not, however, the slightest effect on his style. From Italy he went to France, and thence returned to Holland, where he became much honoured and patronized. In 1648 , he went to Münster, while the plenipotentiaries of Philip IV. of Spain and the delegates of the Dutch United Provinces were assembled in the Rathhaus for the purpose of ratifying the treaty between the two countries. He then painted his justly celebrated Peace of Münster, now in the National Gallery, which contains portraits of the personages present at that occasion. It is full of dignity, and is one of the few paintings of that class of subject which successfully avoid producing an air of monotony. The National Gallery also possesses one other work by this master, the Guitar Lesson. Terborch may be · well studied and appreciated at the Louvre ; his Concert, his Music Lesson, and, especially, his Officier Galant, are very fine works, showing the ingenious arrangement, and soft, but firm touch, which distinguish him amongst the crowd of lesser Dutch painters. Other good works HHA - PAINTING R 102.—The Lute Player. By Terborch. In the Cassel Gallery. PAINTING IN HOLLAND. 243 by him are The Letter of the Hermitage, S. Petersburg ; the Young Lady with the ewer, and the Lady in the satin gown, both in the Dresden Gallery ; and the Paternal Advice of the Amsterdam Museum, of which there are replicas in the Berlin Museum and Bridgwater House. Adriaan van Ostade studied under Frans Hals, and formed a friend ship with Adriaeń Brouwer. Like the latter, he chose his subjects from low life, but he was more laborious and less dissipated, and has accordingly left us more works. Although Van Ostade's usual subjects are similar to those treated by Teniers, he yet differs from Teniers as Rembrandt differs from Rubens. Teniers treats light in the same manner as Rubens, lavishing it everywhere ; Ostade concentrates it , in the style of Rembrandt. His works are chiefly homely scenes from his native country, full of life, spirit and individuality of character. At Madrid there is a Rural Concert. At S. Petersburg there are about twenty of his pictures, amongst which are three of the valuable series of the Five Senses ; at Dresden, among others, two excellent works, a Smoking Scene and a Painter's Studio in a garret, his own, probably ; at Munich, another superior work, a Dutch Alehouse, with peasants fighting, and their wives endeavouring to separate and pacify them ; at Rotterdam , an Old Man in his Study ; at Amsterdam, a Village Assembly ; and lastly, at the Hague, two wonderful pendents, the Interior and Exterior of a rustic house. The Louvre has also a good share of the works of Adriaan van Ostade. The National Gallery has but one picture by him — an Alchymist. The Dulwich College Gallery possesses four of his works . Bartholomeus van der Helst lived chiefly at Amsterdam . His finest work, the Banquet of the Civic Guard ( de Schutters-maaltijd ), in the Museum of Amsterdam, has been placed quite near Rembrandt's Night Watch. Van der Helst here shows himself the master of genre painting, which consists in perpetuating the memory of an action and its actors . The National Gallery possesses two portraits of Ladies half length ; but all his best works are in his native country. Gerard Dou of Leyden, a pupil of Rembrandt, but of too original a genius to permit of his being classed amongst mere imitators, was at first a portrait -painter ; but afterwards, adopting the anecdotal style, R2 244 PAINTING 1 COOV 16 65 St. 103. -Portrait of Gerard Dou. By Himself. In the Dresden Gallery. A.D. 1665. he began by treating small subjects with great breadth before he IN HOLLAND. 245 a ascended, or descended, according to the taste of the critic, to extreme and minute delicacy. This patient and laborious artist, who made his own brushes, pounded his own colours, and prepared his own varnish, panels, or canvas, worked, in order to avoid dust, in a studio opening on to a wet ditch. The best work of Gerard Dou is the Woman sick of the Dropsy, in the Louvre. The Empiric, in the Hermitage at S. Petersburg ; the Charlatan on his Stage, in the Pinakothek , Munich, and an almost identical subject in the gallery at Buckingham Palace ; and the Even ing School, in the Museum at Amsterdam--are among his chief pro ductions. He frequently painted his own portrait. At Paris there is a Portrait with his palette and pencils ; at Dresden another, playing on the violin ( Eng. 103 ) , and one writing in a book ; at Brussels, he is very young, drawing a statue of Love by the light of a lamp ; in the National Gallery he holds a pipe in his hand ; in the Amsterdam Gallery there is yet another. Many works by Dou are in the private galleries of Holland and England, and when sold fetch enormous prices. The Poulterer's Shop, in the National Gallery, is well worthy of mention, both for composition and execution. The same Gallery also has a Portrait of Dou’s Wife. Gabriel Metsu, although imitating both Gerard Dou and Terborch, yet succeeded in marking out a new route for himself, and in making himself original by the frankness of his touch, as well as the power, richness, and harmony of his colouring. The Chemist, the Officer and the Young Lady, and still more the Vegetable Market of Amsterdam, represent him worthily in the Louvre ; the two Poulterers, and the celebrated Lace -Maker, are in the Museum of Dresden ; and another Poulterer is in the Museum of Cassel. The National Gallery has three works by Metsu, a Duet, a Music Lesson and The Drowsy Landlady. Isack van Ostade, th younger brother and pupil of the more celebrated Adriaan, is equal to his brother in a different line ; and it is only in his genre that he remains his inferior. Adriaan doubtless is superior in the painting of little domestic or popular dramas, where the human being holds the first place ; but Isack makes up for this by the representation of the natural scenes of these dramas ; he is more of a 246 PAINTING are on 1 1 landscape painter. He made for himself a speciality of those winter landscapes, as Van der Neer did of moonlight. He was, and still is, the first master in this peculiar work of art. Two good Frost scenes by Isack van Ostade are in the National Gallery, where is also a Village Scene by him ; his works seen in various private galleries in this country, but they are rare the Con tinent. Hendrik Mar tenz Rokes, is called Sorgh, after his father, who is supposed to have obtained that sobriquet from the with which he conveyed the pas sengers on the passage-boat be tween Rotter dam and Dor drecht. Young Sorgh is said to have studied 104 .-- The Dancing Dog. By Jan Steen. under Teniers the younger at Antwerp, but his style is more akin to that of Adriaen Brouwer. His pictures represent the usual Dutch interiors and exteriors of this period. He may be studied in the National Gallery. Jan Steen , of Leyden, first studied under Nicolas Knupfer at Utrecht, and subsequently under Van Goyen, whose daughter he married. At the Belvedere, Vienna, is a Village Wedding, and at care IN HOLLAND. 247 Berlin a Garden of an Ale- house, which are excellent scenes of burlesque comedy ; at the Hermitage, the Game of Backgammon , where Steen has painted himself in conversation with his wife, and an Ahasuerus touching Esther with his golden sceptre. In England , in the National Gallery, is the Music Master, and at Buckingham Palace, The Toilet, and a large number in private collections ; at Rotterdam the Malade Imaginaire, and Tobit curing his Father ; at the Hague, the celebrated Picture of Human Life, a large collection of about twenty persons executed in the finest manner of this irregular master, and the Family of Jan Steen, another collection of a dozen life-like figures, lighted up as De Hooch would have done ; in it we notice particularly the charming group of a very aged grandfather and a little urchin — the two childhoods of life ; lastly, at Amsterdam, a very celebrated scene, called the Feast of S. Nicholas. There is also the excellent portrait that the painter has left of Himself. Steen delighted in scenes of mirth and revelry ; his works are characterized by broad humour and great technical abilities ( Eng. 104) . Jan ver Meer, a native of Delft, is usually called “ Ver Meer of Delft," to distinguish him from Van der Meer of Haarlem , and Van der Meer of Utrecht, both somewhat unimportant artists of whom little is known with certainty. Bürger did much to restore a place in the history of art for this distinguished painter, whose principal works have probably received the name of De Hooch since that painter has been recalled to honour. Although the View of Delft - purchased for 5000 florins -now in the Museum of the Hague, is a landscape treated in the manner of Philips de Koninck, Ver Meer adhered rather to De Hooch in the usual choice of his subjects and his use of effects. Two good works by Ver Meer are in the Six Collection at Amsterdam ; the one is a View of a Street, probably in Delft, and the other a Milk-woman . Pictures by this artist are highly prized. The Queen possesses a fine work entitled the Music Lesson . Frans van Mieris entered at Leyden the studio of Gerard Dou, who was so pleased with his painting that he named him “ the prince of his pupils. ” As his masterpieces we should mention the Shop -woman at her counter, in the Belvedere at Vienna ; and a Lady fainting in the presence of her doctor, in the Pinakothek , Munich. The National Gallery has a 248 PAINTING but one work of Mieris — a Lady in a crimson jacket ; repetitions of it are in the Munich Gallery and in the Queen's collection. The Amsterdam Gallery has a Lady playing on a flute by Mieris, of great merit ; and we must not forget to mention his works in the Uffizi at Florence, among others, the portraits of Mieris and his family. We may here notice his son and pupil, Willem van Mieris, who painted in his father's style with great success. A Fish and Poultry Shop by him , in the National Gallery, is in evident imitation of Dou. Compare it for instance with Dou's Poulterer's Shop which hangs next to it. Kaspar Netscher, though a German by birth, belongs to the Dutch school of art. He was a pupil of Terborch, and painted chiefly at the Hague. His pictures are frequently met with in continental galleries. The National Gallery has three works by this artist ; Blowing Bubbles, Maternal Instruction, and a Lady seated at a spinning wheel. He had two sons- -Theodorus Netscher, who painted for some years in England, and was celebrated for his portraits and also for his flower pieces ; and Konstantin Netscher, who painted portraits and interiors at the Hague. Pieter van Slingeland, a pupil of Gerard Dou, was far inferior to Van Mieris. His pictures are most minutely finished. He took, it is said, three years to cover a piece of canvas one foot square, and a whole month to paint a lace band. One of the most important of his works is in the Louvre, the Dutch Family (the Meerman family ). Godfried Schalken is celebrated for his candle -light effects. visited England during the reign of William III. The National Gallery in London has one picture by this painter - Lesbia weighing jewels against her sparrow . Of his portraits, we may notice one of King William III. by candle -light, in the Amsterdam Gallery. Eglon van der Neer, the son of Aart van der Neer, painted convers ation pieces, after the manner of Terborch and Mieris. His works are very scarce, both in England and on the continent. Pieter de Hooch, the great colourist, was so long and so completely unknown, that his name has been frequently effaced from pictures in order to substitute that of some other painter better known. His IN HOLLAND. 249 re - installation to fame is due to appreciation on the part of English connoisseurs, whose example has since been followed by his own countrymen. In the science of light and shadow, Rembrandt himself bas not surpassed him, and no one else has produced equally well the 2 } MODELEM ) 105.- Morning Toilet.- By Pieter De Hooch. In the Van der Hoop Collection , Amsterdam . effect of a ray of sunlight crossing shadow in a room. Among his best works are the Return from Market, at the Hermitage ; the Dutch Cabin, at Munich ; and an Interior, in the Amsterdam Gallery. De Hooch is better represented in the Dutch private collections than in public galleries. The Steengracht Collection has a Musical party ; the Van der Hoop Collection , besides a Musical couple, has three > 230 PAINTING Interiors ( Eng. 105 ) . A Garden scene is in the Van Loon Collection. In England, he is well represented in private collections. The National Gallery has two Courtyards of Dutch houses, and one Interior , all good examples of the master. A Card party , in Buckingham Palace, is worthy of special mention. Adriaan van der Werff painted historic and mythologic subjects. The Pinakothek , Munich, contains all the best pictures which he executed for the Elector Palatine. The artist is seen in almost every continental gallery, but his works have never been popular in England. Cornelis Dusart imitated with much success the style of Adriaan van Ostade. Though the National Gallery has no work by him, his pictures are seen in many private collections in England. The Amsterdam Gallery has the best of Dusart's works ; a Kermesse, a Fish -market, and especially the Village Inn, all works of great merit. 1Dutch Painters of Landscapes and Battle Scenes. Jan van Goyen, a disciple of Esais van der Velde, was one of the best of the early landscape painters of Holland. Among other works by him, the Amsterdam Gallery contains a View on the Meuse, and the old Castle of Valkenhof. His works are to be seen in many private collections in England. Jan Wynants commences the cycle of real Dutch landscape painters. He is both popular and well represented in England, in the National Gallery—which has five works by him—and in private collections. He excelled in the treatment of delicate aërial effects and details of foliage. Figures and animals were frequently painted in Wynants's landscapes by Adriaan van de Velde and other artists. Aelbert Cuyp, who is principally known for his pictures of animals, painted portraits with success, and also fruit, flowers, still -life, land scapes and sea pieces. His best works are in England. In the National Gallery there are no less than eight pictures by him ; of these the Landscape with Cattle and figures ( Eng. 106) is the principal. English private galleries are rich in his productions : amongst others, Grosvenor House, Bridgwater House and Deepdene, possess good works. Cuyp's pictures frequently represent the banks of a river IN HOLLAND. 251 with a herdsman tending cattle, bathed in the warm golden light of National Gallery Figures :Evening .ByCuyp Inthe 106. —Landscape with Cattle and the setting sun . It is chiefly for their splendid realization of sunlight that his works are so highly prized. 252 PAINTING. Cornelis Decker is a master whose works long passed as the produc tion of Ruysdael. Adriaan van Ostade rendered him the same service that Adriaan van de Velde gave to Wynants, that of painting the figures of men and animals in his pictures. Jan Both, who first studied in Holland under Bloemart, and sub sequently visited Italy, and was impressed by the works of Claude Lorrain ; and his brother, Andries Both, produced conjointly many landscapes with figures — the former doing the landscape and the latter adding the figures. Italian influence is visible in their works. Pieter van Laar, called Bamboccio, also painted Italian scenes. Salomonvan Ruysdael was a pupil of Van Goyen, and the instructor of his famous nephew Jacob van Ruysdael. He painted views on the banks of the rivers and canals of his native country. Aart van der Neer, more even than Gerard van Honthorst, was the poet of the night. Of his works we may especially notice, in the National Gallery, a Landscape, with figures and cattle by Cuyp, who has signed his name on a pail ; also a River Scene and a Canal Scene ; and in the Berlin Museum one of his many pictures representing a Moonlight Scene. He is well represented in the private galleries of England and on the Continent. Philips Wouwerman painted an almost incredible number of works; but it is probable, however, that he did not execute all the pictures attributed to him. There are ascribed to him, sixty-six in the Dresden Gallery, fifty in the Hermitage, seventeen at Munich, thirteen at the Louvre, ten in Buckingham Palace, eight in the National Gallery, nine in the Dulwich Gallery ; and there are, besides, innumerable works dispersed through the galleries and cabinets of the whole world . Wouwerman is the elegant painter of the life of gentlemen, of war, of hunting, of all the sports in which man has his dog and horse for companions. He is celebrated for the beauty of the landscapes in his pictures, and yet, unlike most other landscape artists, he was in dependent of the figure painter, for he painted both men and horses for himself. Jan Baptist Weenix, the elder, painted historic pictures, landscapes and sea pieces ; and Aldert van Everdingen is celebrated for his views in Norway. He was also an engraver. 107. –Landscape with Cattle .Byerchem Inthe Dresden Gallery 254 PAINTING. Nicolaas (or Claas, the shortened form ) Pietersz, commonly called Berchem, studied under various Dutch masters, but, it is presumed from his works, formed his style in Italy. He can be studied in the National Gallery, and in the Dulwich College Gallery. Berchem is inferior to Potter in his treatment of animals, but is, perhaps, superior to him in mastery of aërial perspective ; his rendering of the play of light and shade upon foliage, whether at rest or stirred by the breeze, has seldom been excelled. Our illustration affords an excellent example of his style ( Eng. 107) . Paulus Potter is considered by some to be the best animal painter of all time. In the Gallery of the Hague is a work by him which may be said to be unique in its kind ; it is a landscape in which are assembled a young brown bull , a cow, three sheep, and their shepherd , all of life size. This picture, which he painted at the age of twenty -two, is known by the name of the Young Bull of Paul Potter. In England, the National Gallery has one Landscape by Potter ; and the Duke of Westminster has a fine picture of Cows and Sheep of the year 1647 . But he is better represented in the Hermitage, S. Petersburg, than either in England or in his own country. The principal work there is the Trial of Man by the Animals, a single composition of fourteen compartments, the two largest of which are surrounded by the twelve smaller. Potter did not paint all these chapters himself: the history of Actæon is by Poelenborch ; that of S. Hubert, perhaps, by Teniers ; but the central panel belongs to Potter himself ; it represents the Condemnation of Man by the Tribunal of Animals. A Large Landscape, dated 1650, and another dated 1649, are more important pictures, and are entirely by Potter. Karel du Jardin, like Berchem, went to Italy for the completion of his studies, and, like him, he was imbued with something of the Italian spirit. The Amsterdam Museum has, among other works by him, a good Mounted Trumpeter and a Farmyard. In the Louvre is a Calvary, and the Italian Charlatans. The National Gallery has four works by this artist. Jacob van Ruysdael, the prince of Dutch landscape painters, was originally intended for the study of medicine, and received an education fitting the profession, which he is supposed to have practised for a short a a 1 ܪܵܐ ܇ seire ao Loon is in US 108. - A Waterfall. By Jacob van Ruysdael. In the Dresden Gallery . 256 PAINTING time. But his love of art prevailed, and he abandoned the pharma copæia in favour of the brush. His first instructor in art was his uncle, Salomon van Ruysdael. He is supposed to have afterwards studied under Berchem, with whom he was on intimate terms of friendship. If we seek in Ruysdael merely the imitation, the portraiture of nature, he is equalled, and, perhaps, even surpassed, in some technical points, by Hobbema, Decker and a few others ; but it is the inner sentiment, the poetry of solitude, of silence, of mystery, which place him in the front rank alone. In the Museum of Amsterdam, are a Waterfall and a View of Bentheim Castle. Rotterdam possesses another View of Bentheim Castle, which he painted many times and under different aspects ; yet always with the greatest care and finish . In England, Ruysdael is especially to be found in private collections ; and the National Gallery has as many as twelve Landscapes by him . In the Hermitage, S. Peterburg, there are no less than fifteen pictures by him. In the Pinakothek, Munich, there are nine Landscapes, all as beautiful as can be desired . In the largest there is a Cascade foaming down over masses of rocks. This picture is valuable as well for its great perfectness as from its unusual size. At Dresden there are thirteen of his paintings. Among these, several are justly celebrated ( Eng. 108) . One of them is known by the name of Ruysdael's Chase. It is a forest of beech-trees, broken only by some sheets of water reflecting the clouds in the sky. Under these great trees, Adriaan van de Velde has painted a stag hunt, from which the name of the picture has been taken. This is one of the largest as well as most magnificent to be found among all his works, and, perhaps, only to be equalled by the Forest in the Belvedere, Vienna. Frédéric de Moucheron painted for several years in Paris, but eventually settled at Amsterdam , where most of his best landscapes were produced. The figures in them are usually by Adriaan van de Velde or Lingelbach. A Garden Scene by him, with figures by Adriaan van de Velde, is in the National Gallery. Meindert Hobbema is supposed to have studied under Ruysdael, but, unlike his master, he only painted smiling and serene nature. His name was long forgotten ; and his signature was effaced from his works, in order to substitute the name or monogram of Ruysdael : his IN HOLLAND. 257 works are, however, now estimated at their just value, and are con sidered second only to those of Ruysdael amongst all the landscape painters of the Low Countries. He frequently introduced a water-mill into his pictures , which are somewhat mannered in style. A fine Water -mill and Landscape by him in Buckingham Palace ( Eng. 109 ) ; two Landscapes in the possession of the Duke of Westminster, in 1 109. - Landscape. By Hobbema. In Buckingham Palace. Grosvenor House ; the Dutch Cabin in the Pinakothek at Munich ; and the Oak Forest in the Berlin Museum, are among his best works. The National Gallery has seven Landscapes by him, including the fine Avenue of Middelharnis. The style of Hobbema produced a great effect on the early landscape painters of England. Jan van der Hagen was a successful imitator of the style of Ruysdael and Hobbema. HHA- PAINTING S 258 PAINTING Adriaan van de Velde, the illustrious disciple of Wynants, may claim one important title to superiority. In his calm, smiling, peaceful views of nature, he was able himself to paint the human figures and the animals, almost as well as painters of those branches of art could have done for him ; and, in fact, he often added figures in the land scapes of other artists. His pictures are somewhat common, both abroad and in England, in public galleries and private collections . Six works by him are in the National Gallery. Jan van Huchtenburg painted battle-scenes, much in the same style as Wouwerman. Works by him are in many of the continental collections. The National Gallery has one, a Battle- scene. He was also an engraver. Jan van der Meer, of Haarlem, called “ de Jonge " ( the younger), to distinguish him from an old painter of the same name, studied under Berchem , in whose style he painted pastoral pictures with much > success. Dutch Marine Painters. a In a land with so large a sea- board as Holland, and with so successful a career on the waves, it is not surprising that several painters should have arisen who depicted the sea under every aspect with great truth and power. Simon de Vlieger sought to introduce the manner of Cuyp into the subjects of Van de Velde. He painted landscapes and sea -pieces. His drawing is masterly, but his colouring is often unpleasing. Ludolf Bakhuisen , who studied under Van Everdingen, is said to have given lessons in marine drawing to Peter the Great, when he was studying naval art at Saardam . He was patronized by monarchs and nobles. So earnest was this painter in his study of the sea that he used to prevail on boatmen to put out in the roughest weather, when scarcely any one else would venture, in order that he might study the foam and the billows. The following are his principal productions : The Return of William of Orange, in the Hague Gallery ; the Embark ation of Jan de Witt, in the Amsterdam Gallery ; a View of the Port of Amsterdam , in the Belvedere, Vienna ; and a Dutch Squadron, in the

IN HOLLAND. 259 Louvre. The National Gallery has five works by Bakhuisen , who is also well represented in private collections in England. Willem van de Velde, the younger, received instruction from his father, a marine painter, Willem van de Velde, the elder, and also from De Vlieger. On the completion of his studies, young Willem came to England, where his father was already engaged in the service 110.-A Gale . By Ludolf Bakhuisen . of Charles II. In 1676 they each received a salary of £100 per annum from the king — the elder “ for taking and making draughts of sea fights, ” and the younger " for putting the said draughts into colours. " After the death of Charles II. in 1685, the pension was continued by James II. The Van de Veldes, while in England, lived at Greenwich. Willem the younger, the worthy brother of Adriaan , is, indeed, the uncontested master in this genre. His finest works are in England S 2 260 PAINTING 9 (the country of his adoption) , and especially in his own country, where, amongst others, may be found the great View of Amsterdam , taken at the Y, and the two celebrated pendents in commemoration of the naval Battle of Four Days, the success of which was at first doubtful, but in which the English finally gained an advantage over De Ruyter in 1666. To enable him to render the combat with greater fidelity, the painter was present on one of the vessels of the Dutch squadron, making his plans and sketches in the midst of the firing. The National Gallery contains no less than fourteen pictures by this artist - all good examples of his style. Of the private collections in England, which are rich in Van de Velde's works, Bridgwater House contains the best -two Naval Battles ; a View on the Texel ; a Calm ; the Entrance to the Bril ; and lastly, the well-known Rising of the Gale . Jan van de Capelle in style much resembles De Vlieger. He is well represented in England both in private galleries and in the National Gallery, which contains five works by him. Dutch Painters of Architecture, Still-life and Flowers. Dirk van Delen , seized with the desire for painting architecture, then so prevalent in Holland, turned his attention to that branch of art, in which he afterwards became very successful. He frequently painted in conjunction with other artists, as in the Meeting of the United Provinces at the Hague - in the gallery of that city - in which the figures are by Palamedes. In the National Gallery is a Renaissance Palace, noteworthy for correct perspective and clearness of colour. The Entrance of a Palace, of the year 1654, is in the Dulwich College Gallery. Emanuel de Witte, one of the best Dutch painters of architecture, at first attempted portraiture, but met with no great measure of success. His favourite subjects are the interiors of churches, the windows of which admit floods of sunlight, which he finely contrasts with the dark shadows. An Interior of a Church, by him, is in the National Gallery . Johann Lingelbach, though a German by birth , must be considered a Dutch painter, for after a visit to Paris and a lengthened stay in Italy, he settled at Amsterdam , and there executed most of his IN HOLLAND. 261 important works. His subjects are usually views of Sea Ports with numerous small figures. A Hay Harvest by him is in the National Gallery. He frequently painted figures for the pictures of other artists. Jan van der Heyden, called the “ Gerard Dou of architectural painters,” is supposed to have visited England at some period of his life. His works are to be noticed for a most minute finish combined with great breadth of treatment. The View of a Public Square, surrounded by trees, in the Pinakothek Munich ; the Convent Garden , at Grosvenor House, London ; the View of a Dutch Town, in the Amsterdam Museum ; and the View of the Town Hall of Amsterdam , in the Louvre, in which the figures are painted by Adriaan van de Velde ( who also painted the figures in Van der Heyden's picture in the Dulwich College Gallery ) , are some of the highest works of this special genre, in which Van der Heyden, who had scarcely a predecessor, has remained without a rival and without an imitator. A Street in Cologne is in the National Gallery. Job Berck - Heyde was a painter of architectural subjects in which he executed the figures , of landscapes, and even of portraits. Works by him are in most continental galleries. His younger brother, Gerrit Berck -Heyde, was, after Emanuel de Witte and Van der Heyden, one of the best architectural painters of Holland. He sometimes painted the figures in his own pictures, but he was frequently indebted for them to his brother Job, who excelled him in figure painting. a Melchior d'Hondecoeter, of Utrecht, was one of the best of the painters of poultry -yards. There are Swans and Peacocks by him in the Louvre ; the Fight between a Cock and a Turkey, at the Hermitage ; the Menagerie of Birds, at the Hague ; the Floating Feather, at Amster dam ; and Domestic Poultry and Geese and Ducks, in the National Gallery. Jan Weenix, called the younger, to distinguish him from his father, whose style he greatly acquired, chose for his subjects small game- hares, pheasants, snipe, ducks, birds of all sorts—of the finest forms and colours, which he grouped with hunting weapons, or under the charge of a dog. Many of his best pictures are in England ; the 262 PAINTING a National Gallery has but one, Dead Game and a Dog ; his masterpiece, The Pheasant, is in the Hague Gallery, Willem Kalf is celebrated for his pictures of inanimate nature, vegetables, pots and pans, which he arranges and lights up at his pleasure. Jan Davidsz de Heem, a painter of fruit and flowers, lived chiefly at Antwerp, where his works were highly prized, and even in his own time fetched very high sums, so true to nature was his representation of fruit and flowers. Good works by him are in the galleries of Vienna, Berlin, Amsterdam and the Hague. His son, Cornelis de Heem, followed in his father's footsteps with success. Jan van Huysum , among the painters of flowers, stands pre-eminent. The smiling Vases of Flowers, far preferable to the dark Bouquets of Baptiste Monnoyer—who was brought forward as a rival to Van Huysum in the time of Madame de Pompadour — are varied and improved by agreeable accessories, such as the vases themselves elaborately carved, the marble stands, and brilliant insects, the flowers of animal life. Two flower-pieces by Van Huysum are in the National Gallery. He is also well represented in the Dulwich Gallery, and in many private collections in England. His works abound on the Continent. Rachel Ruysch is still considered the rival of Van Huysum. Of her works the Rotterdam Museum possesses a Flower piece ; the gallery at the Hague, two more ; and the Six Collection , another pair of Flower -pieces. But the representation of fruit, flowers and dead game, however true to nature, is not the proper goal of Art. And the end of the seventeenth and the whole of the eighteenth century were marked by a rapid decline in the art of painting, both in Holland and Belgium. Not until the present century was considerably advanced was there any definite or important revival. Until about 1830, the classic style of David was, as we have seen, copied in Belgium ; and in Holland the traditions of the old Dutch school were faithfully followed ; scenes of everyday life, landscapes, cattle, and inanimate nature being reproduced in somewhat wearisome monotony. During the last twenty or thirty years, however, great excellence is to be noticed in the works of Dutch artists. IN HOLLAND. 263 A return has been made to that close observance of nature which was the key-note of the golden period of Dutch art ; and if perhaps the modern painters of Holland have laid themselves open by their breadth of treatment to a charge of neglect of scientific study, is due rather to a change in men's minds on that subject than to mere inattention to its importance. Holland may produce another Hals or Rembrandt, but she will in all probability never see a second Gerard Dou. As we have frequently had occasion to remark, the record of living men is beyond the scope of this book, but we may perhaps be excused for mentioning the name of Josef Israels, who has done much to raise to a high standard the art of his native country. His works are everywhere valued for their breadth of touch, poetic imagination and pathos, and Rembrandt-like power of chiaroscuro . Like Jules Breton in France, he is a true painter of the soil , and seeks subjects for his pictures in the homes and troubles of the poor, and not in the mansions of the wealthy. Besides him, we may mention David Artz and Bernardus Blommers, who worthily follow in Israels' footsteps, and the three brothers Maris—of whom the best known is Jacobus - whose chief paintings are scenes in the life of fisher -folk , and landscapes with fine cloud effects. Anton Mauve, who executed low -toned landscapes with sheep, full of feeling, recalling the works, of Millet, must all too soon be ranked amongst the painters of the past. Many of Holland's best artists practise the art of water-colour paint ing, which has gained a firm hold in that country. Of them, the best known in England is perhaps Hendrik Willem Mesdag, the painter of the sea. Works by all the painters mentioned above were exhibited at Edinburgh in 1886, and there attracted considerable attention on the part of art- lovers. In conclusion, we may say that art in Holland has before it, one may imagine, a glorious future. Dutch painters have successfully shaken themselves free from the tame conventionalities of the eighteenth century, and now produce work which, if a little lacking in scientific attainment, is full of true artistic feeling, and worthy of their great predecessors of the seventeenth century. REVIVAL OF PAINTING IN GERMANY. A.D. 1810–1880. We have seen that, soon after the death of Albrecht Dürer, painting in Germany rapidly declined ; the artists who immediately succeeded him endeavoured to combine national with Italian peculiarities, without attaining any definite or satisfactory result. The eighteenth century was marked by a tendency to copy French rather than Italian- work ; but one artist, Asmus Carstens, attempted to check the rage for life less imitation, and to inaugurate a nobler style by the study of nature and of antique models. It was not until within quite recent days that a practical attempt was made to revive the greatness of the German school, although complete theories of art were thought out and enunciated by some of the intellectual and enthusiastic members of the Romantic School of literature. Lessing, Goethe, Schiller and Richter all contributed more or less to define the abstract principles of painting ; and the revival of the present century, instead of being characterized , as we should have expected, by freedom and independence of style, is marked by patient submission to abstract laws. Everywhere the student of German painting is met by proofs of high and noble endeavour and steadfast faithfulness to a preconceived and complete theory of art. The old wild symbolism and mysticism is kept in check ; and the grand scheme of a complete national school, which originated in the enthusiasm of Overbeck, Schadow and Cornelius at the beginning of the present century, is rapidly finding its fulfilment. Unfortunately this phase of German art is almost entirely unrepre sented in English Galleries : and the works of the German revivalists are chiefly known in England by book illustrations, such as Schnorr's “ Bible," and by engravings. > Overbeck and his School. Friedrich Overbeck stands at the head of the new movement, and may justly be said to have restored the ideal style in sacred subjects, PAINTING IN GERMANY. 265 and to have revived the early Italian style as exemplified in the works of Fra Angelico. He first studied painting in Vienna, but subsequently, followed by a small band of fellow -thinkers in art, he went in 1810 to Rome, and there founded the School which led to the renaissance of art in Germany. His chief frescoes are the Miracle of the Roses of S. 1 C. 111. - Christ falling under the Cross. By Overbeck . From a Drawing in the Print-room , Dresden . Francis in S. Maria degli Angioli, at Assisi ; and five scenes from Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, in the Villa Massimo, Rome. Of his oil paintings the principal are the Influence of Religion on Art, in the Städel Institute at Frankfort ; the Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem, painted in 1816 for the Marien Kirche at Lübeck ; and Christ on the Mount of Olives, at Hamburg. His later works, large cartoons illus 266 PAINTING trating The Gospels ( 1843 to 1849) , have taken a permanent place in Christian Art ( Eng. 111 ) . Of the immediate disciples of Overbeck the most famous was Philipp Veit, who studied for some time under Matthäi at Dresden, the Director of the Gallery and the Academy of Art, then under his step-father, a painter named Friedrich Schlegel, and subsequently joined the school of Overbeck at Rome, and became one of the most severe in style. He painted there, in fresco, in the Villa Bartholdy the Seven Years of Plenty. He afterwards resided at Frank fort -on -Main , where he painted a Good Samaritan for the Cathedral, and at Sachsenhausen. Joseph Führich first studied at Prague, then in Vienna, and in 1829 went to Rome, where he painted, in the Villa Massimo, three scenes from Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered . He afterwards gave himself up painting sacred historic subjects for the decoration of churches. His works bear an evident trace of the influence of Overbeck. He has himself engraved several, some of which are scenes from the history of his native country, Bohemia. to The School of Munich . Peter von Cornelius was the restorer of the long-disused art of fresco- painting on a large scale, and the founder of the Munich school. At the early age of nineteen he gave proof of considerable genius in the frescoes he painted for the cupola of the old church of Neuss, and four years later he produced a marvellous series of illustrations of Goethe’s Faust and of the Nibelungenslied, full of bold invention, but perhaps inferior in colouring and expression. In 1811 he went to Rome, where he remained for eight years diligently studying the works of the old masters ; and on his return to Germany, at the invitation of Ludwig I. of Bavaria , he embodied the results of his new experience in the great frescoes, by which he is chiefly known, which adorn the Glyptothek and the Ludwig Kirche at Munich—those in the former representing scenes from heathen mythology, in the latter a series of events from the New Testament. IN GERMANY. 267 Of Cornelius's numerous pupils, his favourite Wilhelm von Kaulbach , was the only one who attained to anything of an independent style in the treatment of large compositions. The Battle of the Huns, in the Berlin Museum ; Apollo and the Muses, in the Odeon at Munich, and the wall-painting in Berlin of Homer in Griechenland, are his principal works. He is well known, too , by his book illustrations, especially those of Goethe's Faust and of Reynard the Fox . Other prominent members of the Munich school were Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld , who first studied in the Academy at Vienna, and then went to Rome, where he found the newly- established school of Overbeck . His principal works there were the Marriage at Cana, and scenes from Orlando Furioso, in the Villa Massimo. Called to Munich by King Ludwig, he executed for him the celebrated frescoes of scenes from the Nibelungenslied ; and the histories of Charlemagne, Frederic Barbarossa, and Rudolf of Hapsburg, in encaustic . In England he is chiefly known by his widely -circulated Bible illus trations. He was a Professor in the Academy, and Director of the Royal Museum at Dresden , and there founded a school which produced many good painters. Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow, a pupil of Cornelius, was for some time Director of the Academy at Düsseldorf, and is more famous as an instructor than as a painter. He numbers amongst his pupils Hildebrandt, Sohn and Lessing. In the Städel Institute, Frankfort, is The Wise and Foolish Virgins, by him. His pupil, Karl Friedrich Lessing, accompanied his master in 1827 to Düsseldorf, where he soon became known by his historic pictures and his landscapes. Most of the painters of the revival of art in Germany were Roman Catholic. The works of Lessing, on the other hand , evince a strong Protestant feeling. His best historic pictures are scenes from the History of Huss. His Oaks of a Thousand Years is well known in Germany. Peter von Hess is chiefly famous for his battle- pieces, of which the best are the Entrance of King Otho into Nauplia ; the Battle of Arcis- sur- Aube ; and the Crossing of the Beresina : he also painted genre and sporting subjects ( Eng. 112) . 268 PAINTING His brother, Heinrich von Hess, first brought himself into notice by his Sepulchre of Christ, and a Holy Family. After some years spent in Italy , he was made Professor of the Academy at Munich, and later Director of the Royal Collection . His picture of Christmas, painted for Queen Caroline, who was a liberal patron to him, is considered one of his best works. 112. - Duck -shooting. By Peter von Hess. Johann Schraudolph , who studied under Cornelius in the Munich Academy, assisted in the prorluction of the frescoes in the Glyptothek, and of the History of Moses, Irom the designs of Hess, in the Allerheili genkirche. After a visit to Rome, he was employed by King Ludwig to decorate the cathedral of Spires ; the paintings which he there executed gained him great fame. Johann Bonaventura Genelli studied first in Berlin, and then under IN GERMANY. 269 Cornelius and Overbeck in Ronie. After painting in Leipsic, he settled in 1836 at Munich, and became noted for his numerous compositions of mythologic and sacred history. Christian Ruben studied originally under Cornelius at Düsseldorf. He then painted at Munich, Prague, and at Vienna , where he was made Director of the Academy of Arts. He painted sacred subjects and scenes from the history of Bohemia. Edward von Steinle, a pupil of Overbeck , painted many church frescoes at Cologne, Strasburg, Munster and Aix- la- Chapelle. He was also known as an illustrator of the Bible. Genre Painters in Germany. In addition to the two great schools founded by Overbeck and Cornelius, many good German painters of scenes of common life have arisen of late years. The principal of these were Hermann Stilke, who first studied at Berlin, and then with Cornelius at Munich and Düsseldorf. He painted frescoes in the arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich ; and after a visit to Italy joined Schadow at Düsseldorf. His works are taken chiefly from romances, and sacred and mythologic history. Ferdinand Theodor Hildebrandt studied at Berlin under Schadow , whom he accompanied in 1826 to Düsseldorf, where he settled . He sometimes painted portraits and genre subjects, but his principal works illustrate historic scenes, drawn from Shakespeare, Goethe and other poets. He is noted for his colouring ; and his fame has reached far beyond his native country. Karl Ferdinand Sohn followed Schadow to Düsseldorf in 1826. He afterwards visited Italy, France, Belgium and Holland. Appointed Professor in the Düsseldorf Academy, he gave instruction to many celebrated painters. His own works are of a variety of subjects, portraits and genre, but chiefly historic. One of the most famous is Diana at the Bath . Of Emanuel Leutze we sball speak when we treat of the American school. 270 PAINTING > Jakob Becker studied at Düsseldorf under Schirmer : he painted first landscapes, then romantic pieces, and , finally, genre subjects, in which he excelled. In 1840 he was appointed Professor at the Städel Institute at Frankfort. Karl Wilhelm Hübner went to Düsseldorf in 1837, and studied under Karl Sohn and Schadow . His pictures are drawn, chiefly, from modern social life, and frequently display a dramatic element. His masterpiece, in 1853, is Saved from the fire. His Poacher's Death (Das Jagdrecht) created a great sensation at the time of its production1 ; but, perhaps, more from the nature of its subject than its intrinsic merits. Adolf Schrodter and Johann Peter Hasenclever, pupils of the Düsseldorf school, painted genre subjects with much success. Joseph Anton Koch, who has been called the restorer of landscape painting in Germany, is well represented in the galleries of his native country. Lessing, too , whom we have already noticed, was a good landscape painter. Every large town in Germany now became a centre of painting. Karl Wilhelm Kolbe, the younger, August Karl Friedrich von Klöber, whose style was influenced by a study of Rubens and Correggio ; Karl Begas, Franz Krüger, celebrated for his paintings of horses—all of whom devoted themselves to romantic and historic compositions ; and Eduard Magnus, known for his genre subjects and portraits : these are a few prominent names among those artists who have made Berlin famous in art during the greater part of the nineteenth century. . In Vienna, Johann Peter Krafft, Georg Ferdinand Waldmüller, and Joseph Danhauser, practised genre and portrait painting with great success. Karl Rahl, of Vienna, studied in the Academy of his native city, and there opened a studio, which was most numerously attended, and sent forth many excellent artists. Alfred Rethel, a native of Aix -la -Chapelle, a student in the Düssel dorf Academy, painted much at Frankfort and at Aix. His works are taken from sacred and national history, and also include portraits. IN GERMANY. 271 Feodor Dietz studied in Carlsruhe, and painted in Munich and at Paris ; his works, which chiefly depict scenes on the battle- field , are unfortunately sometimes almost theatrical in effect. Carl Theodor von Piloty, a Bavarian painter, was a member and for many years a professor of the Munich Academy. His Elector Max signing the Catholic League was painted for the king in 1854. His Death of Wallenstein , Galileo in Prison , and other historical subjects have been engraved. Hans Makart, a brilliant painter of historic , genre and spectacular pictures, was born at Saltzburg in 1840, and studied at Munich under 113. — Cleopatra. By Hans Makart. Piloty. In 1869 , he settled at Vienna, and there had a most successful and popular career till his death in 1884. His most cele brated paintings are, The Seven Capital Sins, The Plague at Florence, Cleopatra ( Eng. 113) , Romeo beside the body of Juliet, and above all , an immensely large picture of The Entry of Charles V. into Antwerp, and The Nobles of Venice doing Homage to Catharine Cornaro. His fondness for large canvasses and his brilliant colouring gained for him the title of the “ Austrian Rubens." Of those living artists who have made and are still making German art famous, not only in their own country but in all the world, we do not propose to speak ; but before closing this brief notice of nineteenth 272 PAINTING. century art, we must mention two painters whose works are somewhat in sympathy with German work . Adolph Tidemand, a native of Mandal in Norway, studied first at Copenhagen, and then at Düsseldorf under Hildebrandt and Schadow . His pictures are chiefly landscapes and genre subjects. They became familiar to the English public at the Exhibition held in London in 1862, to which he sent no less than ten. The Assembly of the Haugians in the Düsseldorf Academy, and the Catechising are among the principal. Tidemand was a member of most foreign academies. Anna Maria Elisabeth Jerichau -Baumann was born , near Warsaw , of German parents. After a course of study in the Düsseldorf school, she went to Rome, where she married Adolf Jerichau the sculptor, with whom she returned to Copenhagen ; and thenceforth became famous as a painter of portraits and genre pieces. Since the days when Holbein visited this country and taught Englishmen how portraits should be painted, German art, which is almost entirely unrepresented in our national collections , has þeen but little appreciated in England. Examples of the modern revival are almost unknown in this country, and the schools which have arisen at Düsseldorf, Munich, Berlin and elsewhere have had no sympathetic echo on these shores ; and it is only now and then that isolated works by a Muncacksy or a Makart come to tell us of some of the tendencies of modern German art . 1 1

PAINTING IN FRANCE.

French art

A HISTORY of the French school of painting can be traced almost as far back as the history of France itself. Even in the time of Charlemagne it was the custom to cover the walls of churches with paintings "in order to instruct the people, and to decorate the buildings." Painting on glass for cathedral windows was likewise invented or perfected : and many French prelates and abbots ornamented their churches and monasteries with paintings of all kinds. Though not strictly belonging to the history of Painting, mention must be made of the very important piece of needlework in coloured worsteds on linen, 230 ft. in length, commemorative of the Norman Conquest, which is commonly known as the Bayeux Tapestry. Much controversy has taken place with regard to its origin. It is, by the best authorities, admitted to be a cotemporary work of the eleventh century, and as such is of great archeological value ; but the tradition which says that it is the work of Queen Matilda and her maids of honour is very doubtful. It was probably executed by order of Odo. Some say by English work -people ; others by artificers of Baģeux. In olden times it used to be hung round the walls of the nave of Bayeux cathedral. The design is full of life and spirit and truth to nature ; but the perspective is, not unnaturally, very defective.

But the real history of French art, the pupil of Italy, can only be said have commenced after the slow and laborious development of the Middle Ages ; when all the knowledge possessed by antiquity re appeared at one time, and produced the revival known by the name of the RENAISSANCE. In Italy, this began as early as the middle of the fifteenth century, but it was nearly a hundred years later before the French school felt its influence.

In the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.

In the British Museum are examples of French miniature painting of the thirteenth , fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, of which we may specially mention a Roman de la Rose , with miniatures, initials and borders in camaïeu -gris, and Froissart's Chronicle, both of the fifteenth century, as well as several Hours of the Virgin.

René of Anjou, Count of Provence, —the prince who was successively despoiled of Naples, Lorraine and Anjou, and who consoled himself for his political disgraces by cultivating poetry, music and painting, -was born about 1409 , and learnt painting in Italy, either under Il Zingaro at Naples, when he was disputing the crown of the Two Sicilies with the kings of Aragon, or under Bartolommeo della Gatta at Florence, when forming an alliance with the Duke of Milan against the Venetians. The style of Van Eyck was not without influence on his work. “He composed,” says the chronicler Nostradamus, “several beautiful and elegant romances, such as La Conqueste de la Doulce Merci, and the Mortifiement de Vaine Plaisance, but he loved painting in particular with a passionate love, and was gifted by nature with such an uncommon aptitude for this noble profession that he was famous among the most excellent painters and illuminators of his time, which may be perceived by several masterpieces accomplished by his divine and royal hand ” (Eng. 115).

In the Cluny Museum there is a picture by René which, although not worthy of being called a divine masterpiece of the period that had produced Fra Angelico and Masaccio, is yet valuable and remarkable. The subject is the Preaching 1EuMasbefillusParIOTILAH 10 influ雪 artiseencu sertDelltheTer theJa be andwhomaddos116.– Tullia driving over the dead body of her father, Servius Tullius. By Fouquet. Fifteenth Century. From the MS. Titus Livius. In the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Jandistborof the Magdalen at Marseilles, where tradition asserts she was the II,first to proclaim the gospel. At Aix is an altar-piece by him of Moses and the burning bush . Besiof G IN FRANCE. 277

Jehan Fouquet, born at Tours in 1415, painted the portrait of Pope Eugenius IV. at Rome, and studied the Italian artists of the time of Masaccio. His works, or at least those of them which remain, are to be found at Munich, Frankfort, and in the National Library at Paris ; they consist only of manuscript ornamentation . The principal are his illustrations to “ Josephus” and “ Titus Livius ” ( Eng. 111) in the Paris Library. In the reign of François I. several Italian artists of renown painted in France, and had a marked influence on the style of native artists. Leonardo, as we have seen, died in that monarch's service : Primaticcio, Rosso, Dell’Abbate and Pacchiarotto also worked at Fontainebleau, and formed what has been called the school of Fontainebleau. Of a more national character were the works of the Clouets and of Cousin. Jean Clouet, the younger, sometimes called “ Janet ” (in cotemporary records he is called Jehan, Jehannot and Jehannet), was a Fleming who settled in France and was made painter and varlet-de chambre to François I. , in or before 1518. He died in 1541 . 117. – Mary, Queen of Scots. By Clouet. At Windsor Castle. François Clouet, usually called Janet , —a cotemporary of those who studied art in Italy, but himself a distant disciple of Van Eyck, through the lessons of his father ,-was born at Tours. He was court painter to François I. , Henri II. , François II . and Charles IX. His portraits in the Louvre of Charles IX. and his wife Elizabeth of Austria are truthful and of wonderful delicacy. Besides the portraits of Henri II., of Henri IV. as a child , of the Duke of Guise, le Balafré, of the wise chancellor Michel de l'Hôpital, all of 278 PAINTING his school, there are two small compositions formed by several portraits in a group ; one is of the Marriage of Margaret of Lorraine, sister of the Guises, with Duke Anne of Joyeuse ; the other is a Court Ball, at which Henri III. , then king, his mother, Catherine de Médicis, young Henry of Navarre, and other personages of the time, are present. These pictures, which are as valuable to the history of France as the chronicles of Monstrelet or the journals of L’Estoile, are no less precious to the history of painting as the memorials of an art of which they were the earliest expression. In Hampton Court there are portraits by Clouet of Mary Queen of Scots and François II. of France, as Dauphin ; and at Castle Howard there is a fine painting by him, of the Family of Henri II., with life- size portraits of Catherine de Médicis and her children , and a collection of nearly three hundred portraits drawings in black and white with flesh tints-of kings and queens and important personages of the French Court. Chalk drawings of this period, and in the style of the Clouets, exist in large numbers. A Man's portrait by him is in the National Gallery, and examples of his art are in the galleries of Hertford House and Althorp. In the Jones Collection of the South Kensington Museum , is a fine miniature of the Duke d'Alençon, holding the portrait of Elizabeth. But undoubted pictures by him are rare. Our illustration ( Eng. 117) is a copy of a work which has a great historic as well as artistic iuterest. Now at Windsor Castle in the Miniature Collection, it has never been out of the Royal possession since it was catalogued in Charles's time by Van der Doort, the keeper of the King's cabinet, * and it may accordingly be taken as a true representation of the unhappy Mary, Queen of Scots, concerning whose features much uncertainty has existed. It is unnecessary here to mention the names of the followers of the Clouets, who laboured from about this period to the time of the formation of the school of enamel painters under Petitot. Jean Cousin was born at Soucy, near Sens. Unfortunately, he was

  • “ No. 23. Item. Done upon the right light, the second picture of Queen Mary of Scotland, upon a blue- grounded square card, dressed in her hair, in a carnation habit laced with small gold lace, and a string of pearls about her neck, in a little plain falling band, she putting on her second finger her wedding- ring. Supposed to be done by Jennet, a French limner. ”

a 9 ) IN FRANCE. 279 more occupied with painting church windows than with his easel ; and, as he devoted a part of his time to engraving, sculpture and literature , he has left but a small number of pictures. His principal work is a Last Jadgment, and it is doubtless the similarity of subject rather than style which has given its author the name of the “ French Michel angelo. ” Although it was the first picture by a French artist which had the honour of being engraved, this masterpiece of Jean Cousin lay for a long time forgotten in the Sacristy of Minimes at Vincennes. It has now found a place in the Louvre. Martin Fréminet, the son of a painter, was born in Paris in 1567. After a long sojourn in Italy, he brought with him the taste which prevailed there at the close of the great age, a little before the founda tion of the Carracci school. Leaving the calm and simple beauty which Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Correggio had taught, he adopted, like the mistaken imitators of Michelangelo, an ostentatious display of the science of anatomy, and a mania for foreshortening. At the same time bis great pictures in the Louvre-both the Venus waiting for Vars, and Eneas abandoning Dido - are remarkable because he painted his figures the size of life. After a long series of sacred subjects, he produced mythologic scenes. Henri IV. appointed Fréminet painter to the court, and commissioned him to decorate the ceiling of the chapel at Fontainebleau. Simon Vouet, also the son of a painter, had been from his earliest youth remarkable for his precocious talents ; and after fourteen years' residence at Rome brought the lessons of the Carracci school back with him to Paris, and thus carried on the Italianizing influence commenced by Primaticcio. In his great composition, the Presentation in the Temple — in the Entombment, the Holy Family, the Roman Charity, all in the Louvre, we trace clearly the influence of the Bolognese school, although Vouet possesses neither the profound expression of Dome nichino, the elegance of Guido, nor the powerful chiaroscuro of Guercino. We must do him the justice to add that it was his lessons which taught Eustache le Sueur, Charles le Brun and Pierre Mignard ; and that thus, like the Carracci, he was greater through his pupils than through his own works. Jacques Callot was of a noble family of Nancy in Lorraine. He 280 PAINTING was an enemy to all discipline, and, in order to give free course to his fancy, fled from his father's house in the train of a troop of mounte banks. Occupied with etching by a process of his own invention, his Beggars, Gipsies, Nobles, Devils, and scenes descriptive of the Miseries of War, for which he is most celebrated - he left us but a small number of paintings. Jacques Blanchard, who has been called the “ French Titian ," is deserving of notice as having been the first to direct attention in France to the Venetian phase of Italian art . He was the rival of Vouet. Three brothers from Picardy, by name Antoine, Matthieu and Louis Le Nain, made themselves about this time famous by their art . Matthieu painted historic subjects and portraits ; and it is probable that the popular genre subjects of a Dutch-like character which bear the name of Le Nain were the joint work of Antoine and Louis. Their pictures may be seen in the Louvre and the churches of Paris. Nicolas Poussin, the prince of the French school, was born at Andelys. He was descended from a noble family of Soissons who had lost their property in the civil wars : his father served under Henri IV. Braving poverty, Poussin set out for Rome, on foot and almost destitute. There his talent was first developed before the masterpieces of past ages ; and although at a subsequent period the king called him to Paris, in order to add the lustre of a great artist to his own fame, Poussin soon tired of the annoyances caused by the court painters, and went back to Rome, which he did not again leave. There, in solitary study, and always avoiding, with a force of judgment in which he is scarcely equalled, the bad taste of his country and his time, he progressed step by step towards perfection. Two of Poussin's best pictures are in the National Gallery, which contains seven works by him. One is a forcible painting simply called a Bacchanalian Dance, but varied and full of pleasant incident. The other, a Bacchanalian Festival, although less finished in execution, is one of his most important works. In the Louvre there are some immense pictures by Poussin, with full - length figures : the Last Supper, Francis Xavier in India , and the Virgin appearing to S. John. His only painting of this size out of France is the Martyrdom of S. Erasmus, the pendent, in S. Peter's a IN FRANCE. 281 at Rome, to the Martyrdom of S. Processo, by his friend Valentin . Among his religious compositions are the charming group of Rebecca at the Well, when Eliezer recognizes her among her companions, and offers her the ring ; Moses exposed on the Nile by his mother and sister ; Moses saved from the Water by the daughter of Pharaoh ; the Manna in 1 1 PIEN 118.—The Shepherds of Arcadia. By Nicolas Poussin . In the Louvre. the Desert, a scene admirable in the grandeur of the whole, and the interest of the details ; and the Judgment of Solomon . We must also class amongst the old Testament subjects the four celebrated pendents named Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, far better known by the names of their subjects. Spring is typified by Adam and Eve in Paradise, before their fall ; Summer, by Ruth gleaning in the field of Boaz ; Autumn, by the Return of the Spies from the Promised Land , bringing back the wonderful bunch of grapes, 282 PAINTING TIa TEsaCOhaSaetoknposa Clathemalothewhich two men can scarcely carry ; Winter, by the Deluge. There is no need of any word of explanation or praise for this picture ; it was Poussin's last work ; he was seventy- one years of age when he painted it, and he died soon afterwards at Rome. Amongst the subjects taken from the Gospels and from the Acts of the Apostles, we must call attention to the Adoration of the Magi, the Repose in Egypt, the Blind Men of Jericho, the Woman taken in Adultery, the Death of Sapphira, and S. Paul caught up into the Seventh Heaven . But Poussin did not confine himself to biblical subjects ; he also, like all the great masters, treated subjects from profane history, as the Will of Eudamidas (in England), and the Rape of the Sabines : and entered the regions of pure mythology, as may be seen by the Death of Eurydice and the Triumph of Flora, at Paris : he also sometimes treated of allegory, for instance the Triumph of Truth, and the Shepherds of Arcadia ( Eng. 118) . This last " represents three Shepherds and a Shepherdess in the bloom of youth and health, suddenly called from their enjoyment of the present by the warning inscription on a tomb Et in Arcadia ego ( I too once lived in Arcadia) . The artist has imbued this picture with the whole melancholy of his soul, and so clearly is the meaning shown by the action and expression of the figures, that none can fail to understand it." Poussin painted a second picture of this subject, which is now in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire. Whatever he undertook, or from whatever source his subjects were taken, he was always an historic painter. A direct follower of Poussin was Jacques Stella, of Flemish extrac tion , who painted at Florence and Rome, and on his arrival in Paris was made painter to the King. His works are well known through engravings. Gaspard Dughet, called Gaspard Poussin, was born of French parents in Rome. Nicolas Poussin married his sister, and under the instruc tions of his brother -in - law , Dughet became an excellent landscape painter. His subjects were usually taken from picturesque scenes in the neighbourhood of Rome. His works abound in private galleries in England. Six of his paintings are in the National Gallery. Claude Gellée, of Lorraine, called Claude le Lorrain , or more generally merely Claude, was born of very poor parents at Chamagne, a little sunTar17theenchforilluISheliS.CfigurimageMaEngla IN FRANCE. 283 village in the Vosges. When quite a lad he was, Sandrart tells us , apprenticed to a baker and pastry- cook, and before he was twenty years of age accompanied some fellow -workmen to Rome and became the servant of Agostino Tassi , a landscape painter of eminence. It is said that young Claude prepared his master's dinner and ground his colours ; at all events , from Tassi be acquired that love of art which has rendered his name so famous. He received lessons also from Sandrart, who was at Rome at the same time. His pictures and etchings bear dates varying from 1630 to 1670. Although he did not approach Poussin in learning, as he scarcely knew how to read or sign his name, Claude resembled him in his power of application, and his correctness of observation. In the Louvre, there are two small pictures, a calm Landscape and a Jarine piece, glittering with the rays of the noonday sun, which Claude alone, like the eagle, then dared to face ; an interesting view of the Campo Vaccino at Rome ( the ancient forum ), now used as a cattle market ; two pendents, also a Marine piece and a Landscape ; then two other larger pendents — Marine pieces — warm and golden in the setting sun. The figures they contain , by the pencil of some of his usual assistants , are intended to show , in one, the Landing of Cleopatra at Tarsus, whither she had been summoned by Mark Antony ; in the other, Ulysses restoring Chryseis to her Father . These two marine pieces are in the style of which Claude was especially fond ; the sea in the distance, enclosed in the foreground by two rows of palaces and gardens, which form a port in perspective, and the sun beyond, low on the horizon , illuminating the surface of the waves which are agitated by the breeze . In the National Gallery, besides the Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba ( known as the “ Bouillon Claude " ), there are the Embarkation of S. Ursula, and another marine piece, a Seaport at Sunset, with palaces in the foreground, a wonderful masterpiece ; and eight landscapes with figures, representing Hagar in the Desert ; David in the Cave of Adullam ; the Death of Procris ; Narcissus falling in love with his own image - an exquisite work—and four others. Many of Claude's pictures are in private cabinets , especially in England, where the great landscape painter was at one time much admired. The Duke of Westminster possesses as many as the museums 23+ PAINTING of France or Madrid. Two pendents in this collection are the largest pictures known by Claude. The subject of one is the Worship of the Golden Calf, that of the other, the Sermon on the Mount. Both have all the luxury and splendour of Italian scenery ; --no language can describe the brilliancy of the sky, the beauty of the earth, the scientific aërial perspective, the happy contrast of light and shadow, the majesty 119.— “ The Ford .” A.D. 1648. By Claude Lorrain . In the Louvre.— ( No. 117 in the Liber Veritatis . ) of the whole, in short, everything that can delight the eye. “ Claude Lorrain ,” wrote Goethe, “ knew the material world thoroughly, even to the slightest detail, and he used it as a means of expressing the world in his own soul.” Claude made a series of two hundred sketches of bis paintings, and preserved them in a book which he called Libro di Verità . Baldinucci IN FRANCE. 285 tells us that he made it in order to put some sort of check upon the wholesale plagiarism of his pictures which their popularity induced ; but in all probability the only idea that Claude had in view in making these sketches, was to keep a record of his works. They are executed in pen or pencil, and washed with bistre or Indian ink ; and are signed and dated, and bear notes as to the persons for whom the pictures were painted, &c. They are now in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire. The drawings were mezzotinted by Earlom , and published as Claude's Liber Veritatis in 1779. England is particularly rich in sketches by Claude of great beauty. In the British Museum alone there are over two hundred and seventy. Valentin (miscalled Joise Valentin , a misreading of Mosu, i.e. Monsieur) was born at Coulommiers en Brie. He attended the school of Simon Vouet for some years, and then went to Italy, where he was a friend of Poussin and Claude. A rival of Ribera in the imitation of the turbulent Caravaggio, Valentin deserted entirely the traditions of French art , and only belongs to the French school from the circumstance of his birth . To judge him justly, and to appreciate the loss art sustained in his early death, occasioned by the excesses of a fiery temperament, we must be acquainted with his better and nobler works, which show thought and reflection ; the Martyrdom of S. Lawrence in the Museum of Madrid , and the Jartyrdom of S. Processo, in the Vatican. Sébastien Bourdon , another of the French disciples of Italy, was born at Montpellier, and received his first education from his father, who was a painter on glass ; and when still a boy was taken by his uncle to Paris, where he studied art for some years. At eighteen years of age he went to Italy, and worked both at Rome and Venice. He afterwards returned to Paris, and painted his celebrated picture of the Crucifixion of S. Peter in the Louvre. In 1652 he was prevailed upon to visit Sweden, and there he executed several important works for Queen Christina. He again returned to Paris, where he died. Some of his works recall the style of Poussin . His landscapes are especially worthy of note. His Return of the Ark from Captivity, now in the National Gallery, was once in the possession of Sir Joshua Reynolds, who much admired it as an example of the poetic style of landscape, 286 PAINTING Eustache le Sueur, the son of an artisan, studied under Vouet, and பயாடிய ԱԽԱԼԵՌիարդի 120.-S. Paul preaching at Ephesus. By Le Sueur. A.D. 1649. In the Louvre. became famous ; but driven from the court by Le Brun, he entered the IN FRANCE. 287 be seen a convent of the Carthusians, and there produced his best works, which are all in Paris. The sight of some of Raphael's paintings first fired his ambition, and the influence of the painter of Urbino is very evident in his work : and he has indeed been called the “ French Raphael. ” Though he lived but few years, he displayed brilliant qualities, grandeur, power of expression, depth of thought, and a touching sensibility and tenderness which sometimes raise him to the sublime. The Louvre has fifty of his finest paintings. There he may from his austere and studious youth to his early death ; from the dark and fantastic History of S. Bruno to the gay and laughing History of Love, which was his last work . But between the two extremes required by the subjects of a series of pictures for a Carthusian convent, and those for the sumptuous mansion of the president Lambert de Thorigny, Le Sueur painted many composi tions of varied style, although they were all on religious subjects. Of these are —the Descent from the Cross, the Mass of S. Martin , the brother martyrs S. Gervasius and S. Protasius refusing to worship false gods. The last picture, which was painted as a pendent to the two works of Philippe de Champagne on the same legend, is as large as the largest works of Le Brun or Jouvenet. The Preaching of S. Paul at Ephesus ( Eng. 120) , painted in 1649, and offered to Notre Dame of Paris by the guild of goldsmiths, has been rightly placed in the salle des chefs-d'oeuvre, for it is the masterpiece of Le Sueur. Charles le Brun was the son of a sculptor of Paris. As he showed a decided talent for drawing, he was placed under Simon Vouet, with whom he remained for some years. He then went to Italy, and under the tuition of Poussin studied the works of the great masters . Shortly after his return to Paris, Le Brun received the patronage of Louis XIV. , who made him painter to the court, and director of the Gobelins manufactory, and decorated him with the order of S. Michael. The whole arrangements of the Royal Palaces were entrusted to his care, and to his initiation was due in great measure the foundation of the Academy of Painting by Louis XIV. in 1648 ; and the establishment of the French school in Rome. In the Louvre there are twenty- two of his pictures, at the head of which stands the History of Alexander. This famous series, which was 107 WA Louvre the In1661-68 A.D. Brun Ley.Babylon into Alexander ofEntry Triumphal —The 121. PAINTING IN FRANCE. 289 . ordered by Louis XIV. in 1660, and which was completed in 1668, is no less important among his works than the History of S. Bruno among those of Le Sueur. It comprises the Passage of the Granicus, the Battle of Arbela , the Family of Darius made captive , the Defeat of Porus, and the Triumph of Alexander at Babylon ( Eng. 121 ) —an evident allegorical flattery of the early triumphs of the great Louis. The painter had the good fortune to have it engraved by Edelinck and Audran. The other great paintings of Le Brun are the Day of Pentecost (where he has introduced himself in the figure of the disciple standing on the left ) ; the Christ with Angels, painted to immortalize a dream of the queen mother ; and the Repentant Magdalen , which is called by some Mademoi selle de la Vallière. He is more natural and true in the Stoning of S. Stephen, as well as in the small pictures on profane history, Cato and Mutius Scævola, works of his youth, which were once attributed to the great Poussin. Bon Boulogne, the son of an historic painter, Louis de Boulogne the elder, was much patronized by Louis XIV. , who sent him to Rome to study the old masters. He painted, under Le Brun , many of the decorations of Versailles. His younger brother Louis painted much in the same style, but was more influenced by the work of Mignard. We have already noticed the works of Millet, Van der Meulen and De Champaigne (see p. 227) amongst the Franco-Flemish painters of the seventeenth century. Jean Jouvenet, the son of a painter, was born at Rouen . At seven teen years of age he went to Paris, where he quickly rose to fame. He was a pupil and assistant of Le Brun, and followed his style. In old age he lost the use of his right hand by palsy, and to the astonishment of his brother artists, painted with his left hand the Magnificat, now in Notre Dame. Nearly all his pictures were of sacred subjects. Jouvenet’s art is theatrical, carried almost to the style of scene-painting. By what other name could we call the enormous sheets of canvas on which the Miraculous Draught of Fishes, the Christ driving the Money- Changers out of the Temple, and even the famous Raising of Lazarus, are painted ? His less ambitious composi tions, such as the Descent from the Cross, which he painted for the HHA - PAINTING U 290 PAINTING . } . convent of the Capucines, and an Ascension for the church of S. Paul, are calmer in style, besides being better in every other respect. Charles de la Fosse, a pupil of Le Brun, was much influenced by that master. His most important work is the decoration of the dome of the Invalides at Paris, where the principal scene represents S. Louis laying his crown and sword in the hands of Christ. La Fosse worked in England, and amongst other mansions, decorated Montague House, London. Jean Baptiste Santerre, who was born at Magny, near Pontoise, went early in life to Paris, where he studied under Boulogne. His pictures are carefully composed and harmoniously coloured. At the time that, in order to flatter the pompous taste of Louis XIV. , Jouvenet was exaggerating the exaggerations of Le Brun , there was one artist who religiously observed the worship of the beautiful. This was Jean Baptiste Santerre. Like Le Sueur before him, and Prud'hon after him, he escaped from academic tyranny, as well as from the slavery of the court. He sought for real greatness more than for fame or fortune, and found it , far from theatrical effect, in delicacy and grace. Santerre, in a tolerably long life, completed but few works, and the Louvre has only succeeded in obtaining two, Susannah at the Bath, and a Female portrait , which seem to make the link in the chain uniting Correggio to Prud'hon. Jean Raoux was a fellow-pupil with Santerre under Boulogne. He abandoned historic painting for the portraiture of actresses and court ladies in mythologic guise. In later life he followed the style of Lancret. To bring into one group the best portrait painters of the age to which Louis XIV. has given his name, we must go back a few years, and commence with Pierre Mignard, who, although born at Troyes in Champagne, in 1616, was called the “ Roman,” because after having studied under Simon Vouet, he passed twenty-two years at Rome. Mignard was not merely a portrait painter ; he also painted historic pictures, and, in the dome of Val-de-Grâce, frescoes larger in size than that of Correggio in the duomo of Parma. He succeeded Le Brun in the office of chief 1 ECOLE 122. – Portrait of Samuel Bernard. ( The Lucullus of his age. ) By Rigaud. About A.D. 1700. U 2 292 PAINTING. painter to the king, and as Director of the Academy of Painting ; and was made a Chevalier de Saint-Michel, and became the most popular artist of the day. He entered into direct rivalry with Le Brun in a Family of Darius at the feet of Alexander, now in the Hermitage ; and in the Louvre we may see the charming Madonna with the Grapes, brought from Italy, in which he imitated the style of Annibale Carracci, whilst exaggerating the studied grace of Albani ; and a number of historic portraits, the Grand Dauphin , the Duke of Bur gundy, the Duke of Anjou , Madame de Maintenon , and Mignard himself. In all his works-sacred and historic paintings as well as portraits—he displays the same cold correctness, the same skilfulness in the art of flattery, the same care in minute details carried to the extreme which has made his name a proverb in France ; but they also show a lightness of touch and vivacity of colouring which easily rendered him the first colourist among the court painters of France. Charles du Fresnoy and Mignard, who met in Rome in 1663 , became firm friends for life. Du Fresnoy formed his style on that of Carracci, and his colouring on Titian's. He paid much attention to the theory of art : his poem De Arte graphica was translated into English by Dryden . Claude le Febvre, who was born at Fontainebleau, was a pupil of Le Sueur and Le Brun, and painted portraits which remind one of Philippe de Champaigne. He visited England in the reign of Charles II. , and it is believed that he died in London. His pupil François de Troy excelled as a portrait painter, especially of ladies. Nicolas de Largillière, though born at Paris, received his early education in art at Antwerp, where his father settled as a merchant. He visited England, and painted portraits of Charles II. , James II. , and many noblemen . Louis XIV. also sat to him. A portrait of Le Brun by Largillière is in the Louvre. Hyacinthe Rigaud, the son of an artist, of Perpignan, has been called the French Van Dyck, and the greatest celebrities of his time sat to him . Amongst his pictures in the Louvre, Louis XIV . figures in the front rank ; and Bossuet, who seems to be holding a court in his bishop's robes as the chief of the church and the king of PORTE 123. – Napoleon in his State Robes. By Isabey. 294 PAINTING eloquence. Thanks to engravings, these pictures are known every where. Of Jean Petitot, the miniature painter in enamel, a native of Geneva , who spent thirty- six years in France, about this time, we shall read in our account of the English miniaturists. The impetus which he gave to enamel painting was carried on by Louis de Chastillon , whose works are rarely met with, although he is said to have executed a very large number, and it is possible that some of them now pass as Petitots ; as indeed do most probably the works of other cotemporaries. He exe cuted portraits in enamel for the king, which were set in magnificent boxes as presents for ambassadors and others. Miniature painting in enamel was much patronized by Louis XIV. and Louis XV. , whose portraits were frequently painted as presents. To a different class of miniature painters, belongs Henri Désiré van Blarenberghe, who executed most minute representations of village life, military pro cessions and landscapes, on fans and snuff -boxes, which were very popular, and examples of which have been sold for high prices. In the reign of Louis XVI. , miniature painters became very numerous, but it is not necessary to mention any of them by name except Pierre Adolphe Hall and Jean Baptiste Isabey. Hall, who was a Swede by birth, painted in oil, pastel, enamel and miniature, and achieved great success. “ For lightness of touch , transparent shadows, vigour of tone, and luminous colour, Hall had few equals, and fewer superiors.” Isabey was one of the most successful of portrait painters of this period. His miniatures are world famous. He numbered among his sitters many famous personages, including Napoleon ( Eng. 123) , Marie Antoinette, Louis XVIII. , Charles X. , and Louis Philippe : and he was specially famous during the Directory, and at that period his best work was produced, and serves to remind posterity of the absurdities in the way of costume which were then indulged in. “ Nearly all the leading portrait painters of the French school,” says Mr. Propert, “ amused themselves occasionally with miniatures. I have specimens in my possession by Porbus, Mignard, De Troy, Santerre, Rigaud, Boullonge, &c.; and small portraits by Philip de Champaigne, Jean Mark Nattier, Largillière, and others are well known.” IN FRANCE 295 was Antoine Coypel was the son of Noël Coypel, an artist of some celebrity, who painted chiefly for the king, and made many designs for tapestry. Antoine when only eleven years of age accompanied his father to Rome, when the latter became Director of the French school there, and studied the style of Bernini. On his return to Paris, Antoine became a very popular artist , and much employed in painting royal palaces. He treated history in a theat rical manner, and clothed the ancient Greeks in silk breeches ; and when not theatrical, his work is pretty and affected, and he is responsible for much of the decline which took place in French art about this time. 124.–Flower Piece. By Monnoyer. Jean Baptiste Monnoyer was the Van Huysum of France. His works are executed with much dexterity, boldness of colouring, and decorative effect ; but this artist apparently paid but little heed to truth to nature. Monnoyer spent his latter days in England, and his works may be seen in Hampton Court Palace. In the Eighteenth century. With the Regency arose a band of artists to depict its scenes of gaiety and grace, which - though they fell from the utmost popularity in their time, to apparent disregard soon afterwards - have survived to 125.- La Finette. By Watteau. In the Lacaze Collection, in the Louvre. PAINTING IN FRANCE. 297 the present time, and are now highly prized. Foremost amongst these painters of Fêtes Galantes was Antoine Watteau, the son of a poor thatcher of Valenciennes, who was placed with an obscure artist, in his native city, and for a long time painted pictures of S. Nicholas for three francs a week and his soup. In 1702 he went to Paris — where the scene- painter, Claude Gillot, introduced him to the green- room of the opera—and there he founded a school of painting. Watteau attempted only very small genre subjects ; but he has imparted such elevation and grandeur to them that he will always be considered far above a mere decorator. In his works, besides the exquisite colouring taken from Rubens, we shall always have to admire his invention, fun , wit, and even propriety ; for we feel that he was, as his biographer Gersaint says, a “ libertine in mind, though of good morality . ” Watteau passed one short year in London ; and painted two pictures for Dr. Mead, and four for George II. which are now in Buckingham Palace. In the hands of his plagiarists, Van Loo, Pater, Lancret, Boucher, and a long train of their followers , art was more and more degraded and dishonoured in ridiculous and licentious paintings of sheepfolds decorated with satin ribbons ; and pictures were merely used as ornaments for boudoirs. Nicolas Lancret, a painter of Fêtes Galantes, who was born in Paris, became an ignoble disciple of Watteau, though in his own time his works were very popular. In the National Gallery is a series of four of his best paintings. They are the four ages of man-- Infancy , Youth, Manhood ( Eng. 126 ) , and Age. Jean Baptiste Joseph Pater, who was born at Valenciennes, went, when still young, to Paris, and entered the studio of Watteau, whom he copied both in subject and, as far as possible , in style. His works are somewhat scarce . François Lemoine, a pupil of Boulogne and Santerre, affords a good example of the Academic style prevalent at this time. His drawing is poor and his expression weak, but he possessed a facile power of arranging large decorative groups. His Apotheosis of Hercules at Versailles is larger than life. His pupil Charles Natoire follow his footsteps. Pierre Subleyras became very famous in his own time both r his 298 PAINTING Manhood 126. -Lan .By(ret National Inthe Gallery . IN FRANCE. 299 historic and his genre pictures. There are eleven works by him in the Louvre. François Desportes was the first in France to make a special domain for himself by imitating Snyders, and he became the historiographer of the hunts of Louis XIV. It is said that he visited England, and painted sporting scenes there. Jean Baptiste Oudry, whose genre was the same as that of Desportes, became in his turn the historian of the hunts of Louis XV. His works, which are very numerous in the Louvre -- Hunts of stags, wolves, boars, pheasants and partridgesshow that he had neither the invention nor the movement of Snyders, nor the exquisite skill and touch of Fyt or Weenix. Jean Baptiste van Loo, the grandson of an artist, was born at Aix in Provence. He painted in public buildings at Toulon, Turin and Rome, and was made a member of the Academy at Paris. In 1737 he paid a visit to England, and was patronized by Sir Robert Walpole, and painted many portraits of the nobility. In 1742 he returned to his native land, and there he died . Charles André, called Carle, van Loo, the younger brother of Jean Baptiste, although the best of the four painters in his family, showed to what a depth of decay an artist , endowed by nature with good qualities, may be led by the bad taste of his age. He attempted history and sacred subjects, and failed utterly. The Van Loos left behind them several pupils who acquired fame, but space does not permit of any detailed notice of them here. Claude Joseph Vernet, the celebrated marine painter, was born at Avignon in 1714. A whole room in the Louvre is devoted to his works, which are ranged on the walls round his bust in marble. These are, in the first place, Views of the principal French Seaports, painted in 1754 to 1765, by order of Louis XV.; an ungrateful task, which would have required a mind inexhaustible in its resources. Then, a large number of Marine Pieces properly so called, in which he has represented the sea in all its aspects, in the south and the north, in the morning and in the evening, with the sun and the moon, in rain and in fine weather, in calm and tempest ; but they do not possess the intoxicating poetry of Claude. He may be studied in the National Gallery in a view of the Castle of S. Angelo, Rome, and a 300 PAINTING Landscape. He had a son , Antoine Charles Horace, called Carle, Vernet, who painted battle-pieces ; and who was the father of the celebrated Horace Vernet, of whom we shall speak hereafter. LA MER 127.—The Industrious Mother. By Chardin. In the Louvre. François Boucher was one of the most popular artists of his time, was appointed painter to the king, and acquired a great reputation , which did not long survive him . Boucher was called the “ Painter of IN FRANCE. 301 the Graces, ” because, in the midst of landscapes as weak and false as the scenes at the opera, he introduced, as the shepherdesses of his be-ribboned sheep, veritable dolls, without modesty, and only fresh looking from the vermilion of their toilette, and because they are reposing in the style of goddesses on clouds of cotton. A Pan and Syrinx by him is in the National Gallery. Jean Baptiste Siméon Chardin, the rival of Willem Kalf, the painter of kitchens, was a powerful colourist, who emulated the Dutch school in the vigour of his tints, until then unknown in the French school. “ Oh, Chardin !” said Diderot, “ it is not colours alone that you mix on your palette ; it is the very substance of the objects, it is the air and the light with which you paint. ” Amidst surroundings teeming with artificiality, Chardin adhered to the representation of truth to nature. A picture of Still Life by him is in the National Gallery, and Girls at work in the Dulwich College Gallery. Jean Honoré Fragonard, the pupil of Boucher and the disciple of Chardin , “ sums up, in the wonderful diversity of his work, the whole genius of the eighteenth century." He painted landscapes and interiors. Jean Baptiste Greuze was born at Tournus, near Mâcon , and received his early education in art at Lyons. He was one of the first French painters to go to Nature for his subjects by taking his figures from rural life, and representing simple and touching village scenes. Some of these contain merely a comic incident, such as the Croken Pitcher ; others rise to pathetic drama, like the Father's Curse. The Village Bride is of intermediate style, more simple and graceful, and may be considered as the masterpiece of his transition style. These choice works, with five others, are in the Louvre. The gallery of Sir Richard Wallace contains twenty-two paintings by Greuze, several of which have been engraved ; and there are three heads of Girls in the National Gallery, and it is by this side of his art that Greuze is best known in this country. His paintings, which at the present day command high prices, were not appreciated in his own time, and the unhappy painter passed his old age in extreme poverty. Joseph Marie Vien painted first in Paris, and from 1775 to 1781 directed the French school at Rome. In studying the works of the earlier ages, he learned to understand the greatness of the art which 302 PAINTING had almost perished, and endeavoured to return to the style of the old masters. To Vien belongs the honour of having been the first to attempt the part of the reformation in art which was accomplished by 128.- Girl with Spaniel. By Greuze . his pupil Louis David. This may be seen in his fine composition, S. Germain of Auxerre and S. Vincent of Saragossa receiving martyrs' crowns from an angel ; and for chastened and powerful execution, in IN FRANCE. 303 the Hermit asleep. Vien said, “ I have only half opened the door ; it is M. David who will throw it wide." Jacques Louis David, a relative of François Boucher, was born at Paris, accompanied Vien to Rome, and with him studied the works of the great masters . In order to paint Roman subjects and Roman manners, he sought his models in the ruins of ancient Rome ; he studied the statues and the bas-reliefs , and read the works of Tacitus and Plutarch . By the severity of his taste, by the admiration of noble thoughts and fine actions, he brought back art to dignity and true grandeur ; but owing to an intentional adherence to sculpturesque treatment, and a disregard of the beauty of harmonious colouring, his pictures lack that life and movement which he could undoubtedly have given to them had he chosen. He lived in Paris, and took part in the great Revolution, and passed many months in prison . But when the Empire had overthrown the Republic, David became painter to the emperor, and prefect of the department of the Fine Arts. After the fall of Napoleon, David took refuge in Brussels, where he continued to paint for many years, and where, as we have seen , he had considerable influence Belgian art. His best works are to be found in the Louvre. The Oath of the Horatii was painted at Rone in 1784. Its appearance caused such sensation in the Parisian salons, that from this time we may date the commencement of the fashion for Roman forms in garments, hangings and furniture. The second Republican picture was Marcus Brutus, to whom the lictors are bringing the corpses of his two sons, whom he had condemned to death . It is dated 1789. He painted in 1799 the Sabine Women ( Eng. 129 ) throwing themselves into the midst of the conflict between the Romans and the Sabines ; and the Death of Marat, struck by Charlotte Corday : then , the Leonidas at Thermopylæ . Although between this picture and the Sabine Women the whole interval of the Empire intervenes, we may yet call them twin pictures. These works of David show all his good qualities and defects in the clearest light. On one hand , the fine subjects, noble sentiments, correct drawing, and chastened painting ; on the other, an academic on 30+ PAINTING stiffness, making the living beings look as if cut out in marble ; and in the execution, a sad and monotonous colouring. Earlier part of the Nineteenth Century. Though he himself belongs to the eighteenth, the followers of David belong to the nineteenth century. பாபாபாபா 129.—The Sabine Women. By David . A.D. 1799. In the Louvre. Guillaume Guillon Lethière, one of his pupils , is represented in the Louvre by those enormous pictures, the Death of Virginia and Death of the Sons of Brutus, which display the influence of David's sculpturesque treatment. When exhibited in London in 1816, they were received with much applause. IN FRANCE. 305 François Gérard, another pupil of David, was born at Rome. celebrated group of Cupid and Psyche, and his Entrance of Henri IV. into Paris are in the Louvre. Baron Gérard, to whom many of the most illustrious characters of Europe sat for their likeness, was rather a portrait, than an historic painter, and an intellectual man more than an artist of genius. Anne Louis Girodet de Roucy Trioson gained the grand prix, and went to Rome. His most important works, which, though displaying a classic feeling, are often ill-conceived, may be found in the Louvre the Sleep of Endymion ; the Interment of Atala , describing a scene from Chateaubriand ; and a Scene from the Deluge. Jean Baptist Regnault * was one of the first to protest against the cold classicism of David and his school, and by his works he paved the way for the revival which took place under Ingres and Delacroix . One of the most notable of the pictures which he painted with this view is his Three Graces. Pierre Narcisse Guérin , the pupil of Regnault, followed the track thrown open by David . His Marcus Sextus returning from exile , in the Louvre, is his principal work, but very sculpturesque in treatment. His later pictures are too theatrical. Many of his works have been engrared. Antoine Jean Gros suldenly quitted the usual track, to open a fresh career for himself. He formed his style on his own country and time; and, painting the men and the things before his eyes, introduced two fresh elements, too much neglected by the old school - colour and movement. The style of Baron Gros was an undoubted progress. The proof of this is to be found in some fine works in the Louvre, such as the Napoleon visiting the plague-stricken soldiers at Jaffa , and especially the Battle- field of Eylau, a great work as well as an instructive lesson , a most heart - rending image of the desolation caused by war. In later life Gros reverted to the style of his master David, whom he succeeded as head of the classic school, when the latter retired to Brussels. Pierre Prud'hon the son of a poor mason of Burgundy, went to Rome in early life, and formed acquaintance with Canova : he studied especially the works of Raphael and Correggio. In 1799 he

  • Not to be confused with Henri Regnault.

HHA-PAINTING X 306 PAINTING returned to France, and he was already forty-nine when the prefect of the Seine ordered a picture of him—his first composition in high art the celebrated allegory of Divine Justice and Vengeance pursuing Crime ( Eng. 130) . The Louvre has acquired this work, which attracted great notice. It has also his Christ on Calvary. In both these paintings there is the same melancholy and solemn majesty. < 130.—Divine Justice and Vengeance pursuing Crime. By Prud'hon. A.D. 1808. In the Louvre. 1 - We must seek in private collections for other works—such as Zephyr rocked on the Waters, the Rape of Psyche by the Zephyrs, or the Desolate Family—to show how he treated the antique, and how he could impart as much poetry .to cotemporary sufferings as to the fictions of mythology. Some of his pictures are to be noted for the harmony of their landscape backgrounds. IN FRANCE. 307 Xavier Sigalon, a pupil of Guérin, displayed in his works a marked opposition to the style of David - richness of colouring and dramatic force. As an instance, we may mention his Locusta trying on a Slave the poison destined for Britannicus. François Marius Granet, born at Aix- en- Provence, is celebrated for his Interiors, two of which may be seen in the Louvre, the Cloister of the Church of Assisi, and the Fathers of Mercy redeeming captires. He animated his views of buildings by scenes from human life, and , like Pieter de Hooch, raised his subjects to the rank of historic pictures. He was a pupil of David . Théodore Géricault, a pupil of Carle Vernet and Pierre Guérin , died very young , but he played an important part in French art, and exerted much influence on the whole school. His works in the Louvre, the Chasseur de la Garde impériale and the Cuirassier blessé, belong to the period when, following Carle Vernet, he was simply a painter of horses. It was not till towards the close of his life that Géricault executed the only great work of his life , the Raft of the Medusa ( Eng. 131 ). This picture was at first received with a storm of reproaches, but when exhibited in London it won much praise, and is now one of the treasures of the Louvre. It forms a prominent feature in the reaction from the classicism of David, and displays much dramatic power and good composition combined with a harmonious colouring. Eugène Delacroix, when eighteen years of age, entered the studio of Guérin ; but, dissatisfied with that master's art, struck out a new path for himself, and became the leader of the so - called “ Romantic School," and carried out in history the reformation which — as we shall see Rousseau instigated in Landscape. In 1830 he visited Spain , Algiers and Morocco, and on his return was much patronized by Thiers, who procured for him the commission to paint numerous works in the Palais Bourbon, the Hôtel de Ville, the Luxembourg, the Louvre, and other public buildings as well as churches in Paris. Eugène Delacroix is well represented by four works in the Louvre : Dante and Virgil painted in 1822, which first brought him into public notice, the Massacre of Scio in 1823 (which he completely repainted under the influence of Constable ), the Algerian Women in 1834, and X 2 308 PAINTING the Jewish marriage in Morocco. These works were succeeded by the Bridge of Taillebourg, a Medea, the Shipwrecked Mariners, the Entrance of Baldwin into Constantinople, and many others. “ With Delacroix the aim and end of painting was the representation of, not beauty but emotion." His colouring, which is good, was acquired partly by a study of the works of Rubens and Paolo Veronese. ATTIME 131.—The Raft of the Medusa A.D. 1819. . By Géricault. In the Louvre. Dominique Ingres, at the age of sixteen, chose art as his profession, and entered the studio of the stern classic master David, where he remained four years. In 1800 he won the second, and in 1801 the first Academic prize, and received a pension of one thousand francs. In 1802 he painted his first important work, Bonaparte passing the Bridge of Kehl, and in 1806 went to Rome, where he remained until 1820, a IN FRANCE . 309 when he removed to Florence, where he resided four years, painting the Entry of Charles V. into Paris, and the Vow of Louis XIII., now in a church at Montauban. In 1824 he returned to Paris, to find the school of David supplanted by that of Delacroix. He then painted his Apotheosis of Homer, on a ceiling in the Louvre ; in 1829 he was elected Professor of Painting in the École des Beaux - Arts ; and in 1834 TREET SANS 132.-Stratonice. By Ingres. A.D. 1841 . Director of the French Academy in Rome. This appointment enabled him to return to the city of his affections, where, however, he painted but few pictures. He returned to France in 1841 ; in 1845 was nominated Commander, and in 1855 Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. Ingres left behind him, in addition to the masterpieces we have mentioned, several great works, including the Odalesque, which appeared 310 .PAINTING. in 1819 ; the Martyrdom of S. Symphorien, in the cathedral of Autun ; Roger rescuing Angétique ; Stratonice ( Eng. 132 ) ; Christ delivering the keys to S. Peter ; Elipus explaining the rid lle of the Sphinx ; La Source, the picture which attracted such universal admiration in the London Exhibition of 1862 ; and La Baigneuse. The four last are all in the Louvre. Ingres's style, formed on the classic influence of David, excels that of his master by its appreciation of the beautiful, the crowning point of which is his La Source. Truly is it difficult to judge of a man from his paintings. Ingres, we are told , was “ rude, quarrelsome, violent, excessive in his likes and dislikes ” —almost the antithesis of what one would expect of the painter of La Source. His drawing of the human form is worthy of close attention ; but colouring he disregarded . Ary Scheffer, who was born at Dordrecht of French parents, had the misfortune when quite young to lose his father. His mother took him in 1811 to Paris, and apprenticed him to Guérin, from whom he learned his art , though he acquired but little of that master's style. His best works are the Francesca di Rimini ; Gaston de Foix found dead --now in the Gallery at Versailles—the four subjects taken from Goethe's Faust ; and his religious subjects - Christ the Comforter ; S. Monica, and the Temptation of Christ. Sentiment and religious fervour are dominant in his works, which are occasionally somewhat weak in execution. Paul Delaroche, the celebrated painter of historic scenes, was born in Paris in 1797. He studied art under Gros, and exhibited his first picture in 1819 ; but it was not till 1824 that he produced the three paintings which earned him his celebrity-these were Vincent de Paul preaching ; Joan of Arc examined in Prison ; and a S. Sebastian . In succeeding years he painted his well-known Death of Queen Elizabeth , and the Children of Edward IV., both in the Louvre ; the Death of the Duc de Guise, and many other equally celebrated pictures. His chief works, however, was the decoration, in encaustic, of the Amphitheatre of the Palais des Beaux - Arts — to which he devoted four years. In this stupendous work, known as the Hemicycle, Delaroche introduced sixty-seven full-length portraits of the most eminent painters, sculptors, architects and engravers, grouped on either side of a throne, on which sit Ictinus, Apelles and Pheilias, typifying Architecture, Painting 58a 60 4 12 .1837-41 A.D. DELAROCHE BY.HEMICYCLE THE OFPART 133.- Paris .-Arts ,Beaux des Palais Inthe .Painting Encaustic .38. Luzarches .Palladio 39. .Brunelleschi 40. .Jones 41. Inigo .diCambio 42. Arnolfo 43. Lescot . Bramante 44. . Mansart 45. . 46. Vignola . 47. Fra Angelico . 5565436BO 47689A 57 .Marcantonio 48. Orcagna 63. . .Edelinck 49. 64. Durer . .Holbein 50. 55. ,Leonardo .LeSueur 61. 56. Domenichino . 67. Fra Bartolommeo Piombo .del 52. Sebastiano 67656312 58. Mantegna . 63. .Masaccio64. Andrea del Sarto ..Romano 59. Giulio .Raphael 60. .65. Cimabue .61. Perugino .Giotto 66.67. Poussin .62. Michelangelo 38 312 PAINTING. and Sculpture, and at the foot of which kneels a laurel-bearing Genius of the Arts. Our illustration ( Eng. 133) represents the right wing of this large painting. Delaroche's fame was due rather to his intelligence, zeal and study than to any bright originality in his style. Mention must also be made of the religious paintings which he executed in later years, when his life had been saddened by the loss of his wife. Jean Hippolyte Flandrin , born at Lyons in 1809, went to Paris to enter the school of the Beaux- Arts in 1829 , where he carried off the grand prize by his picture of Theseus recognizing his Father at a Banquet. In 1832 he went to Rome, and became a student in the French school, then presided over by Horace Vernet. The chief works produced by the young artist at this time were a scene from the Inferno ; Euripides writing his Tragedies ; and S. Clair first Bishop of Nantes healing the Blind . About 1839 he returned to Paris, and the next few years of his life were devoted to the decoration of churches. His style was influenced by that of Ingres. Thomas Couture, a native of Senlis, was a pupil of Gros and Delaroche. His most famous painting, The Romans in the Decadence of the Empire, appeared in 1847. His works are mostly of an historic character. Horace Vernet, the son of Carle Vernet and the greatest of French military painters , was born in the Louvre in 1780 , where his father had apartments. In 1806 and the following years he exhibited his famous Barrière de Clichy ; the Capture of the Redoubt ; the Entrance of the French army into Breslau ; the Defence of Paris, and the Massacre of the Mamelukes. In 1826 he was made a member of the Institute, and two years later he was elected Director of the French Academy in Rome.. At Versailles there are many battle- pieces by him ( Eng. 134) , and one whole gallery-the Constantine-- was devoted to his works illustrative of the victories achieved by the French armies in Algeria. Of this series the most noteworthy for its merit, as well as for its size, is the Capture of the Smala of Abd-el-Kader. Claude Marie Dubufe was born in Paris, and took his first lessons in art in the studio of the great classic master David. His earliest works were historic, and included the well-known Roman family dying of famine, and Achilles taking Iphigenia under his protection . They 1836 inexhibited First Gallery Versailles the InVernet Hoace By.Fontenoy ofBattle The 134.— 314 PAINTING were succeeded by Christ stilling the Tempest ; Apollo and Cyparissus ; the Birth of the Duke of Bordeaux ; Christ walking on the Sea of Galilee ; and the Deliverance of S. Peter. In 1827 he changed his style and class of subjects ; his Remembrances, Regrets, the Slave Merchant, and other Eastern subjects, taking high rank as genre pictures. Of this class is his Surprise in the National Gallery. His portraits, especially those of the Queen of the Belgians and the Duchess of Istria, are also greatly admired. Louis Leopold Robert, a Swiss by birth, was at first an engraver, then a pupil of David at Paris. He went very late to Italy, where he painted subjects of history mixed with the scenes of nature. Three of his most important works are in the Louvre -the Italian Improvisatore, the Feast of the Madonna di Pie-di-grotta, and the Harvest Feast in the Roman Campagna. In 1835 he painted the Departure of Fishing Boats in the Adriatic, in which he seems to foretell a departure without a return, and which he completed at Venice just before he ended his own life . Madame Elizabeth Louise Vigée le Brun, made her name in 1779 by a portrait of Marie Antoinette and Children (whose portrait she subsequently painted twenty - five times) , and her salon became the rendezvous for the foremost people in Paris. After the Revolution, she visited other continental capitals, and was equally famous. Hippolyte Bellangé took his earliest lessons in art from Gros. His most important pictures are to be seen at Versailles and the Luxem bourg, and include his Battle of the Alma, the Morning after the Battle of Jemappes, and the Defile after the Victory. To the London Exhibition of 1862 he sent the Two Friends, a small but highly - finished work, and A Square of Republican Infantry repulsing Austrian Dragoons. Pierre Henri Valenciennes, Jean Victor Bertin , and Etna Michallon endeavoured to revive the historic treatment of landscape rendered famous by the works of Poussin . Michallon sought inspiration for his subjects from the exploits of the middle ages, and his Death of Roland is considered to be his masterpiece. Valenciennes was the master of Bertin, who in his turn imparted instruction to Michallon. Alexandre Gabriel Decamps was a pupil of Abel de Pujol, who had been a disciple of David, and whose works are to be seen in the IN FRANCE. 315 churches of Paris. Decamps is chiefly celebrated for the pictures of Eastern subjects which he introduced to the Parisian public, and which are especially to be admired for their truth to nature. The gallery of Sir Richard Wallace contains more than thirty paintings by this artist -many of which are Scriptural subjects. His Turkish School, the History of Samson , and the Defeat of the Cimbri are among his most celebrated works. Decamps was one of the first of the French artists who, impressed by the works of Constable and Bonington, represented landscapes with truth and simplicity ; and in his works he foreshadows the glory of the Barbizon school which was shortly to arise. Sulpice Chevalier, better known as Gavarni, began life as an engineer's draughtsman , and not until he was about thirty did he develop any indications of the great talent for caricature and skilful drawing for which he afterwards became so famous. He spent some years of his life in London . Charles Gabriel Gleyre, a Swiss by birth , after studying in Paris, went, in 1828, to Italy, and copied the works of the old masters. In 1840 he exhibited his first picture in the Salon, and for many years continued to paint, in a poetic manner, sacred, mythological, and classic subjects. His Hercules at the feet of Omphale ; Pentheus pursued by the Mænades; Eventide ( Les Illusions perdues) ; and The Charmor, are among his best works . Constant Troyon began life as a painter on porcelain. He soon , however, sought a wider field , and in 1833 began to exhibit in the Salon . His Fête at Sèvres, and A Corner of the Park at S. Cloud, revealed his peculiar excellences as a landscape painter, but they were surpassed in 1841 by his View in Brittany, and somewhat later by his Going to Market, a small work of the very highest quality. Illustrating his careful study of nature, we may also name a Sedgy River with cattle grazing, Evening in the Meadows, and a Ferry Boat. first impressed by the works of Constable, and through him, by the pictures of the Dutch masters. He studied Rembrandt and Potter, and became famous for his pictures of cattle. His Oxen going to work, of the year 1855, is in the Louvre. He was 316 PAINTING Later part of the Nineteenth century. The history of the earlier part of the present century can now be fairly traced. But in treating of its later years it is only possible to briefly mention those artists who have been transferred by death to the past ; for while their cotemporaries in birth are still working it is impossible to fairly gauge their proper places in the history of the art of their country. The following short notes must therefore only be taken as indicating connecting links between the art of the earlier part of the present century and that of to- day. Many French artists have sought subjects for their pictures in the East. Of these we may note Eugéne Fromentin, who is almost as famous for his writings on art as for his paintings, and who is best known for his pictures of Algeria and Arab life . His landscapes, which are excellent, owe some of their charm to the influence of Corot. Gustave Courbet sent his first picture to the Salon in 1844. He affected realism , and chose his models from the coarsest types. Land scapes with deer are among his best pictures. His works are executed in a realistic and forcible manner, and richly coloured, but they are ill drawn. He joined the Communists in 1871 , was imprisoned for his share in the destruction of the Column Vendôme, and when liberated went to live in Switzerland , where he died. In the Louvre are his Burial at Ornans ( 1850) , a Stormy Sea ( 1870) and other works. Jean Louis Hamon was educated for the priesthood, but his love of art led him to renounce the sacred profession ; and having obtained a grant of five hundred francs from his native place, he went to Paris, and studied under Delaroche and Gleyre. In 1848 appeared his first pictures, one a genre subject called Le Dessus de Parle, and the other a sacred work, Christ's Tomb, succeeded a little later by a Ronan Placard, and the Seraglio. Hamon now for a time gave up easel painting, and accepted employment in the Sèvres manufactory. In 1852 he produced his Comédie Humaine, which made his reputation. The most noteworthy of his later works are Ma soeur n'y est pas ; Ce n'est pas moi ; Les Orphelins ; L'amour de son Troupeau. In 1856 he went to the East, and most of the pictures subsequently painted are of Oriental subjects. > IN FRANCE. 317 Henri Regnault was the pupil of Lamothe and Cabanel. In 1866 he won the grand prize of Rome, and in 1869 a gold medal, in which year he attracted much notice by his portrait of General Prim ( Eng. 135 ) , which was followed by An Execution at the Alhambra, and Salomé GuRuznania 135. — General Prim . By Regnault. A.D. 1869 . la danseuse, exhibited in the Paris Salon of 1870 : he took high rank amongst cotemporary painters ; but the terrible war of 1870-1 , which cut short so many careers, broke out just as Regnault was attaining to celebrity. He joined the national guard, and was killed in the sortie from Paris. He was a friend of Fortuny, who had a certain influence 318 PAINTING on his style, and his General Prim and other works were painted in Spain . His colouring is most brilliant in tone. Gustave Doré, though a painter of marvellous fertility of invention and great facility of execution, failed to rank high as an historic painter. His enormous paintings, such as Christ leaving the Prætorium , and other sacred subjects, were beyond his powers. As a designer of PISAN 136.– Don Quixote's attack on the Windmills. By Gustave Doré. illustrations for books his ' genius became more apparent. In bis pictures for Don Quixote ( Eng. 136) , which are studies of Spanish life, Dante's Divina Commedia, Milton's Paradise Lost, the Bible, Tennyson's Idyls of the King, and many other works, his originality and power of invention were shown at their best, and greatly increased his reputation. That the works of Doré have achieved great popularity, IN FRANCE. 319 at any rate in England, is undoubted . Whether they will endure the test of time is more open to question. His chief claim to fame rests on a certain fantastic treatment and a weird imagination. Jules Bastien-Lepage, during a short life , achieved great success as a portrait painter. As an example of his style we may mention his portrait of Sarah Bernhardt ( 1879 ), which received a large amount of attention rather on account of its evident eccentricities than for sterling merit. “ Why,” says a French critic of this picture, “ after having modelled a face like an Albrecht Dürer, painted hands worthy of Holbein, coloured the hair like Titian, woven together white garments, white furs and white curtains like Leloir , does he produce an ensemble so upsetting, the beauties of which we can only appreciate hy enumerating them one by one ? ” Edouard Frère, a pupil of Delaroche, was during his life famed both in France and England for his sympathetic representations of scenes in the life of the lower classes , especially of children, into whose joys and sorrows he fully entered. His pictures, which are harmonious in colour, are usually painted in a low tone. They have frequently been reproduced. Alphonse Marie de Neuville , born at Saint Omer, who was brought up for the army, was celebrated for his battle -pieces relating to the Franco -German war. He was eminently a national painter, and owes his fame much more to the lessons he teaches and the ideas he inspires by his pictures, than for any qualities of colouring or draughts manship. The Last Cartridge, exhibited in 1873, first brought him fame. He also illustrated many books with excellent designs, mostly of a military character, such as En Campagne and Croquis Militaires. Gustave Rodolphe Clarence Boulanger, a pupil of Delaroche, gained the Prix de Rome in 1849, and studied for seven years in Italy, and became known for his historic pictures. He subsequently visited Algeria and painted pastoral scenes ; but, returning to subjects of his original choice, he became famous for his pictures of classic history, such as Lucretia spinning, Lesbia and her Sparrow , and Hercules and Omphale. In the Ball- Room of the new Opera House in Paris, he executed four pictures, representing, in none too happy a manner , warlike, amorous, rural and bacchanalian dancing -- as well as twenty portraits of celebrated opera dancers. 320 PAINTING The Barbizon School of Landscape Painters. A.D. 1830-A.D. 1886. In these days, when so many rising English and American landscape painters are seeking inspiration from the works of the great masters of French landscape, it seems difficult to realize the fact that these same masters owe their almost existence to the works of our Constable and Bonington. It was undoubtedly the works of Constable, exhibited in France in and about 1824, that created a revolution in French landscape art, and led to the formation of the school which takes its name from the village of Barbizon, then a mere hamlet, on the borders of the Forest of Fontainebleau-a school which has been for some years fully appreciated by connoisseurs in America and in Scotland, and which is now receiving considerable notice in this country, and is well repre sented in the galleries of Mr. J. S. Forbes, Mr. Ionides, Mr. A. Young and other collectors. All the members of this school have achieved fame in the face of the greatest difficulties, lack of appreciation on the part of critics, open hostility of other artists , and worst of all poverty. Its earliest master was Théodore Rousseau, a native of Paris, * who achieved fame under most adverse circumstances , steadily painting pictures based on a firm desire to represent nature in all truth, though they were for a considerable time ( 1836-1848) con stantly rejected by the hanging coinmittee of the Salon , instigated, it is said ,by Bidault, a now unknown classic landscape painter, “ who had sworn that he would extirpate the heresy of the realists.” Nature and the Auvergne country were Rousseau's chief instructors, but he received encouragement from Ary Scheffer, who recognized in his work that of an original genius. He achieved his first decided success in 1833 , with his Les Côtes de Granville. Three of his most famous works are the Avenue of Chestnuts ( 1837) , a View of the Alps ( 1867) , and the Sunset, in the Louvre. His best pictures were produced from about 1840 to 1855, but it was not until half this period had passed that his works were appreciated at all, and only at the Exhibition of 1855 It is a curious fact that Rousseau, Corot and Daubigny, the greatest French landscape painters of their age, were all born in Paris, while Turner and Girtin were born in London .

IN FRANCE. 321 were their merits fully recognized. He first visited Barbizon in 1833, and thenceforth the Forest of Fontainebleau was his favourite painting ground, with Millet for neighbour and Diaz for pupil. He was some what reserved and highly sensitive, and to the fact that he was over looked when advancement was given in the Legion of Honour to five artists in 1867, his death may be directly traced. His life was darkened by the companionship of a lunatic wife. Light was his chief 137.-Forest Road. By Corot. aim. “ Without light,” he said, “ there is no creation ; all is chaos, death or inanity." Camille Corot was, like Rousseau, a native of Paris. He was apprenticed to a draper, but determined to be a painter, and entered in 1822 the studio of Michallon, and afterwards studied under Bertin . He went to Italy, where he applied himself diligently to study land scape painting from nature. He was also somewhat influenced by the works of Bonington. In 1827 appeared his first works, a View of HHA — PAINTING Y 322 PAINTING Narni, and the Campagna of Rome. In the Paris Exhibition of 1855 he exhibited Morning Effect and Evening, and in the same year received a first - class medal. These were followed by a succession of pictures which won him immense fame. “ Corot was a poet, and his canvases are the expression of ideas, refined almost to sentimentality, full of fancy and imagination ." His free and apparent facile manner was only acquired after a long course of hard study and high finish. His landscapes, chiefly morning and evening effects, are famous for the vaporous and misty air which pervades them --the result of a mingling of idealism with a strong love of truth to nature . Amongst his most famous pictures are an Idyll and a Dance of Nymphs. He bequeathed two of his works to the Louvre and two to the Luxembourg. Charles François Daubigny, who was a pupil of Granet and Delaroche, and the son of a painter of no mean abilities, must be reckoned amongst the famous painters of Barbizon. He was fond of painting river scenes -such as The Seine at Bezons ( 1840) , and the Banks of the Oise ( 1861 ) —and he passed much of his time in a house boat. His fame would perhaps be greater were it not that it has been overshadowed by that of Rousseau, Corot and Diaz. He also excelled as an etcher. Narcisse Virgile Diaz de la Peña, the son of Spanish parents, was | born at Bordeaux, where, at ten years of age, he was left an orphan. During many years of poverty he learned to paint, and in 1844 gained his first medal at the Salon ; thirteen years after he had exhibited his ¡ first picture. After that time he was immensely successful. Diaz ridiculed the realistic school, and made colour his principal charm . He painted only a few figure pieces . Woodland scenes, full of the brightest autumnal tints , and lighted by golden sunshine, form the sub jects of his best works. He owes much of his art to Rousseau's teaching. Jean François Millet was born in 1814 at Gruchy, near Cherbourg, the son of peasants, who were quite unable to afford to give their son an art education. He displayed so much talent in early life that the authorities of Cherbourg, in 1837, furnished him with the means of going to Paris and entering the studio of Delaroche. But although he studied very closely the old masters in the Louvre, especially Michelangelo and Poussin , and was for a time most successful in the > IN FRANCE. 323 representation of the nude, he showed no taste for historic painting, and after a short sojourn with Delaroche, he left that master, and sought instruction from nature alone. He himself tells us, “ Giorgione had opened the country to me.” At this time he had great difficulty in earning a living, and had to paint signs and “ pot- boilers." In 1841 138.- Landscape ( La Bucheronne ). By Diaz. A.D. 1871 . he married a girl from Cherbourg, but she died in 1844 ; and in the next year he married again. In 1848 his Winnover , exhibited in the Salon, was an acknowledged success, but about this period the artist with his wife and family suffered the greatest privations from poverty, and “ charming sketches were sold from one franc to five.” After some Y 2 324 PAINTING IN FRANCE. years spent in Paris, he settled at Barbizon in 1849, where he found Rousseau already living, who was always a kind friend to Millet ; and there for twenty-seven years, from the fields and woods, and from the peasants, he took the subjects of his works. During the greater part of this time he was depressed by the pangs of poverty. By poverty he was prevented from going to close the eyes of his dying mother, and by poverty he was compelled at one time to see his wife and children in want almost of the necessities of life. His pictures are not dependent on the poetic treatment of landscape alone, as is the case with most of the Barbizon artists, but evince a very deep insight into human feelings. In later life however he became a more truly landscape painter. His first exhibited picture, the Milk -woman, appeared at the Salon in 1844 ; this was followed by the Reapers, Sheep -shearers ( 1861 ) , Peasunt grafting a Tree, and The Gleaners ( 1857 ) , and many other similar subjects. His Angelus du Soir and Death and the Wood -cutter are well known from engravings and etchings. The refusal of the latter by the Salon evoked a storm of protestation on the part of Millet's admirers ; but both works remained on hand for some time without finding a purchaser. Now, either would fetch a sum large enough to have kept the painter for years, and during his lifetime even, the Angelus was resold for 50,000 francs. They were both exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, and were warmly praised. Much insight into Millet's character may be gathered from the memoir which his friend Alfred Sensier left of him. In one letter, Millet says, “ I have never seen anything but fields since I was born ; I try to say as best I can what I saw and felt when I was at work.” In another, “ Which is the handsomer, a straight tree or a crooked tree ? The one that is in its place. I therefore conclude that the beautiful is the suitable.” These may be taken as the keynotes of most of his pictures. One of the latest phases, or craze, as it has not unfitly been called , of French art is that of the Impressionists, who claim to represent in their works Nature as she impresses herself on their minds ; but, as Mr. Frith points out, it is only their momentary impressions that they place on their canvases. I venture,” says he, “ to advise them to dwell longer on their impressions ; let them keep Nature before their eyes for hours, us By permission of A. Braun and Cie, Paris. 139. — Going to Work. By Jean François Millet. In the possession of Mr. James Donald, Glasgow. 326 PAINTING. days, and weeks, and then perhaps their impressions will be more what they ought to be.” Drawing, details , composition are alike disregarded by the disciples of this school, the centre of which is in Paris, but which has nevertheless laiil its hand on some of the rising artists of England. As the followers of this cult belong to the present, we abstain from mentioning names, except that of Adolphe Monticelli of Marseilles, who died in 1886. Monticelli, on visiting Paris, was at first much impressed by the works of Delacroix , Millet and Diaz, but he soon struck out an original path for himself by painting pictures which at first sight are calculated to shock one's preconceived notions of the canons of art ; pictures in which everything is subservient to the artist's ideas of colouring. It is but a trite saying which tells us that a nation's art is but a reflex of its history ; but it is especially applicable in the case of France, whose political aspect has undergone numberless changes during the past century. French painting, swayed at times by Classicism , Romanticism, Idealism, Naturalism, Impressionism and other forms of art, is like the domestic policy of the country, still overshadowed by doubt and uncertainty, many- sided, and incapable of being strictly defined. It may fairly be said that all styles of painting are at present represented in the French capital, the great centre of the Arts. To attempt to dwell on all or even any of these features would be im possible in a general history of the art of the past. A mere list of living eminent French painters would alone take up much room, and would serve no useful purpose. MOUCHES DEC NVM PAINTING IN GREAT BRITAIN.. Iluminators. A.D. 600—A.D. 1500. For the earliest records of anything approaching to the art of Painting in the British Isles, we have to look to Ireland, where the first seeds were sown by the Roman mis sionaries. At first the work was confined to brilliantly - coloured geometric designs with birds and and animals executed for missals, 900VIRG and this style of art reached its highest form about the end of the seventh century, at which time an Irish colony came over and settled in Lindisfarne. The best examples of this period are the so -called Book of Kells, in Trinity College, Dublin, and the Dur ham Book (a copy of S. Cuthbert's Gospels) executed by Irish artists at Lindisfarne, 140.–FromS. Æthelwald's Benedictional. By Godeman. A.D. 970. An illuminated MS. in the possession about A.D.720, and now of the Duke of Devonshire. in the British Museum. The latter contains almost the earliest representations of the human figure executed in England - crude delineations of the Evangelists. To the tenth century belongs the Charter of Foundation of Newminster, at Winchester, by King Edgar, A.D. 966. It contains a full- page 328 PAINTING miniature with figures on a mauve ground, with an elaborate border in gold and colours ; it is now in the British Museum. About this period arose a style of work known as the Opus Anglicum , which was characterized by massive gold borders interlaced with foliage : sessis the best example is the Benedictional of s . Ethelwald , written be tween A.D. 936 and 970 ( in the possession of the Duke of Devon shire) , in which the illuminations are by one Godeman, a monk of Hyde Abbey, one of the wealthiest of the monastic institu tions in the country at that time. In the British Museum, are a copy of the Gospels in Latin , with initials and borders, in which broad bands of gold 0 O occur, by English artists , and a Liber Psalmorum ( Eng. 141) , 141.-King David. Illuminated Title-page to a MS. both dating from the “Liber Psalmorum ” of the Eleventh Century. eleventh century. In the British Museum ( Tib. c. vi. ) . This style lasted with modifications up to the beginning of the fifteenth century, as is seen ° ( IN GREAT BRITAIN. 329 . in the Salisbury Lectionarum (called the “ Lovel Book " ), executed by the celebrated illuminator Sifer Was, and now in the British Museum , which contains, in addition to initials and borders, a miniature of the artist offering the book to Lord Lovel. In the latter part of the thirteenth century, the English illuminators mw 1 Baba erat mou apa a lel LOTTO ( ( اور ( ( cco Avebrgymning peas pewordryebozd was at god.zĝodwas dewordyıs WasDipebigo wyng at god alle vingrs Ubewumaad bibjöa: and wawonten brjar wasmgao po ping pat yrig Vatwasmaad wböm baslikanopelytwas peluzt ofmen ,andbztſchönen ma derkuelis-mond & rkuelis coupbenduen notit/ 142.-S. John . Miniature in Wycliffe's Bible. About A.D. 1374 . Royal MS. 1. C. viii, in the British Museum. were at their best, and they compare very favourably with cotem porary artists in a similar branch in the Netherlands, France and Italy. A good example of this time is a Psalter, in the British Museum . In the following century much care began to be evident in the treatment of the heads, foreshadowing the great school of miniature painters which was to arise under Holbein and Hilliard 330 PAINTING two centuries later. The miniature of S. John, from Wycliffe's Bible, is of a somewhat elementary character , and recalls the earlier types. Owing to the temporary occupation of France by Henry V., French artists were greatly encouraged, and much of the best work executed al 12 S 143.—Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, presenting a Book of Romances to Queen Margaret and Henry VI. About A.D. 1450. From the “ Shrewsbury Book ” in the Royal Library, British Museum . in England at this period was done by Frenchmen , e.g. the Bedford Missal and the Prayer - Book of Henry VI., both in the British Museum. The Chronicles of England , executed for Edward VI. , is the work of a Flemish artist. The Shrewsbury Book , of great historic interest, IN GREAT BRITAIN. 331 and one of the best works of the period, also in the British Museum , though evidently based on a French model, is thought to be the work of an Englishman. It is a large volume of many pages, and it was made for John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, and was presented by him to Margaret of Anjou, after her marriage with Henry VI. It is a book of romances on “ Chivalrie." In our illustration ( Eng. 143 ) , Shrewsbury is seen presenting his book to Queen Margaret. The 141. -Edward VI . and his Council . From a wood - cut on the title-paye of • Acts of Parliament,' A.D. 1551 . architectural decoration is distinctly French in character. The ground is blue. In England, as in other countries in Europe, the middle ages naturally produced artists of every kind , from architects to goldsmiths, as well as painters — painters of the walls of churches or of altar panels, painters for glass and tapestry, painters of portraits for cabinets, for public buildings and castles, in addition to the artists who illus 332 PAINTING a trated missals and manuscripts. Few remains of those curiosities have been preserved ; wars and conflagrations, the Reformation and Puri tanism, having in their turn destroyed the relics of former times. There scarcely exist more than a few traces of wall-paintings in the churches and other public buildings. In Kempley church, Gloucester shire, the walls appear to have been painted in the twelfth century with large figure subjects, some of which, such as the Vision in the Apocalypse and Christ in Majesty, in the chancel, are in good preserva tion ; and to the same period belong the wall paintings in Chaldon church, Surrey. In Westminster Abbey is a series of small paintings of the thirteenth century, distinctly English in character, and also a Portrait of Richard II., believed to have been painted by an English artist of the fourteenth century. Under Edward III. , Art shared the revival which took place in literature . The King enriched the chapel of S. Stephen, Westminster, with the work of native cotemporary artists ; but unfortunately it perished by fire in 1834. Record, however, exists of it in the coloured reproductions published by the Society of Antiquaries. At Knowsley is a fairly good cotemporary portrait of Richard III.; and the tapestries in S. Mary's Hall, Coventry, show that English artists in the reign of Henry VI. were not altogether deficient in the art of design. To the time of Henry VII. must be ascribed two miniatures of Arthur, Prince of Wales and his brother Prince Henry (afterwards Henry VIII. ) at Windsor Castle. But the work of this period is for the most part very crude and elementary in character when compared with that of half a century later. 1 1 Miniature Painting. A.D. 1526-A.D. 1680. Amongst the countless miniature paintings which are stored in the private collections in Great Britain may be found many of the finest works of art executed in the country during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, for it was in England that Miniature Painting, or “ painting . IN GREAT BRITAIN. 333 in little," * as it was called, especially flourished . By the word miniature is now commonly understood a very small picture, generally a portrait. These were the outcome of the earlier illuminations in MSS. which formed the principal portion of English art, until they were superseded by the adoption of printing, as in later days the art of miniature painting received its death- blow by the introduction of photography “ The successive sovereigns of this country," says Mr. Holmes, “ have always been the foremost patrons of the miniaturists, and the Royal Collection at the present day is rich in some of their finest works. Many examples have perished or disappeared , and others passed away from their ancestral abode, when the magnificent collection of Charles I. was dispersed by order of the Parliament; but enough remain † to testify to its original wealth and splendour.” The Quee is one of the few remaining patrons of this now unfortunately almost perished art. Apart from their great artistic merit, the miniatures under notice afford, in the faithful representation of the features of many of England's great statesmen, monarchs and warriors, examples of untold historic value. The school of British miniaturists was founded by Holbein, who probably received instruction in this branch of art in England from Lucas Horebout, whose sister, Suzanne Horebout, was also a miniaturist. They accompanied their father, Geraert Horebout, to this country . Holbein visited England in 1526, and stayed here for about three years. He came here again in 1531 and remained till his death . Of the in numerable miniature portraits ascribed to him but few are undoubted. Amongst these few are the Sons of the Duke of Suffolk , dated 1535 and 1541 , and Queen Catherine Howard, all at Windsor Castle.

  • This term " in little ” was in general use in the seventeenth century to describe a portrait miniature orany small picture. The word “ miniatura " in its original sense had no reference to the size of the work, being derived from the Latin word “ minium ,”

signifying red lead, in which material all the headings, capital letters , &c. , of the most ancient MSS. were drawn. -J . L. Propert., A History of Miniature Art, London, 1887. † In the Royal Library of Windsor. Many of the best of these works have been reproduced by photography in Lord Ronald Gower's Great Historic Galleries of England. 33+ PAINTING Levina Teerlinck painted miniatures about the same time as Holbein, and at one time received a higher salary from Henry VIII. than did the great painter of Bâle. Gwilim Stretes, painter to Edward VI. , who made good portraits about this time, probably executed many of the so- called Holbeins. The proved absurdity and recklessness of the ascription of many works to Holbein which he could not possibly have painted, tend unfor tunately to throw discredit on the attribution of many works which might be by his hand. The first truly English miniaturist was Nicholas Hilliard. Some of the flatness evident in his work is perhaps attributable to the tradition that when he was appointed portrait painter to Elizabeth he was instructed, in common with other artists, to make pictures of “ her body and person in lymnynge only," and without shadows. His style is similar to that of the old illuminators, and he made a liberal use of gold. Most of his works have suffered from exposure to the light. Hilliard, like many another good artist, combined the pro fession of goldsmith and painter . Amongst his best works are the portraits of Henry VII., Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Queen Jane Seymour, at Windsor Castle, which were originally attached to golden jewels, now lost. * Portraits by him of Queen Elizabeth, James I., of his sons Prince James and Charles, and Mary, Queen of Scots, form part of the celebrated and undoubted “ Stuart Miniatures," now in the posses sion of the Edwards family. Hilliard was also court goldsmith and painter to James I. , by whom he was granted a monopoly in painting the royal portrait. He was far surpassed by Isaac Olivier, † the best miniaturist of his time, who was the first to throw off the influence of the old missal painters, and to impart life to his portraits, which are to be met with in most great private galleries where such work is prized . At Windsor Castle are two of his best - portraits of Henry, Prince of Wales and Sir Philip Sidney ( Eng. 145) , both with landscape backgrounds. Of the former Mr. Holmes says, “ The delicacy of the work of this remarkable miniature it is impossible to over-praise, and it combines They are of undoubted authenticity. They were taken to France by James II . , and were obtained from the Jewel Office in Paris at the beginning of this century. + Usually called Oliver : but he always signed, Olivier.

IN GREAT BRITAIN. 333 with minuteness of execution a breadth of effect which is admirable . ” a 광 145. —Sir Pailip Sidney at Penshurst. By Isaac Olivier. Miniature. In Windsor Castle. Painted before 1586. These remarks might be applied with equal truth to the latter. The 336 PAINTING Royal Collection also contains an excellent little miniature of Himself in a steeple -crowned hat. His son, Peter Olivier, was also very successful as a portrait painter in miniature, but he never quite rivalled his father. He was much patronized by the greatest patron the arts ever had in this country, Charles I. , for whom he made many miniature copies of the paintings in the Royal Gallery at Whitehall. Jean Petitot, the famous French miniature painter, visited England about 1635, and received much patronage at the hands of Charles I. , who was very interested in the chemical experiments involved in the art of enamelling. About 1645, he went to Paris, where he resided for thirty -six years. As his stay in England was much shorter than his residence in the French capital, his portraits of English people are much more scarce than his French ones. Signed miniatures by him are extremely rare , and many portraits ascribed to him are not by bis hand. He first intro duced the painting of miniatures in enamel * into this country. He perfected the process, in 146. — Philippe,Duc d'Orléans. which no one has since equalled him. In the By Jean Petitot. Royal Collection are portraits of Frederick V., Miniature. About A.D. 1660. King of Bohemia, and his wife Elizabeth , by At Castle Howard. him ; and three examples of his work are in the Edwards collection above-mentioned. The example which we give of his art is a portrait of the Duc d'Orléans, son of Louis XIII. , and husband of Henrietta, daughter of Charles I. He can be fully studied in the Jones Collection , in the South Kensington Museum , where are many undoubted works by him, and also in the Apollo Gallery in the Louvre. His son Petitot, the younger, painted in this country for Charles II. and other influential patrons. Sir Balthazar Gerbier acquired dis tinction at this time, though his miniatures are not of a very high order of merit. In the Jones collection is a good portrait in mono chrome of Prince Charles by him, signed and dated 1616. John Hoskins executed some very good miniature portraits at this time,

  • Enamelling was first applied to portraiture about 1630.

IN GREAT BRITAIN. 337 of which several - James I. ( Eng. 147), Charles I., the Earl of Somerset, and Lucius Cary, Viscount Falkland, and others-are in the Royal Collection ; but he was overshadowed by the magnificent power of his nephew and pupil, Samuel Cooper, whose works are unrivalled in this branch of art. He devoted his attention almost exclusively to heads only, and merely sketched in the shoulders. In his miniatures he was able to convey far more force of character and truth to nature than many a famous artist has in life- size canvases. As typical examples we may name the portraits of George Monck, Duke of Albemarle ( Eng. 148), and the young Duke of Monmouth, both in the Royal Collection, and that of Cromwell in the Buccleuch Gallery, which is considered his masterpiece. A work somewhat similar to the last named is in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire. Cooper was on terms of intimate friendship with Pepys, by whom he is mentioned with praise. Many of his pictures perished by fire in the reign of Queen Anne, together with other valuable works of art in the collec tion of Sir Andrew Fountaine, one 147.- James I. Miniature. By Hoskins, of the principal art patrons of the after Van Somer. At Windsor Castle. period. To prove the truth of Walpole's criticism—that “ Cooper with so much merit had two defects. His skill was confined to a mere head ; his drawing even of the neck so incorrect and untoward ... his want of grace. Cooper's women, like his model Vandyck’s, are seldom very handsome" -it is but necessary to compare his two portraits in the Royal Collection of Charles II. and his wife Catherine. In the former he has successfully portrayed the characteristics of the pleasure -loving monarch, with the same facility as he depicted the strength and character of the Protector, but his representation of Charles's Queen is but a poor affair in comparison. HHA—PAINTING z 338 PAINTING Special notice has been given in this sketch of the rise of British art CS 148.—George Monck , Duke of Albemarle. By Samuel Cooper. Miniature. At Windsor Castle. to the miniaturists, because they seemed most naturally to have followed on from the works of the old illuminators ; but before we treat of any IN GREAT BRITAIN . 339 more examples of this eminently national art, it will be necessary to retrace our steps and take a passing glance at the other foreign artists, be sides Holbein, who practised in England prior to the advent of Hogarth. Painting in England in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. In the chapter devoted to painting in Germany, full reference has been made to the works which Holbein painted in England, and which had a natural effect in the art of this country. He has left many portraits, which are now in the Royal palaces and private galleries of this country. The Manchester Exhibition included about twenty of these masterpieces ; quite as many were shown in the National Portrait Exhibition of 1866 ; and thirty- six in the Exhibition of works by the Old Masters in 1880. Many other foreign artists also visited England in the sixteenth century. Mabuse is said to have come from Antwerp ; and Geraert Horebout of Ghent, and Gwilim Stretes have already been referred to under the miniaturists. About the time of Holbein's death another great artist came to London. Sir Anthony Mor was, like his master Jan van Schoorl, a citizen of the world ; born at Utrecht, in Holland, he worked in Italy, Spain, Portugal and England, and subsequently died at Antwerp about 1576-78. He had a rival at the Court of Queen Mary, a Fleming, Joost van Cleef of Antwerp, a portrait painter of considerable talent. Another Fleming, Lucas de Heere, of Ghent, also painted for Queen Mary, and continued to be employed during the next reign. There is nothing to prove that he ever painted miniatures. Queen Elizabeth was not in want of artists - foreigners for the most part. A native of Gouda , Cornelis Ketel, arrived in 1573, and lived in London for eight years ; an Italian, Federigo Zuccaro, came in 1574 ; and a Fleming, Marc Gheeraets ( or Garrard) , of Bruges, stayed many years in England, where he died in 1635. The example which we give of his work has a great historic as well as artistic interest. It was exhibited at the National Portrait Exhibition of 1866, by Mr. Wingfield Digby, as a representation of “ Queen Elizabeth carried in state to Hunsdon House, 18th of September, 1571," and Z 2 2008 ,100 enero 026 64 149. -Procession ofQueen Elizabeth toBlackfriars in1600. ByMarc Gheeraets . AtSherborne Castle . PAINTING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 341 notes were appended describing the various celebrated personages about the Court of the Virgin Queen, who were supposed to be escort ing Her Majesty on her visit to Lord Hunsdon. This designation was given to the picture by George Vertue, " in defiance of an earlier and well-grounded tradition ” which Mr. Scharf and Mr. Gough Nichols * showed in 1866 to be true, that it represented A Procession of Queen Elizabeth to Blackfriars, to grace the marriage between Lord Herbert and Anne, daughter of Lady Russell, in the year 1600. In 1737 Vertue engraved the picture, which had then been at Coleshill ( Earl of Oxford's) for fifty or sixty years. It is now at Sherborne Castle. Mr. Scharf thinks that the painting is more probably by Olivier than by Gheeraets. In the National Portrait Gallery is a group by Gheeraets of eleven English and Spanish Statesmen, assembled at Somerset House, which was formerly in the Hamilton Collection. In the reign of James I. there was a new generation of foreign painters. Paul van Somer, of Antwerp, came to London about 1606, and painted portraits of the Court and the nobility, and many of his works are to be met with in private galleries. Cornelis Janssens van Keulen, of Amsterdam , arrived in 1618, painted many excellent portraits, and returned to die at Amsterdam . Daniel Mytens came a little after, without doubt, for the first date which we find on the por traits painted by him in England is 1623. Both Mytens and Janssens became Court painters to Charles I. , of whom they have left excellent portraits, as well as of the Royal Family and the English aristocracy. The reign of Charles I. is a bright period in the history of art in England -- thanks, however, mainly to the work of foreigners. In 1629 Rubens came and sojourned a year ; and in 1632 Van Dyck took up his abode in London. The designs painted by Rubens for the ceiling at Whitehall, illustrating the history of Achilles, intended for repro duction in tapestry at the manufactory at Mortlake, are preserved in English galleries , as well as the portraits, many times repeated, of the Earl of Arundel and the Duke of Buckingham . The former, whose memory is still kept fresh by means of the society which bears his name, did much to foster the love of art in this country, and affords one of the few English counterparts to the art - patrons of the continent. See The Archæological Journal, ' vol. xxiii. + 342 PAINTING He paved the way for the impetus given to art by Charles I. and the Duke of Buckingham . It does not appear that Rubens produced any other great works in England beyond the S. George now at Buckingham Palace, the Assumption of the Virgin , painted for the Earl of Arundel, and perhaps the allegory, Peace and War, now in the National Gallery. This painter has always been a favourite in England1 ; there were more than forty of his works at the Exhibitions at Manchester and at South Kensington . English painters have good grounds for considering Van Dyck as one of their own school. A native of Antwerp, he is as truly English as Claude le Lorrain is Italian. Naturally endowed with elegance, of that type at once haughty and frank , he excelled as a portrayer of the English nobility ; and his genius well suited the times of Charles I. , who made him painter to the Court and knighted him. All the foreigners before him had passed away without leaving a mark in the art of the country. Van Dyck succeeded almost during his lifetime, and it may be said, that he was the progenitor of Reynolds and of Gainsborough, of Lawrence and of all the English portrait painters up to the present day. Illustrations of the works of Rubens and Van Dyck will be found in the chapter devoted to the Flemish school. Around Van Dyck were grouped a band of Flemings and natives of Holland, his assistants, his pupils or his imitators, but they need no special mention. George Jamesone, of Aberdeen, was a good painter ; we have excel lent portraits by him in the style of both Van Dyck and Rubens ; for Jameson had worked in the studio of Rubens at Antwerp, and he there met the young Van Dyck. Many of his works may still be seen at Aberdeen and in various residences of the nobility : but they are rarely met with in England. He left several pupils, and amongst others Michael Wright, who attained some celebrity as a portrait painter. James Gandy, a good painter, lived nearly always in Ireland, in the service of the Duke of Ormond. His son, William Gandy, who settled at Exeter, is also considered as an artist of repute. In London, one of the three sons of Nicholas Stone, the celebrated sculptor, Henry Stone - called “ Old Stone, " to distinguish him from his brothers - also painted in the style of Van Dyck. In the National IN GREAT BRITAIN. 3 3 Portrait Gallery there is a portrait by him of Inigo Jones, copied from Van Dyck. But the greatest Englishman who followed Van Dyck was William Dobson, a dwarf, a true artist, whose portraits are worth little less than those of his master. He studied under Franz Cleyn, and it is related that Van Dyck, having seen in a shop window a picture by Dobson, took him into his studio and introduced him to Charles I. After the death of Van Dyck, Dobson held the posts of sergeant-painter and groom of the privy chamber, and in this office he accompanied the Court to Oxford , where he painted the Portrait of the l'ing. Dobson's works are found in many of the best galleries of the English nobility. In the National Gallery is a portrait by him of Ewlymion Porter . Robert Walker painted portraits of Cromwell, Sir Thomas Fairfax , Ireton, Fleetwood, and many of the men connected with the Common wealth. He died about 1660. Robert Streater, sergeant -painter to Charles II . , painted many landscapes, historic works, portraits, altar-pieces and ceilings. John Riley was also a portrait painter of repute. There are three of his works in the National Portrait Gallery. To name all the foreign artists who worked in England during the first half of the seventeenth century is nearly impossible. The most celebrated were Gerard Honthorst, the two Netschers, Dirk Stoop, Van Diepenbeeck, Jan Lievens, Schalken, and the two Van de Veldes. Many of the works of these Dutchmen are preserved in English galleries. Sir Peter Lely appeared soon after the death of Van Dyck. He had the same success ; he painted Charles I. and his Court ; then Cromwell and his soldiers ; then Charles II. and all the beauties of his Court . His genius suited admirably the witty and elegant ladies, and the thoughtless cavaliers, who drowned in luxury and pleasure the still recent recollection of Cromwell and the Commonwealth. Lely painted them by hundreds. At Hampton Court there is a Gallery full of them. Charles II. made him a baronet. As soon as Lely was dead, another famous painter succeede 1 him at the Court, and soon monopolized the public taste : 344 PAINTING Sir Godfrey Kneller, who was born at Lübeck, arrived at London in baronet. Kneller princes of his timeVI. He painted tand Locke ; Sir C and other membersbis portraits were South Kensington.originally twelve) by Kneller for Q" Windsor BeautiesKneller exercised, deleterious influencthe time of ReynoldMichael Dahl, aAnne, and was p Portrait Gallery issea-fight in the baMonnoyer, and VanAntonio Verrio, by his architecturaCharles II., and in a| the decoration of W man, Louis Laguerrkeeper to the menagCourt, Laguerre conThe number of decortruly wonderful, noHampton Court, attmew , but also in tTowards the close Englishman ; James Thornhill,he visited France, acially on that of Le

  • He

adopted for thesKit-cat portrait is still us7 150.-- Sir Isaac Newton. By Kneller. 1674, painted during the reigns of Charles II. >, James II. , William III. and Mary, Queen Anne, and of George I., by whom he was created a IN GREAT BRITAIN . 345 66 baronet. Kneller painted the greater part of the sovereigns and princes of his time, including Louis XIV. , Peter the Great, and Charles VI. He painted the great Duke of Marlborough ; Newton ( Eng. 150) and Locke ; Sir Christopher Wren ; Pope, Addison , Steele , Congreve, and other members of the celebrated Kit Cat Club . * About thirty of his portraits were included in the Exhibitions at Manchester and at South Kensington. At Hampton Court may be seen eight ( there were originally twelve ) of the Series of " Hampton Court Beauties," painted by Kneller for Queen Mary, in rivalry with the more celebrated “ Windsor Beauties ” of Lely, which now hang in a neighbouring room . Kneller exercised, by his artificial treatment of portraiture, a most deleterious influence on art in England, which was not overthrown till the time of Reynolds. By his side were other foreigners : Michael Dahl, a native of Stockholm , was patronized by Queen Anne, and was popular as a portrait painter. In the National Portrait Gallery is a portrait by him of Sir Cloudesley Shovel, with a sea -fight in the background. The Frenchmen Lefebvre, Largillière, Monnoyer, and Van Loo also painted in England for a time. Antonio Verrio, born in the Neapolitan States, charmed England by his architectural paintings. From 1676 he was in the pay of Charles II. , and in a few years cost the king nearly 10,000 guineas for the decoration of Windsor Castle. In 1683 he was joined by a French man, Louis Laguerre, whose father was a Catalan, and held the post of keeper to the menagerie at Versailles. When Verrio died at Hampton Court, Laguerre continued the work until he himself died in 1721 . The number of decorative works these two men painted in Eugland is truly wonderful, not only in public buildings, at Windsor Castle, at Hampton Court, at the Hospitals of Christ Church and St. Bartholo mew, but also in the town and country residences of the nobility. Towards the close of his career, Laguerre had as an assistant an Englishman ; James Thornhill, who was born at Melcombe Regis. In his youth he visited France, and appears to have there formed his style, espe cially on that of Le Brun.. His principal works are in the cupola of

  • He adopted for these portraits a size of canvas 36 in . by 28 in. , and the term Kit - cat portrait is still used for works of this nature.

316 PAINTING S. Paul's, London, the great hall of Greenwich Hospital, an apartment at Hampton Court, a saloon of Blenheim Palace, and ceilings and altar pieces in the churches at Oxford. George I. knighted him. Never theless, he, the first English painter who received the honour of knighthood, would now perhaps be forgotten, if he had not been in spite of himself—the father-in-law of Hogarth. In the first half of the eighteenth century, Art, throughout Europe, was in a state of entire decadence. The brilliant schools which had flourished in the seventeenth century in Flanders, Holland and Spain , had no successors in their own countries. Italian art had sunk into the grave with the last of the Bolognese school. Only France at that time possessed a few original artists, who nevertheless held but an inferior position. The painters who appeared at the end of the seventeenth century, and at the beginning of the eighteenth, and who were destined to be eclipsed by the true English school, are, amongst others : Jonathan Richardson, pupil and nephew , by marriage, of John Riley, and author, in conjunction with his son, of several works on art ; Charles Jervas, an Irishman whose style was formed under Kneller, and whom his friend Pope did not hesitate to compare with Zeuxis ; Thomas Hudson, the pupil of Richardson, whose daughter he married, and the master of Reynolds ; Francis Hayman, the master of Gainsborough ; and some others, chief amongst whom was Arthur Pond, a portrait painter and engraver. Amongst the best of Pond's works are his portraits of Peg Woffington , in the National Portrait Gallery, and Alexander Pope. In conjunction with George Knapton, Pond brought out his Heads of Illustrious Persons, engraved by Houbraken and Vertue. The Rise of a National Art in England-Eighteenth Century. The founder of the English school of painting, William Hogarth, was born in London in 1697. In early life he was, by his own wish, appren ticed to a silver-plate engraver. He had naturally a good eye and a fondness for drawing, and soon found engraving shields and crests to be IN GREAT BRITAIN . 347 toy limited an employment. His dislike of academic instruction, and his natural and proper notion of seeing art through stirring life are very visible in all he says or writes. His first attempt at satire, of any merit , was the Taste of the Town, engraved in 1724, which sharply lashed the reigning follies of the day ; this was followed by his Hudibras, published in the year 1726, the illustrations of which were the first that marked him as a man above the common rank . In 1730, Hogarth married Jane, the only daughter of Sir James Thornhill, the sergeant-painter and history -painter to the king, without the consent of her father. He then commenced portrait painting ; “ the most ill- suited employment,” says Walpole, “ to a man whose turn was certainly not flattery . ” Yet his facility in catching a likeness drew him a prodigious business for some time. Amongst his best portraits are Captain Coram , the projector of the Foundling Hospital, David Garrick as Richard III. starting from a couch in terror, and the dema gogue John Wilkes, and several portraits of Himself, all of which are very life- like. He next turned his thoughts to painting and engraving subjects of a modern kind and moral nature ; a field , he says, not broken up in any country or any age. The first of these compositions of which he speaks, and which have rendered his name immortal, was the Harlot's Progress. It appeared in a series of six plates in 1734, and was received with general approbation . The next to follow was the Rake's Progress, in a series of eight scenes , each complete in itself, and all uniting in relating a domestic history in a way at once natural, comic , satiric and serious. The folly of man , however, was not so warmly welcomed by the public as that of the woman had been. The fame of Hogarth was now so well established, that the popularity of his works excited printsellers to pirate his works, so much so that Hogarth applied to Parliament, and in 1735 obtained an Act for recognizing a legal copyright in engravings. In 1736, several more satires on the follies of London appeared. The Sleeping Congregation, in which a heavy parson is promoting, with all the alacrity of dulness, the slumber of his flock, was followed by the Distressed Poet, and the Modern Vidnight Conversation ; this last -named, in which most of the figures are portraits, carried the name of Hogarth APlan ofthe VRhonor Freuenofch Anarriage ole ANZ The Marriage 151. —Contract .No. Marriage 1ofThe Mode series àlaHogarth .ByA.D. 1745. National Inthe Gallery . PAINTING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 349 into foreign lands, and is considered in France and Germany to be the best of his single works. The next print published was the Enraged Musician . It seems impossible to increase the annoyance of this sensitive mortal (who by the frogs on his coat appears to be a French man) by the addition of any other din . “ This strange scene, ” said a wit of the day, “ deafens one to look at it . ” The next production, the Strolling Actresses, was, says Allan Cunning ham, “ one of the most imaginative and amusing of all the works of Hogarth .” It is now lost , and is only known by engravings. It is only possible to mention the next composition pieces, the six scenes of Marriage à la Mode - representing profligacy in high life which are in the National Gallery ; and the four different stages of the Election of a Member of Parliament ; as the dramatic story in the one, and the varied scenes of an electioneering contest in the other, would each require a volume to describe. In 1750 appeared the celebrated March of the Guards to Finchley, which is full of humour, and strewn over with absurdities. The original painting, on publication of the print, was disposed of by a lottery. Hogarth presented some tickets to the Foundling Hospital, and the winning card was drawn by that fortunate institution . The last work of Hogarth, worthy of his genius, and known by the title of Credulity, Superstition and Fanaticism , was issued early in 1764. Shortly afterwards, his health began to decline. He was aware of this , and purchased a small house at Chiswick , to which he retired during the summer, amusing himself by making slight sketches, and retouching his plates. He left Chiswick in October of the same year, and returned to his residence in Leicester Square. On the very next day he was seized with a sudden illness, and, after two hours of suffer ing, expired. Hogarth was buried without any ostentation in the churchyard at Chiswick, where a monument was erected to his memory. Richard Wilson was the third son of a clergyman at Pinegas in Montgomeryshire. Owing to the influence of his uncle, Sir George Wynn, who took him to London when quite young, he received a certain amount of tuition in art from a painter of little note, named Wright. In 1749 the young artist was considered worthy to paint 330 PAINTING portraits of the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York. At the age of thirty- six he had managed to save sufficient money to enable him to go to Italy, and it was there that, by a happy accident, he became acquainted with the Italian artist Zuccarelli, who advised him to study landscape painting. In this he was very successful , as far as art was concerned, but as the taste for nature was at that time but slowly growing, he did not find it a lucrative employment for a man of his limited means. His chief works are full of classic feeling ; among them may be named the Death of Niobe's Children in the National Gallery) ; Morning ; View of Rome ; Phaeton ; Celadon and Amelia ; the Tiber, near Rome ; Adrian's Villa ; the Temple of Venus at Baice ; and Nymphs Bathing ; from which it is easy to see that he did not care to paint a scene simply for its own loveliness, but only when it was invested with historic or mythologic interest. Many of these works were engraved by the celebrated William Woollett. As he was the first truly English landscape painter, the works of Wilson are well deserving of study. A pupil of Wilson, Sir George Howland Beaumont, an amateur landscape painter, is better known for his patronage of the fine arts than for his work. He was one of the principal promoters of the National Gallery. Allan Ramsay, one of the best portrait painters of the period, was born at Edinburgh. After receiving education in art in London, he went to Italy, and on his return to London, established himself as a painter. Ramsay subsequently paid three more visits to Italy, and in 1767 was appointed painter to George III. , whose portrait he frequently took. He died at Dover, where he had landed on his return from his last journey. His portraits are noteworthy for truth to nature. Besides being a painter, he was a man of great attainments. George Smith - called from his birthplace “ Smith of Chichester," to distinguish him from the painter of the same name, of Derby together with his two brothers, William and John, opened a private Academy, wherein they worked without instruction , except from nature and the old masters. George Smith became famous as a land scape painter, and was so far successful as to gain a premium from the Society of Arts. IN GREAT BRITAIN . 351 We now come to the greatest master of the English school of the eighteenth century. Sir Joshua Reynolds, the son of a clergyman, was born at Plympton, in Devonshire, in 1723, three months before the death of Sir Godfrey Kneller. The boy's inclination to drawing began to appear at an early date, and he eagerly copied such prints as he found amongst his father's books. He was sent to London in 1741 , and was placed under the care of Hudson, the most distinguished portrait painter at that time. After continuing for two years in his employment, a disagreement took place between them , and Reynolds returned to Devonshire, where he remained for three years. When twenty - two years of age, he took a house at Plymouth Dock, where he resided about a year, and then returned to London. Rome, which is in reality to painters what Parnassus is in imagina tion to poets, was frequently present to the fancy of Reynolds; and he longed to see with his own eyes the glories in art, of which he heard so much. In the year 1749 his desire was realized. Captain Keppel, with whom he had formed a friendship, was appointed Commodore in the Mediterranean station, for the purpose of protecting the British merchants from the insults of the Algerines, and he invited Reynolds to accompany him . After paying short visits to Gibraltar and Algiers, and a rather prolonged stay at Minorca, Reynolds at length reached Rome. There he seems to have employed his time chiefly in studying all the varieties of excellence, and in acquiring that knowledge of effect which he was so soon to display. The dignity of Michelangelo or the beauty of Raphael he had no chance of attaining, for he wanted lofti ness of imagination, without which no grand work can ever be achieved ; but he had a deep sense of character, great skill in light and shade, and an alluring sweetness, such as none has surpassed. From the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Fra Bartolommeo , Titian and Velazquez, he acquired knowledge, which placed fortune and fame within his reach ; yet of these artists he says little, though he acknowledged the Portrait of Innocent X. by Velazquez to be the finest in the world . From Rome, Reynolds travelled to Florence, where he remained two months ; and thence to Venice. He returned to London in October, 1752 ; and, after visiting Devonshire for a few weeks, established himself as a pro fessional man in St. Martin's Lane, London, where he rapidly rose to 152. — The Age of Innocence . By Reynolds. In the National Gallery. PAINTING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 353 fame; he soon changed his residence for a handsome house in Great Newport Street, and shortly afterwards commenced a friendship with Samuel Johnson, which was continued to old age without interruption. In the year 1761 , accumulating wealth began to have a visible effect on Reynolds's establishment. He quitted Great Newport Street , pur chased a fine house in Leicester Square, furnished it with much taste, and added a splendid gallery for the exhibition of his works. The Royal Academy was planned and proposed in 1768 by Chambers, West, Cotes and Moser ; the caution or timidity of Reynolds kept him for some time from assisting. A list of thirty members was made out ; and West, a prudent and amiable man , called on Reynolds, and , in a conference of two hours' continuance, succeeded in persuading him to join them . He ordered his coach , and, accompanied by West, entered the room where his brother artists were assembled. They rose up to a man, and saluted him “ President. " He was affected by the compli ment, but declined the honour till he had talked with Johnson and Burke; he went, consulted his friends, and having considered the consequences carefully , then consented . The King, to give dignity to the Royal Academy of Great Britain, bestowed the honour of knight hood on the first President * ; and seldom has any such distinction been bestowed amidst more universal approbation. Johnson was so elated with the honour conferred on his friend, that he drank wine in its celebration, though he had abstained from it for several years. About the close of the summer of 1773, Sir Joshua visited his native place, and was elected Mayor of Plympton , a distinction so much to his liking that he assured the King - whom on his return he accident ally encountered , in one of the walks at Hampton Court — that it gave him more pleasure than any other he had ever received, " excepting ( be added , recollecting himself), excepting that which your Majesty so graciously conferred on me -- the honour of knighthood.” In this year, Sir Joshua exhibited the Strawberry Girl, which he The custom has been continued ever since, West, who refused the honour, alone excepted. Lawrence had been knighted five years before his election. The following are the Presidents with their dates of election to the office, --Reynolds, 1768 : West, 1792 : Lawrence, 1820 : Shee, 1830 : Eastlake, 1850 : Grant, 1866 : Leighton, HHA-PAINTING A A 1878. 334 PAINTING 66 17 always maintained was one of “ the half-dozen original things which he declared no man ever exceeded in his life's work. He repeated the picture several times ; the original is now in the possession of Sir Richard Wallace. He distinguished himself above all his brother artists by his Fortune- Teller, his portraits of Miss Kemble, and of Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse, in the Grosvenor House Gallery replicas of which are at Langley Park, Stowe, and the Dulwich College Gallery — all very noble compositions. Sir Joshua had now reached his sixty-sixth year ; the boldness and happy freedom of his productions were undiminished ; and the celerity of his execution, and the glowing richness of his colouring, were rather on the increase than the wane. His life had been uniformly virtuous and temperate ; and his looks, notwithstanding the paralytic stroke he had lately received , promised health and long life. He was bappy in his fame and fortune, and in the society of numerous and eminent friends ; and he saw himself in his old age without a rival. But the hour of sorrow was at hand. One day, while finishing a portrait, he felt a sudden decay of sight in his left eye. He laid down the pencil ; sat a little while in mute consideration , and never lifted it more. His sight gradually darkened, and within ten weeks of the first attack his left eye was wholly blind. The last time that Reynolds made his appearance in the Academy was in the year 1790 ; he addressed a speech to the students on the delivery of the medals, and concluded by expatiating upon the genius of his favourite master, adding— “ I should desire that the last words which I should pronounce in this Academy, and from this place, might be the name of Michelangelo ." On the 23rd of February, 1792 , Sir Joshua expired, without any visible symptoms of pain, in the sixty- ninth year of his age. He was buried in one of the crypts of St. Paul's cathedral, accompanied to the grave by many of the most illustrious men of the land. He lies by the side of Sir Christopher Wren. A statue to his memory by Flaxman was afterwards placed in the cathedral. Of historic and poetic subjects, Reynolds painted upwards of one hundred and thirty, of which the principal are the Holy Family, the Snake in the Grass, the Age of Innocence ( Eng. 152 ) , and Robinetta , IN GREAT BRITAIN . 355 all in the National Gallery ; Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy, Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse, Macbeth and the Witches, and Hercules strangling the Serpents ; the last - named was painted for the Empress 153.- Lord Heathfield ( Defender of Gibraltar) . By Reynolds. A.D. 1787. In the National Gallery. Catherine of Russia, and for it she paid Sir Joshua fifteen hundred guineas and added a gift of a gold box, bearing her portrait set in diamonds. It is impossible to state the exact number of portraits AA 2 356 PAINTING. by Sir Joshua, as he executed them in such vast numbers that he was obliged to employ artists to paint the draperies and back grounds. No less than fifteen are in the National Gallery, including a newly- purchased portrait of the Countess of Albemarle, mother of Viscount Keppel, and ten are in the National Portrait Gallery. Of the portraits of the men who still occupy their station in history may be mentioned Samuel Johnson, Oliver Goldsmith , Horace Walpole, Laurence Sterne, Edmund Burke, Lord Heathfield ( Eng. 153) , Admiral Keppel, and Warren Hastings. Of the ladies it is sufficient to say that there was scarcely one at that time celebrated for her rank, accomplishments or beauty, who did not sit to Reynolds. There are more than 700 engraved portraits now existing : and upwards of two hundred of his works were gathered together at the Grosvenor Gallery in 1884. Thomas Gainsborough, who was born in the spring of 1727, at Sudbury, in Suffolk , where his father was a clothier, showed signs of talent at a very early age : he made a number of sketches of the scenery around his native place, and local tradition still loves to point out his favourite views. It is believed, on very authentic grounds, that he went to London, for the education necessary to cultivate his genius, when only fourteen years of age. He there studied under Francis Hayman, one of the founders of the Royal Academy. Gainsborough remained in London four years, during which time he very rapidly mastered the secrets of his art. He then returned to Sudbury, where he married , and thence removed to Ipswich. Soon afterwards he made the acquaintance of Philip Thicknesse, the governor of Landguard Fort, near Harwich, who for many years was his chief patron. In 1760 Gainsborough left Ipswich and settled at Bath, where he made a great reputation as a portrait painter. Sir Joshua Reynolds, when delivering one of his lectures to the students of the Royal Academy on the • Character of Gainsborough, ' said of that artist, " whether he most excelled in portraits, landscapes, or fancy pictures, it is difficult to determine. ” When the Royal Academy was founded in 1768, he was elected one of the original members. In 1774 he went to London and rented part of Schomberg House, Pall Mall, and for the next ten years he contributed many fine portraits and landscapes to the Royal -~ MASS 154.- The Brook .yGainsborough 358 PAINTING Academy, with which body, however, he quarrelled in 1784. He died in 1788, and was buried in Kew churchyard. Gainsborough was passionately fond of music ; was extremely kind and thoughtful in all his dealings with his friends, and generous to his 155. — Gainsborough's daughter. By Gainsborough. relations. His pictures are very numerous, and are famous for their gracefulness, especially in the female portraits. Among them we may draw attention to the Blue Boy, belonging to the Duke of Westminster , said to have been executed for the purpose of refuting a dictum of IN GREAT BRITAIN. 339 Reynolds, that the masses of light in a picture should be a waim yellow , yellowish white, or red ; the Cottage Door, a Cottage Girl with a dog and pitcher, the Young Lavinia , the Duchess of Devonshire, the Portrait of Urs. Sildons, and the Portrait of Orpin, a parish clerk ( the two last in the National Gallery ); the Boy at the Stile, presented to Colonel Hamilton in exchange for a violin ; the Ilarvest Waggon , presented to the carrier, who used, from admiration of the painter's work, to carry his paintings from Bath to London free of charge ; and the Honourable Urs. Graham , at Edinburgh. There are three pictures by him in the National Portrait Gallery, and five in the Dulwich Gallery. As cotemporaries of Reynolds and Gainsborough, we may name George Stubbs, one of the best animal painters in England, and Sawrey Gilpin, both painters of horses ; George Barret, and Julius Cæsar Ibbetson , both landscape painters ; and, as foreign artists who worked in England in the eighteenth century, and to some extent influenced the English style -Giovanni Cipriani; Angelica Kauff man, already mentioned in speaking of the German school ; Francesco Zuccarelli, to whose advice the adoption of landscape painting by Wilson was, as we have seen , mainly due ; and Philip James de Loutherbourg, a celebrated scene painter. Benjamin West was born in America, and is said to have obtained his first colours, made of the juice of leaves and berries, from the Red Indians. He was self -taught, and brought with him to his adopted country all the American independence of spirit in which he had been bred. His determination to avoid imitation , and to work out an original manner tor himself, are perhaps to be deprecated , as he had scarcely sufficient genius for the task ; but his works were a great advance on the conventional mode of treatment of historic subjects, and the introduction in his important compositions of cotem poraneous costumes, although much blamed at the time, was instru mental in breaking down some of the trammels by which historic painters and sculptors were bound. His colouring is feeble, and his figures are wanting in life and character ; but in some of his best works such as Christ healing the Sick in the Temple, in the National Gallery ; Christ Rejected ; Death on the Pale Horse ; and the Death of General Wolfe, in the possession of the Duke of Westminster, a replica of 360 PAINTING one The Victors 156.— Olympia atBarry .yA.D. 1777-82 House Inthe Society ofAdelphi Arts ,London . which is at Hampton Court : -he displayed considerable technical skill and refinement of feeling . West , who was much patron ized by the King (George III . ) , was of the first members of the Royal Academy , and succeeded Sir Joshua Rey nolds as presi dent of that institution 1792 . He im parted instruc tio 2 to , mongst others , his fellow -coun trymen , Stuart , Trumbull and Allston . JamesBarry , native of Cork , deavoured , like West , to paint historic sub jects in the grand style . in a en IN GREAT BRITAIN. 361 His works are characterized by force of conception rather than power of execution ; he was deficient in knowledge of form and in feeling for truth of colouring ; but the energetic perseverance with which he worked on against every disadvantage is worthy of high respect. Unfortunately he was irritable by nature, and quarrelled with his best friends, and was eventually expelled from the Royal Academy. His best designs are the series of allegoric pictures painted , for the Society of Arts, on the walls of their meeting room in the Adelphi, at a time when he bad to work at night for the booksellers to gain a scanty subsistence. It had been intended that eight historic and two allegoric pictures should be executed each by a different artist. No payment was to be given, but the painters were to receive the proceeds of the exhibition of the work when finished. The offer - made to Angelica Kauffman, Reynolds, West, Cipriani, Dance, Mortimer, Wright and Barry for the historic, and to Romney and Edward Penny * for the allegoric, pictures - was however declined by all except Barry, who, filled with zeal for the revolution izing of British Art, offered to do the whole series . On its completion he was much disappointed at what he considered the lack of public appre ciation. An account of the pictures was published by Barry himself in 1783 : they were intended to illustrate this great maxim , or moral truth , “ That the obtaining happiness, as well individual as public, depends on cultivating the human faculties." Our illustration is The Victors at Olympia , 11 ft. 10 in . high by 42 ft . long. It is typical of the most advanced culture. At the right of the picture, the conquerors in the games are receiving the prizes at the hands of the judges. Two of the athletes are carrying their father Diagoras, a former victor. Near this group is another, the chief person in which is Pericles, who has borrowed the face of the Earl of Chatham . The personage in the chariot is Hiero, of Syracuse ; the leader of the Chorus is supposed to be Pindar ; the statue at the right end of the picture is Minerva, that at the other end is Hercules. The figure seated at the base of the statue of Hercules represents Barry himself. † These paintings by Barry form one of the few decorative historic works of any Now little known. He was one of the original members, and the first Professor of Painting at the Royal Academy, in which he was succeeded by Barry. † ' A note on the pictures by James Barry in the Great Room of the Society of Arts, ' by H. Trueman Woou , 1880. 362 PAINTING. a importance in the country, and, however much they may be deprecated in the light of modern criticism, they are worthy of attention on account of the evident desire of the artist to advance the principles of high art in this country. John Singleton Copley was born in America, of Irish parents. Less ambitious than West or Barry, he succeeded more fully in reach ing his aims. Some of his historic compositions show great dramatic power and truth to nature - as, for example, the Death of Chatham and the Death of Major Person , both in the National Gallery. The former is grandly conceived, well executed, and valuable as containing group of faithful portraits of great men of the time ; and the latter is full of the deepest pathos, and is moreover set in the actual scene in which the tragic incident took place -viz . the market-place of S. Heliers, Jersey, taken by the French in 1781. Other great historic pictures by Copley are Charles I. ordering the arrest of five Members of the House of Commons ; the Assassination of Buckingham , and King Charles signing Strafford's death warrant. George Romney executed several portraits and simple groups characterized by dignified refinement, truth of form , and individuality of character. Of his portraits those of Lady Hamilton (who sat to him many times) and The Parson's Daughter in the National Gallery, and of his groups, Newton showing the effects of the Prism ; Milton dictating to his Daughters ; and the Infant Shakespeare surrounded by the Passions, are among the most esteemed. In his best paintings, Romney is equal to Reynolds and Gainsborough. The heads of his portraits are espe cially fine — the men full of power and the ladies of grace. He never exhibited at the Royal Academy. Joseph Wright, of Derby, a very versatile genius, is chiefly known as a painter of firelight subjects. He succeeded equally well in history and portraiture, especially in groups of children. His finest work, an Experiment with the Air -pump, is in the National Gallery. He painted during the latter part of his life in his native town of Derby. His fame has been overshadowed by that of Reynolds, Gainsborough and Romney, and with the last-named he had something in common in style, as may be seen by our illustration ( Eng. 157 ) , which affords a good example of his power of drawing. 157. - Maria. By Wright of Derby. In the Bemrose Collection. By permission of W. Bemrose, Esq. 364 PAINTING . > Heinrich Fuessly, known in England as Henry Fuseli, a native of Zurich, was an artist of great power, often , however, tending to extra vagance ; he is well known by his illustrations of the English poets. He executed a series of paintings as a “ Milton Gallery”” (in emulation of Boydell's “ Shakespeare Gallery ' ) , but the venture was not pecuni arily successful. As professor of painting at the Royal Academy, he fostered the genius of many of the rising men of his day. He attained in his own works as near to the grandeur of Michelangelo as any British painter. James Northcote painted several important historic pictures in a bold and forcible manner, one of which the Presentation of British Officers to Pope Pius VI. - is in the South Kensington Museum. He made many designs for the “ Shakespeare Gallery, " originated by Alderman Boydell, a lover of the arts, who wished by means of this undertaking to afford to painting the encouragement which he had previously given to engraving. It was in 1786 that Boydell determined to try to wipe away the stigma that genius for historic painting did not exist in England ; and within three years a gallery was erected in Pall Mall , and many of the works were executed. All the best known artists received commissions- amongst others were Reynolds, West, Barry, Opie, Northcote, Romney, Stothard, Fuseli , Smirke, Hamilton and Westall. The pictures were engraved and extensively circulated, and, poor as many of them were, they doubtless assisted to stimulate a love of pictorial art in England. Attempts of this kind have been all too few in the history of British Art, and whenever they occur they are worthy of record, and it is sad to think that poor Alderman Boy dell's scheme ended in disappointment, as he was compelled to sell by lottery his galleries , pictures, drawings, &c. , in order to pay off his debts. “ Some few paintings," says Redgrave, “ had great merit, and were not wanting in vigorous original conception and design ; others were theatrical and extravagant, exaggerated by faulty composition and bad drawing ; but the most common defect was the total absence of historic feeling, the display of mere common life prettily decked and draped ; while some, indeed, whose only character was an attempted humour, closely approached caricature." John Hoppner was at one time a fashionable portrait painter and a > 103Nam 158.-Death's Door. By Blake. About A.D. 1804. One of the illustrations of Blair's Grave.' 366 PAINTING . > 6 6 6 6 ܙܕ ܕ rival of Sir Thomas Lawrence. Three of his portraits are in the National Gallery. The landscape backgrounds of his pictures are well executed. A tale related by Hoppner affords an illustration of the difficulties which portrait-painters had to put up with in his time, and which are perhaps not unknown even now. “ A wealthy stock broker drove up to his door, whose carriages emptied into his hall , in Charles Street, a gentleman and lady, with five sons and seven daughters, all samples of Pa and Ma — as well- fed and as city-bred a comely family as any within the sound of Bow bells. Well, Mister Painter, ' said he, here we are, a baker's dozen ; how much will you demand for painting the whole lot of us ; prompt payment for dis count ? ' Why,' replied the astonished painter, viewing the ques tiouer, who might be likened to a superannuated elephant, ' why, that depends upon the dimensions, style , composition, and—' Oh ! that is all settled, ' quoth the enlightened broker ; ' we are to be touched off in one piece as large as life, all seated upon our lawn at Clapham , and all singing God save the King. ' Sir William Beechey was very celebrated in his time as a portrait painter. His picture of George III. at a Review , now at Hampton Court, gained him the honour of knighthood and the Royal Academi cianship . William Blake, a painter, poet and engraver, became a visionary enthusiast, and charmed many of his admirers with his wild imagina tion. Best known amongst his works are his Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience, and his illustrations of Blair's ' Grave ' (Eng. 158 ) . His Jerusalem , the Emanation of the Giant Albion, which appeared in 1804, gave proof, if any were needed, that the mind of its author if not actually deranged was very nearly so, but his Book of Job ( 1825 ) is full of great tenderness and feeling. John Opie, successful both with portraits and historic subjects, is chiefly known by his Assassination of David Rizzio — a powerful concep tion, full of dramatic energy, but somewhat carelessly executed — and by his Tilliam Siddons in the National Gallery. George Morland was a landscape and animal painter of great merit, whose works are faithful and happy renderings of simple English country scenes, such as the well- known Reckoning in the South Ken > 159.— The Old Horse .ByMorland 368 PAINTING sington Museum. Morland deserves special recognition as one of the first English painters to do for English peasants what was so ably done by the great Dutch masters for the lower classes of Holland ; but his hasty and often careless execution does not bear comparison with the careful finish of the masters of the Dutch school. His masterpiece, Inside of a Stable, is in the National Gallery. He frequently painted different renderings of the same subject ( Eng. 159). He was perhaps of all English painters the most mannered . He was a dissipated man, and died in misery. As a painter of animals, especially of horses, Abraham Cooper was most successful . He often chose a battle scene for his subject. > Later Miniature Painting. A.D. 1680 — A.D . 1860. We have already noticed the earlier miniature painters, and we may now fittingly turn aside from the oil-painters to consider for a moment the work of those who followed this art up till a time when it almost became extinct some thirty years since. The best period of this renais sance is almost cotemporary with the reign of George III. , who was the first of the Hanoverian line to give encouragement to the fine arts, which had suffered from want of royal patronage since the days of the Stuarts. George II. we know hated “ boetry and bainting," but his grandson showed a better feeling, and during his reign many of those fine private collections which are now the pride of England were formed. Thomas Flatman, who abandoned the Bar, at which, however, he had apparently never practised, in favour of art, achieved great success as a miniature painter in the seventeenth century. He also attempted poetry, but " one of his heads,” Granger tells us, “ is worth a ream of his Pindarics.” His miniatures are now rarely met with. Cotem porary with him was Alexander Browne, who was patronized by Charles II. and his Court. Lewis Crosse was one of the best minia turists during the reign of Queen Anne, a monarch who, however, did little for the arts. Crosse is guilty of having perpetrated for the Duke of Hamilton an ideal portrait of Mary Queen of Scots, which for many years was considered an authentic cotemporary portrait. Charles > > IN GREAT BRITAIN . 369 Boit , a Swede by birth, was famous for his miniatures in enamel on copper, a method which we have seen was introduced into this country by Petitot, and which is more laborious than the old style of painting in water -colour on card, as practised by Hilliard, Olivier and Cooper. So laborious is the work of an enamel painter, that a highly - finished minia ture sometimes requires as many as twenty firings ; and to rectify a mistake the faulty piece has to be ground out, and a square inch will sometimes require a day's work. In compensation , it can fairly be said, that miniatures well executed in enamel are as brilliant now as on the day of their completion, while examples of the older method though kept with all care are apt to suffer from exposure to light. Sir Robert Strange, the well-known engraver, painted miniatures ; and various members of a family named Lens also practised the art with success . Another foreigner, Christian Frederick Zincke, was a pupil of Boit, whom he surpassed in his style of art . He was patron ized by George II . , and several of his miniatures are in the Royal collection . George Michael Moser, the first keeper of the Royal Academy, painted in enamel for George III . , and was very popular in his time ; he was also a modeller, a sculptor and a teacher. Two other foundation members of the Academy, Nathaniel Howe and Jeremiah Meyer, were popular miniature painters ; the former worked both in water -colour and enamel, the latter was enamel painter to George III. and miniature painter to the Queen. Richard Collins, a pupil of Meyer, was miniature painter to George III . ; but his works are little known now .. Ozias Humphrey, a native of Devonshire (which county produced about this period many good artists) who commenced minia ture painting at Bath, and came to London at the invitation of Reynolds, tried historic painting and portraits in oil, but did not succeed nearly so well in those branches of art as in miniatures, for which he is justly famous. Many of the Royal Family sat to him , and works by his hand are preserved at Windsor Castle, amongst others George III. and Queen Charlotte and the Duchess of Gloucester. In 1785 he went to India, and painted portraits of the Rajahs. Andrew Plimer and John Stuart were also successful miniaturists. But the fame of all these is totally eclipsed by that of Richard Cosway, who is undoubtedly the foremost of this later school of HHA-PAINTING BB 370 PAINTING miniature painters in England . All the beauties of the day sat to him , and he became famous for his small whole-lengths, the bodies of which were only done in pencil , the faces of course being in colour, as well as for his studies of heads. There is a charm about a miniature by Cosway which is unapproached by those of any other artist , but they lack the strength and individuality and truth of Cooper's work, and all bear an air of the ideal . For this reason , per haps, Cosway is far more successful with his female sitters than with men. Our example ( Eng. 160) , however, is of great merit. His works have been freely copied , and not, perhaps, a tenth part of the works ascribed to him are by his hand. Several excellent examples, including the beau tiful Duchess of Devonshire, are in the Royal collection . He usually painted on ivory, which about the end of the seventeenth century super seded paper as the ground work for miniatures. small in person, and in mind vain and eccentric. His wife, 160.– William , fifth Duke of Devonshire . Maria Cosway, was also a Miniature. By Cosway. At Stafford House, London. good miniature painter, and worked in addition for Boy dell's " Shakespeare " and Macklin's “ Poets' Gallery. ” * Henry Bone, who commenced life as a painter of flowers and landscapes on porcelain He was Started by Thomas Macklin in 1788 in emulation of Boydell's " Shakespeare Scheme. Macklin commissioned one hundred paintings from the best English artists, including Reynolds, Gainsborough , Opie, Fuseli, Stothard, &c . , and had them engraved by Bartolozzi and his school. This was followed in 1792 by Macklin's “ Bible .” IN GREAT BRITAIN . 371 at Plymouth, achieved in London an almost phenomenal success as a miniature painter. He was enamel painter to George III. , George IV. , and William IV. , and he was famous for his copies of the masterpieces of Reynolds, Titian , Raphael and other painters. Henry Edridge and Alfred Edward Chalon both practised miniature painting in addition to water - colours. The latter also painted with success in oils . The list of painters in enamel may be closed by the name of William Essex, who was painter to the Queen and the Prince Consort, and who wrote a treatise on enamel painting : and the roll of miniature painters generally must be brought to a close with a brief mention of Sir William Charles Ross (a pupil of Andrew Robertson, himself a miniaturist of no mean ability ) , who confined himself to painting on ivory. He was extensively patronized by the Royal Family, many of the members of which sat to him . In the Royal collection at Windsor are about fifty from his band, many of large size. Ross on his deathbed in 1860, speaking of photography, said only too truly that " it was all up with miniature painting ; ” and it is to be feared that Mr. Propert hopes, in vain , that “ the fascinating art of miniature shall again flourish , awaking from its slumbers, refreshed and renewed , striving always onward to greater and greater perfection . ” Early English Water -colour Painters. A.D. 1775 —A.D. 1810. At the close of the eighteenth century the art of Water - colour Painting, properly so called (now carried to such great perfection by British artists ) , was first practised in England. Water- colours had long been employed by miniature painters and illuminators ; but their use for large and important works was mainly due to the efforts of the book illustrators, who worked for the enthusiastic antiquaries of the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries, and strove to give, with such means as they had at their disposal, faithful delineations of the scenes described in their patrons' works. When first employed water- colours were opaque in quality, and only after wards became used in that transparent form which is now considered their chief charm. In spite of what has been urged to the contrary, B B 2 372 PAINTING paintings in water- colours, if executed with proper colours and pre served with an ordinary amount of care , are practically as durable as works in oil. To John Robert Cozens is due the honour of first raising landscape painting in water- colours to the position of an independent art. Red grave says in his Century of Painters, “ his works go little beyond light and shade and the suggestion of colour, but they are full of poetry ; there is a solemn grandeur in his Alpine views ; a sense of vastness and a tender tranquillity in his pictures that stamp him as a true artist ; a master of atmospheric effects, he seems to have fully appreciated the value of mystery." The fine collection of English water- colour drawings at the South Kensington Museum contains three works by Cozens, but they show that true water - colour art was as yet in its infancy, being first done in monochrome, and then filled in with local washes of colours. A great cotemporary of him, Paul Sandby, who painted in solid opaque tempera colours as well as in water -colours, is well represented there by four characteristic works, which very distinctly betray the influence of Cozens. Others who contributed to lay the foundations of our great school of water- colour painting were William Payne ( the exact date of whose birth and death is unknown, but who was cotemporary with Cozens) ; John Smith, of Warwick ; and, above all, Thomas Girtin , and the great Turner, all of whom are well represented in the South Kensing ton Museum. Thomas Girtin , the cotemporary and rival of Turner, was, like him , London bred, and a faithful interpreter of the atmospheric effects peculiar to the smoke-laden city and its environs. To the delicate execution and poetic feeling of Cozens he added a force and clearness of colouring, with a general balance and harmony of tone such as had never before been attained in water -colour painting ; whilst Turner, by his perfect combination of all the great qualities of his cotemporaries, combined with that peculiar delicacy of execution and mastery of aërial effects of every variety in which he has never been surpassed, may be said to have completed the development of the art. Girtin and Turner abandoned, towards the close of the last century, the old method a IN GREAT BRITAIN . 373 of executing the work first in monochrome, and adopted in its place the plan of laying in each object in its true local colour. “ The transition period , ” says Redgrave, was a short one. . . . Power, brilliancy, and truth were so evidently the result of the new manner, that it soon superseded the old one, and such works could no longer be classed , as heretofore, as drawings, but began to take rank as water-colour , paintings. " George Barret, John Varley, William Henry Pyne, John Glover, William Delamotte, William Havell, and Joshua Cristall, who with several others were the true founders of the Water -Colour Society, were members of the same school, and are all represented by their works at the South Kensington Museum . Of these, all except Delamotte were amongst the sixteen original members of the Society of Painters in Water -Colour, which was founded in 1804 by cse water - colour artists who considered , and justly too, that their work could not be fairly appreciated at the Royal Academy. Girtin was at this time dead, and Turner, as a member of the Academy, could not join the movement. We may here mention that in 1832 a “ new Society of Painters in Water -Colours was formed, which in 1863 took the name of the “ Institute of Painters in Water-Colours.” Both these institutions have since received Royal Charters. And, though still at a disadvantage as regards the Royal Academy, water- colour artists have now ample opportunities afforded them of bringing their works before the public, and of gaining almost equal fame with their rivals in oil . English PAINTERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The first great name which meets the student of painting in England in the nineteenth century is that of Sir Thomas Lawrence, a portrait painter, whose works, chiefly in oils , are characterized by great delicacy of feeling, but are slight in execution , wanting in force and in in dividuality of character. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy before he had reached the age ( 2-1) required by the statutes, and he succeeded Reynolds as painter to the king. In 1794, he became a full member, and thenceforth his success as a portrait painter was a 374 PAINTING assured. He was knighted in 1815, and was elected President of the Academy on the death of West in 1820. His numerous likenesses of the celebrities of his day have great historic value, although they 1 161.- Nature ( children of Mr. Calmady) . By Lawrence . A.D. 1824. scarcely take rank as portraits of the highest excellence. The Waterloo Gallery at Windsor Castle contains a fine collection of Lawrence's works : the portraits of the Emperor Francis, of Pius VII., and IN GREAT BRITAIN. 375 Carlinal Gonsalvi are especially famous. The National Gallery possesses nine examples of his best works. He was especially happy in his treatment of the portraits of ladies and children, good examples of which are Master Lambton and Nature ( Eng. 161 ) . Sir Henry Raeburn was one of the chief cotemporaries of Lawrence, 162. - Christian at the Palace Beautiful. Illustration of The Pilgrim's Progress. ' By Stothard . and carried the art of portrait painting in oils to great perfection. He began life as a miniature painter, and was extremely successful in catching likenesses. He is said to have modelled his style on that of Reynolds, and to have acquired much of his manner of treating chiaroscuro and masses of colour ; and, indeed, his name is as a rule 376 PAINTING. hardly treated with the consideration it deserves. Many of his works are of a high order of merit. Four portraits by him are in the National Portrait Gallery ; and several good ones are in the Edinburgh Academy, of which he was president. His portraits include those of Sir Walter Scott, Sir David Baird, Dugald Stewart, Francis Jeffrey, and many other great men. William Owen, Sir Martin Archer Shee, President of the Royal Academy, Thomas Phillips, George Henry Harlow , and Sir John Watson Gordon must be named as portrait painters in oils, cotemporary with Lawrence and Raeburn. Thomas Stothard, one of the first and best of English book illus trators, painted several important paintings remarkable for richness of colouring and force of invention . The allegoric composition of Intemperance, on a staircase at Burleigh House, and the Canterbury Pilgrims, are among the best known and most popular of Stothard's independent pictures. His illustrations to Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (Eng. 162 ) , and his vignettes to Rogers's Poems are exquisite little gems. Joseph Mallord William Turner was not only the greatest English landscape painter, but the greatest interpreter of nature of any time or country. No landscapes convey so natural and complete a sense of light and shadow and atmosphere, or so entire a mastery of colour as his. This great success was only obtained by laborious study, which he pursued with unwearied assiduity, winning secret after secret in years of patient toil , until at last he attained to the zenith of a landscape painter's ambition—the power of rendering sunlight in something of its truthful fulness, a task which had baffled all his predecessors, and which still baffles his followers and imitators. Turner's special characteristics have been rendered familiar to us all by the admirable engravings of John Pye, Robert Wallis, and others. Every one has felt the subtle charm of his atmospheric effects, and marvelled at the vivid truth of his rendering of water in every form . The tempest-tossed ocean, the desolate wastes of the sea in repose, the jagged rain- cloud , the drifting shower, the lowering fog, the distant river-all live again on his ' canvas. But perhaps not every one has fully realized the moral meaning of his works --the pathetic contrasts Gallery National Inthe Turner .ByLake Avernus 163.- .1831 A.D. 378 PAINTING > they so often present between the self -sufficiency of nature, even when most deeply troubled or wildly agitated , and the dependence of man upon human sympathy for solace and support. In such works as Ulysses deriding Polyphemus, the Fire at Sea, and the Shipwreck (all in the National Gallery ) , the solemn irresponsiveness of the elements whilst the children of the earth are fighting out their terrible battle strikes us with a feeling akin to pain, whilst suggestions of human suffer ing and failure add a pathetic sadness to many a scene of lonely beauty. Turner painted, as we have seen, both in water- colours as well as in oils , and there is no doubt that much of the transparent brightness of his pictures in the latter is the result of his application to them of the principles generally confined to the former. It would delay us too long to attempt to trace the gradual develop ment of Turner's peculiar style as illustrated in the fine collections of his works in the national galleries; we can only name a few typical examples. The Beach at Hastings, the property of Sir A. A. Hood ; Line Fishing off Hastings, in the South Kensington Museum ; and Eneas with the Sibyl, in the National Gallery, are among his earlier works, produced at a time when his practice was largely based upon the manner of the best Dutch landscape painters and that of Claude Lorrain ; and when he was far from having attained that mastery of light which distinguished his best time. The Calais Pier and Ulysses deriding Polyphemus belong to the middle of his career. Childe Harold's Pilgrimage ; the Téméraire ; Venice, from the canal of the Giudecca ; and the Approach to Venice are amongst his finest pictures, and were produced late in life, but before any diminution of his powers was noticeable. In these works, daring composition and brilliant effect are carried to their utmost pitch. In the pictures of his last years, the artist, either through a failure of his eyesight or from some other cause, devoted himself to attempts to depict effects of extreme light, such as the means at a painter's command are quite unable to imitate ; and his latest works are from this cause by no means his finest. In addition to two hundred and seventy- five large pictures, he published numerous and important series of landscapes and designs as illustrations of books, which were reproduced by the best engravers of the day. His Liber Studiorum, or book of landscape studies, produced in rivalry of the IN GREAT BRITAIN. 379 Liber Veritatis of Claude, would alone have made the reputation of any 161. - Cottages near Norwich. By Old Crome. other artist ; it was followed by the series of Southern Coast Scenery, the Rivers of England, the Rivers of France and others. 380 PAINTING Turner's influence is very distinctly noticeable in the works of Callcott , Collins, Creswick, Roberts and other distinguished landscape painters, whilst many of his immediate successors may be said to have formed their style on his . The Norwich School. We must for a moment consider one of the very few local schools of art which have arisen in England, and, in fact, the only one of any importance, that of Norwich, where its memory is still kept fresh . John Crome, commonly called “ Old Crome," the founder of the school, was chiefly remarkable for grand effects produced by simple means—a clump of trees or a bit of heath becoming full of poetry in his hands. As typical examples of his manner we may name Mouse hold Heath, and Chapel Field , Norwich, in the National Gallery. A fine collection of his works was shown at the Exhibition of " Old Masters in 1878. He exhibited only fourteen pictures at the Royal Academy, but at Norwich he showed nearly two hundred ; and he founded the Norwich Society of Artists in 1803. His style is manifestly founded on the Dutch school of landscape art , especially Hobbema, who has ever been a favourite with English landscape artists. His son, John Bernay Crome, was also a painter of merit. James Stark, an able follower of Crome, but lacking his power, sent pictures to many of the London exhibitions. His views of the Scenery of the Yare and Waveney were engraved by Goodall, Cookes and others. A Valley of the Yare by him is in the National Gallery George Vincent was famous for his sunlight effects. His best known work is a View of Greenwich Hospital. John Sell Cotman is known for his landscapes and sea-pieces, and his engravings of archi tectural views. He was a prolific artist : in 1808 he contributed sixty seven works to the Exhibition at Norwich. He was fortunate enough to be patronized by Dr. Morro, at whose house he met Turner, Girtin , Varley and other famous artists ; but his works never fetched high IN GREAT BRITAIN. 381 prices during his life, and he had to support himself and his family by teaching. With Cotman, the Norwich school may be said to close. 165.— The Valley Farm . By Constable. A.D. 1835. In the National Gallery. John Constable was pre-eminently an English painter ; a most faith ful exponent of English cultivated scenery-a branch of landscape neglected even by Turner. Like Crome, Constable required but few materials for the production of his finest works ; his Hampstead Heath 382 PAINTING ( No. 36 in the South Kensington Museum , -which contains a good collection of his landscapes) is merely a country view, with two donkeys in the foreground , but it is instinct with thought and feeling, and . betrays the most earnest study of nature. His Salisbury is a fine work . Constable delighted in painting the sun high in the heavers, and his works are mostly pervaded by a luminous glow of light, and are, moreover, remarkable for brilliancy of colouring, truth and harmony of tone, and thorough mastery of the infinite variety of misty atmospheric effects peculiar to the showery English climate. He occasionally in later life overdid the imitation of the glitter of light reflected from leaves, and thus gave a somewhat " flittering " effect to some of his works. The influence of Constable is very marked in the works of Leslie and others of his English cotem poraries ; and the exhibition of his Hay -wain at Paris in 1824 had, as we have seen, much influence on the French school of landscape painting, which has since risen into such great importance. Several of his best pictures, including the Cornfield, the famous Valley Farm ( Eng. 165 ), and the Hay -wain , are in the National Gallery ; and to these have recently been added the Salt- Box , and two other pictures, presented by the late Miss Isabel Constable, the painter's daughter, who also gave to the South Kensington Museum several hundred of her father's sketches. Constable is one of the few English artists represented in the Louvre, which has five landscapes by him. Sir Augustus Wall Callcott, the brother of the celebrated Dr. Callcott, the musical composer, began life as a portrait painter in oils, but early directed his attention to landscapes, and quickly attained to high rank as a renderer of Italian, Dutch and English scenery. His smaller works, many of which are in the national collections, are con sidered his best, and are chiefly remarkable for breadth and purity of colouring. Towards the close of his career, Callcott produced several sacred and historic pictures, of which the Raphael and Fornarina and Milton and his Daughters are the principal. Although showing good taste and feeling for beauty, they are generally speaking inferior to his landscapes. The National Gallery has nine of his works. William Collins was an excellent painter of English rural and sea side scenery , in which the figures and incidents introduced were treated IN GREAT BRITAIN . 383 in an extremely lifelike and effective manner . He studied under Mor land, and spent some time in Italy, producing several fine Italian landscapes, such as the Caves of Ulysses at Sorrento, and the Bay of Naples , in the South Kensington Museum ; but his true sphere was English out-door life, and his Happy as a king, the Prawn -Catchers, Rustic Civility - all in the national collections -- and Sunday Morning, the Sale of the Pet Lamb, Fishermen on the Look -out, and many similar works in private possession, are simple and lifelike renderings of incidents with which every Englishman is familiar. Clarkson Stanfield, who began his artist life as a scene-painter, stands at the head of the English realistic school of landscape painting. His works are chiefly characterized by the entire absence of any attempt to produce effect by artificial means ; they are simple, faithful renderings of actual scenes, and if sometimes wanting in vitality , they are, many of them , valuable as exact copies of foreign localities and buildings of note. Of this class are the Castello d'Ischia from the Mole ; the Isola Bella, Lago Jaggiore ; S. Michael's Jount, Cornwall, in the South Kensington Museum , and many other similar works. Stanfield took especial pleasure in painting the open sea when unruffled by storms, and has rendered it admirably in all moods of calm . pieces with shipping are too numerous to be mentioned here, but we may add that the Entrance to the Zuyder Zee — Texel Island, and the Lake of Como, the Canal of the Giudecca uith the Church of the Jesuits, all in the National Gallery, are fine examp'es of his manner ; and that works such as The Day after the Wreck, and A Dutch East Indiaman on Shore in the Scheldt prove that he was not unable to do justice to scenes of a less peaceful character. John Martin was in every respect a contrast to Stanfield ; he adopted " the grand style," both in landscape and architecture, and idealized all he touched. His works exhibit great dramatic power, and in the words of Wilkie, “ his great element seems to be the geometrical properties of space, magnitude, and number - in the use of which he may be said to be boundless . ” The Belshazzar's Feast and the Fall of Vinereh are considered his best works, but some idea of his peculiarities may be gathered from his Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum in the National Gallery. Martin's large subjects are painted in oils, but His sea 2 384 PAINTING he also produced many beautiful and poetic sketches of English scenery . in water -colours, one of which -- a View from Richmond Park - is in the South Kensington Museum . Francis Danby, a man gifted with a vivid sense of the pathos of human life and the touching sadness of natural scenery in its lonely beauty, painted alike in oils and water-colours. Amongst his most striking pictures we may name the Upas or Poison tree of Java ( now in the South Kensington Museum ), which exercises a peculiar fascination on the spectator ; Disappointed Love, also in the same museum, is remarkable for the manner in which the gloom of the stagnant waters harmonizes with the dejection of the young girl beside them. The Sunshine after a Shower, the Sunset at Sea after a Storm , and the Overthrow of Pharaoh and his Host in the Red Sea, are all in private possession. Effects of gloom , and the glow of sunset or sunrise, were the peculiar province of this artist. David Roberts , like Stanfield , began life as a scene-painter in a theatre, and in his oil-paintings and water-colour drawings retained much of the rapidity of execution and mechanical dexterity which he had acquired in the early portion of his career. His works are cha racterized by picturesque grouping of figures and truthful rendering of architecture. He is most popularly known by a series of studies in Egypt and the Holy Land, published in lithography from his sketches. These show his power and accuracy as a draughtsman. His oil- paint ings, which include representations of most of the famous buildings of the world, evince, in addition to a masterly though often careless power of drawing, a profound knowledge of effect, and a keen eye for the picturesque -- with, however, but indifferent feeling for colour. Among his best works may be named his pictures of the exterior and interior of S. Stephen's, Vienna. The national collections at South Kensington and Trafalgar Square are rich in characteristic oil -paintings by Roberts; and the former also contains two water-colours from his hand. Richard Parkes Bonington, an Englishman by birth , was educated in France, and had acquired considerable reputation in that country before he became known in England. He painted both in oils and water -colours ; and in the words of Redgrave (Century of Painters), his works as were marked by their originality. He was a master of the IN GREAT BRITAIN . 385 figure, which he painted with much grace. He succeeded equally in his marine and coast scenes, and his picturesque architecture of the Italian cities. His works differed from those of his countrymen mostly in the simple breadth of the masses, both of light and of shadow , and from his appreciation of the change which shadow induced on the local colour." Like Constable, Bonington exercised a great influence both on English and French painting, especially on those artists who employed water- colours . Owing to his long residence abroad , he is very inadequately represented in our national collections, but an exceedingly valuable series of his works is in the possession of Sir Richard Wallace : the most famous of these is his Henri IV, and the Spanish Ambassador. In the Louvre is his François I. and the Duchesse d' Étampes. Patrick Nasmyth— the son of Alexander Nasmyth, a Scotch painter of considerable merit, who is represented in the National Gallery by a view of Shirly Castle— has been likened to the Dutch Hobbema, on account of the simple homely beauty of his landscapes and his vividly truthful rendering of rustic life . He was essentially a realistic painter, and as such is held in high esteem at the present day. Three small landscapes are the only works by Nasmyth in the national galleries of London, but they are good examples of his peculiar excellences, which may be summed up as truthful detail, forcible effect, and modest but harmonious colouring, rather inclined to be heavy and dark. He rarely ventured on a large or complicated composition. At the head of the genre painters of England, in the early part of this century, stands Sir David Wilkie, a Scotchman , with whose vivid renderings of homely Scotch life we are all familiar ; but Edward Bird - well represented in the National Gallery by his Rafile for tle Watch - deserves recognition as having been to some extent the fore runner of Wilkie, and the first to introduce the humorous element which is so important a feature of British genre painting. Wilkie in some respects resembled his great predecessor Hogarth, but in the works of the latter the moral to be conveyed is always the first thing to strike the observer, whilst in those of the former kindly humour rather than satire is the predominant feature. Until 1825 , Wilkie painted genre pictures exclusively, winning a reputation never HHA — PAINTING сс 9739738 HOFU ha LUUANTIL ONTM TUTTI כוננוי WALT Wilkie A.D. 180666. –Village Politicians .By . = PAINTING IN GREAT BRITAIN . 387 surpassed , by his Village Politicians ( Eng. 166) , the Blind Fiddler, the Rent Day, the Village Festival , the Letter of Introduction , Duncan Gray, Distraining for Rent (many of them in the national collections at South 167.-Crossing the Ford. By Mulready. A.D. 1842. In the Vational Gallery. Kensington and Trafalgar Square), the Penny Wedding, and the Chelsea Pensioners, in the possession of the Duke of Wellington, and other similar works. These early compositions are mostly of cabinet size, and are all alike characterized by simple and effective treatment CC 2 388 PAINTING > of familiar incident. Many of them are crowded with figures ; they are painted in a pure and transparent colour which cannot be called either rich or brilliant, but which admirably fulfils all the requirements of the subject chosen. In the year 1825 , Wilkie went to Italy, and on his return to England completely changed his style and mode of execu tion. His later works — such as the Maid of Saragossa, and his John Knox Preaching, in the National Gallery —although they have a charm of their own, and display considerable dramatic force and power of picturesque grouping, are wanting in the vitality of those enumerated above. In an attempt to imitate the broad, rich colouring of Titian and Velazquez, Wilkie lost the quiet harmony and balance of tone by which he had been distinguished. But for his early death, however, he would probably have conquered these deficiencies, and have risen to a high position as an historic painter in the grand style. Wilkie painted chiefly in oils, but the South Kensington Museum contains some interesting water - colour sketches by him. William Mulready, born at Ennis in Ireland, ranks second only to Wilkie in his masterly treatment of familiar incident, and is by some critics thought to approach Turner in the finish and brilliant colouring of his landscapes. His genre pictures exhibit less dramatic power and less humour than those of Wilkie, but in truth of drawing and sweetness and depth of colouring they are inferior to none. Mulready's easel pictures are in oils ; but the South Kensington Museum contains a fine collection of life- studies in chalk which afford valuable specimens of careful drawing. Of his oil paintings the follow ing ( all of which are in the National Gallery or the South Kensington Museum) are among the most remarkable : The Last In ; Crossing the Ford ( Eng. 167) ; the Fight Interrupted ; Giving a Bite ; First Love ; the Toy Seller ; Choosing the Wedding Gown ( his most popular work) , and the Seven Ages of Man. Charles Robert Leslie, a distinguished artist of American birth , sed genre painting of the highest class. The leading character istics of his works are force of expression, refinement, and feeling for female beauty . His subjects are principally illustrations of popular authors, of which the Merry Wives of Windsor, in the South Kensing ton Museum ; Sancho Panza, and Uncle Toby and Widow Wadman 1 IN GREAT BRITAIN. 389 DURO 168. – Uncle Toby and Widow Wadman. By Leslie. A.D. 1831 . In the National Gallery . ( Eng. 168) , both in the National Gallery, are among the most note 390 PAINTING worthy. In all these works the figures are wonderfully lifelike and natural — the heroines especially being admirable renderings of ideal creations. But two other men who adopted similar subjects to the three painters noticed above, remain to be mentioned. We allude to Gilbert Stuart Newton and Augustus Leopold Egg Newton , a native of Nova Scotia, displayed considerable feeling for colour and expression, but was wanting in knowledge of drawing. His Portia and Bassanio in the South Kensington Museum , considered one of his best works , is a fine example of his manner. Egg, whose untimely death was severely felt, excelled Newton in drawing, but was inferior to him in colouring. His works are characterized by pathetic beauty, and are mostly pervaded by a subtle sadness. A scene from Le Dialle Boiteux, in the National Gallery, is considered one of his best compositions. Whilst landscape and genre painting were thus earnestly practised by so many men of genius, and patronized by the picture buying public, a group of artists arose who endeavoured, with more or less success , to perfect the grand style in English historic painting. Of these, Henry Howard, Benjamin Robert Haydon, William Hilton , William Etty , and more recently Sir Charles Eastlake and Daniel Maclise were the chief. Henry Howard, an oil painter of great industry and perseverance, cannot take high rank amongst the artists of the present century ; his works are pretty and pleasing, but never grand. A Flower -girl by him is in the National Gallery. William Hilton, a man of greater power than Howard, produced many fine works ; some of them - such as Christ crowned with thorns ; the Angel releasing S. Peter ; Edith and the Monks discovering the body of Harold, and Serena rescued by the Red Cross Knight, the two last in the National Gallery—are characterized by ideal beauty of design ; but unfortunately, owing to the undue use of asphaltum , it is now difficult to fully realize their original condition, and there appears to be no hope of their preservation. Benjamin Robert Haydon, whose life was one long struggle with pecuniary difficulties, painted many large historic and sacred works-of which Xenophon's First Sight of the Sea, Christ's Entry into Jerusalem , and IN GREAT BRITAIN . 391 the Raising of Lazarus ( in the National Gallery) , were among the best. His power was unfortunately not equal to his will ; and although the general effect of some of his compositions is good, a close examination betrays gross errors of drawing and carelessness of execu tion . He was a vain and very ambitious man , and his want of success led to his melancholy end. Amongst painters of fruit and flowers in England, George Lance ranks with Van Huysum in Holland. He was a pupil of Haydon. His three pictures in the National Gallery bear very evident traces of the influence which the Dutch school had on his style. William Etty, a man of great industry, stands alone as the English artist who has gone nearest to a mastery of the difficulties of the nude human figure, and has approached to the brilliant transparency of the old Venetians in his flesh -tints. The early part of his career was beset with difficulties of every kind : his merits were unappreciated, his faults exaggerated, the technical excellences of his work were not understood ; and, as a rule, the subjects he chose did not appeal with any force to popular sympathies. Yet, in spite of all these dis couragements, he worked out for himself an original style, and won a place amongst the very first British artists. To quote his own words, Etty's aim in all his important pictures was “ to paint some great moral on the heart." The Combat, or woman pleading for Mercy ; Benaiah, David's Chief Captain ; Ulysses and the Syrens, three pictures of Joan of Arc, and three of Judith , now in the Royal Scottish Academy, are named by the artist himself as his best works ; but we must also mention Youth on the Prow and Pleasure at the Helm , the Bather, and the Wife of Candaules, king of Lydia, in the National Gallery ; and Venus Descending, and Cupid sheltering Psyche, in the South Kensington Museum , as extremely fine examples of the beauty of form and truth of flesh - tints , characteristic of everything produced by Etty. William Edward Frost painted pictures very similar in subject to those of Etty : his female figures are graceful, but he lacks the powerful colouring of his rival. Sir Charles Eastlake, a man of high scholarship and varied accom plishments, exercised an important influence on English painting of the present day, both by his pictures and his writings on art . His oil 392 PAINTING paintings, which are not numerous, are characterized by delicate grace of execution, feeling for spiritual beauty, and effective simplicity of grouping. Christ Lamenting over Jerusalem , in the National Gallery, is considered his masterpiece ; other examples are Greek Fugitives in the hands of Banditti ; Hagar and Ishmael, and several incidents from Italian life . He was for many years President of the Royal Academy, and also Director of the National Gallery, of which for a few years he had been Keeper. > The occasion of the rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament was looked upon by many as an opportunity for granting State aid and encouragement to art. In 1841 , a Commission was appointed to inquire into the matter ; and, in opposition to the advice of many most competent to judge, it recommended the adoption of fresco instead of oil paintings. Sir Charles Eastlake, for instance, said that “ the peculiar merits of the English school are of a nature which are perhaps the least fit to be displayed in fresco. ” A Royal Commission was appointed, under the presidency of the Prince Consort, who ever showed an intelligent appreciation for the Fine Arts, but its composition was curiously lacking in artists. A competition of cartoons was announced . This was followed by a competition of works in fresco, to which fifty six painters contributed ; six were selected for a further competition , and had moreover to maintain their laurels against all comers. And after four years the Commission recommended that six fresco subjects should be executed in the House of Lords, in situations " quite unsuited to the proper display of high art in any medium ,” of which the first was Dyce's Baptism of S. Ethelbert. Some were executed in stereochrome or water-fresco, as practised in Germany, amongst others, Maclise's Meeting of Wellington and Blucher. Meanwhile a competition in oil paintings took place ; and subsequently the Queen's Robing Room , the Upper Waiting Room and other chambers were decorated . This series of competitions was not successful, and its history affords a proof of the unsuitability of placing a matter of this kind in the hands of laymen. Time was wasted, artists were put to great expense, and no practical good resulted. Daniel Maclise, an Irishman by birth, was a man of considerable u IN GREAT BRITAIN . 393 original genius, with great power of design and feeling for colour. He produced numerous important works in oil- colours, of which the Play scene in Hamlet, in the National Gallery ; Sabrina releasing the Lady from the Enchanted Chair ; the Banquet Scene in Macbeth, the Ordeal by Touch, and Robin Hood and Richard Cæur de Lion , were among the principal. The latter years of Maclise's life were occupied in executing the mural pictures for the decoration of the Houses of Parliament referred to above, -of which the Meeting of Wellington and Blucher and the Death of Velson were the chief. The cartoon for the former is in the possession of the Royal Academy. Maclise's manner under went a great change after the commencement of the pre- Raphaelite movement, and an almost painful attention to detail encumbered his later works. The Eve of S. Agnes, one of his latest exhibited easel pictures, may be referred to as a typical example of his power and his high finish. Edward Matthew Ward, one of the few painters of historic subjects in England, formed his style from a three years' study in the galleries of Rome. The three pictures in the National Gallery, the Disgrace of Lord Clarendon ; the South Sea Bubble ; and James II. receiving the news of the landing of the Prince of Orange, are sufficient to show the character of his work . He was a most industrious artist , and has left many paintings, several of which have been engraved. As portrait painters of the British school who attained to eminence in the earlier part of the present century, we may name John Jackson and Sir William Allan , both of whom are represented in the National Gallery, and the late President of the Royal Academy, Sir Francis Grant, who painted many portraits of the nobility. James Ward was a very successful animal painter, well known by his Council of Horses and Gordale Scar, both in the National Gallery, and numerous fine groups of animals, in the South Kensington Museum and elsewhere. The fame of Ward, however, has been entirely eclipsed by that of Sir Edwin Landseer, who was long at the head of the animal painters of this country. He stands alone as an interpreter of the thoughts and feelings of the dumb creatures, and his compositions are chiefly characterized by masterly drawing, delicacy of execution, poetic 394 PAINTING feeling and dramatic force. He had a rare power of rendering tex tures ; his subtle and rapid execution seemed equal to depicting with perfect ease and perfect fidelity, fur, feathers, hair, horn - in short, 169.-Shoeing. By Landseer. A.D. 1844. In the National Gallery. > perhaps every texture, except human flesh . In the expression of animal life he was absolutely unrivalled, though he did not attempt any of those furious hunting combats, by which Snyders obtained such renown. His colouring is cold, and the human figures in his groups IN GREAT BRITAIN. 395

are often wanting in character and inferior in handling to the animals ; but, in spite of these drawbacks, his paintings will always appeal powerfully to the sympathies of educated and uneducated alike. Of Landseer's oil- paintings, the following are among the most cele brated : -Bolton Abbey ; Havking ; There's Life in the Old Dog yet ; The Otter Speareil ; the Sanctuary ; Coming Events cast their Shadows before ; the Stag at Bay ,--all in private possession : and High Life and Lov Life : Shoeing the Bay Jare ( Eng. 169 ) ; Dignity and Imprudence ; Peace ; War ; Alexrınder and Diogenes ; Distinguished Member of the Humane Society ; and the laid and the Magpie, -all in the National Gallery ; and A Jack in Otjice, and the Shepherd's Chief Mourner, in the South Kensington Museum . His drawings and sketches in pen and ink and in water -colours are, many of them , scarcely less effective than his completed pictures. His works are well known from engravings. His elder brother, Charles Landseer, was a good painter of subject pieces. His most popular works were the Sacking of Basing House and Nell Gwyne. Richard Ansdell showed much ability in drawing animals and sport ing subjects, but his representations of animals are much inferior to Landseer s. In the first place, he depicted lower types of animals cows and sheep, rather than horses and dogs - and he only succeeded in painting their outward forms, and gives us no full indication of their habits or characteristics . In 1856 he went to Spain with John Phillip, and afterwards exhibited many excellent pictures of goats, mules and asses with Spanish men and women . Thomas Creswick made, for himself an undying fame as a painter of landscapes. His works are thoroughly English in sentiment and execution. Several well-known artists collaborated with Creswick. John Phillip deserves notice on account of the rare merit of his pictures, especially in point of colour. He visited Seville twice and painted Spanish scenes with success ; and a few of his latest pictures, such as La Gloria ( a Spanish Wake) and the Prison Window , are of the highest value as compositions, and have a touching interest of genuine power. Alfred Elmore earned much renown as a subject painter. His Invention of the Stocking-loom has been frequently engraved. 396 PAINTING John Frederick Lewis succeeded equally in water -colours and in oil : in 1857 he was elected President of the Society of Painters in Water Colours, and later became a Royal Academician. His pictures are views, with figures, in Spain, Italy and the East. His Interior of a Harem gained him great reputation. Edward William Cooke was one of the best English marine painters of the present century. He painted chiefly coast and river scenery. His works may be seen both in the National Gallery and at the South Kensington Museum. George Hemming Mason, who produced many fine works of land scape and figure, painted both in Italy and England simple rustic subjects treated with classic feeling. They are noteworthy for their dignity and fine colouring, and have recently become very much sought after amongst art-collectors. Cecil Lawson executed, in the short space of his painting career about twelve years - pictures enough to prove the great merit of his abilities, and to warrant one in surmising that had he lived he would have occupied a very high place in the roll of British art. Many of his landscapes are masterly renderings of wind-driven clouds and wide expanse of country. The best known are the Hop Gardens of England, the Minister's Garden , and the August Moon , of the year 1880, which is now in the National Gallery. Thomas Webster, the painter of the well- known pictures, The Smile, The Frown, and The Village Choir , was, in his boy hood , a chorister in the Chapel Royal, St. James's. Nearly all his pictures were genre subjects treated in a genial and agreeable manner, and in nearly all children may be seen. His Going to School, 1836, and the Dame's School are in the National Gallery. The Village Choir, perhaps his best picture, is , with four other paintings, at South Kensington. John Linnell, the son of a London picture-dealer, by the advice of Benjamin West attended the schools of the Royal Academy at Somerset House. About 1840 he devoted himself especially to landscapes, such as The Disobedient Prophet, The T'imber Waggon, The Eve of the Deluge, for which he is most celebrated, but he also produced some good por traits in oil and miniatures on ivory. His Woodcutters and Windmill are in the National Gallery. A representative collection of his works IN GREAT BRITAIN. 397 was shown at the “ Old Masters ” in 1883. He was one of the best of the English landscape painters of the nineteenth century. Though hardly perbaps coming within the scope of a history of painters, a short mention may be made of the most celebrated of the book -illustrators. George Cruikshank in early life designed many political caricatures. Afterwards he etched plates for Grimm's Fairy Tales, novels by Ainsworth and Dickens, The Loving Ballad of Lord Bateman, and many other popular works. His last effort in oil painting, the Worship of Bacchus, in the National Gallery, is simply a caricature on a large scale. Hablot Browne, under the name of “ Phiz , " designed many humorous and satirical subjects, and etched the well-known plates to Pickwick , Nicholas Nickleby , and others of Dickens's works. Richard Doyle, the son of the famous caricaturist, known to a previous generation as H. B. , was one of the wittiest of our satirical designers. His contributions to Punch were exceedingly clever, especially his Manners and Customs of ye English. He illustrated some of Thackeray's novels, and made charming water -colour designs for Fairy Tales , many of which were exhibited in the Grosvenor Gallery in 1885. The name of the friend of Thackeray, John Leech, will long remain fresh in the minds of English people, on account of his contributions to Punch, from 1841 to 1864 ; his illustrations to à Beckett's Comic History of England and Comic History of Rome, and many other works too numerous to mention. There is a kindly feeling apparent in all his drawings. Randolph Caldecott, a brilliant and original draughtsman, illustrated Washington Irving's Old Christmas and Bracebridge Hall, and numerous Christmas books, such as John Gilpin and the Elegy on a Mad Dog, which were the delight alike of young and old. He also made many contributions to the Graphic. He was at his happiest when depicting scenes of field sport. Transferred, by his all too early death at the age of forty -three in 1888 , to the annals of the past, is the name of Frank Holl, who will ever be remembered as one of the most powerful of English portrait painters in the latter half of the nineteenth century, and one who well under stood that there is more in the painting of a portrait than the mere .HO HUTRITETET ANTE RETUS RECNA CORDIVM 1866 170. - Regina Cordium. By Rossetti. A.D. 1366. In the Trist Collection , Brighton. By permission of T. H. Trist, Esq. PAINTING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 399 such as delineation of the features, and who was able, especially in the case of men, to place on canvas the impressions of individuality which he gathered from his sitters. His strong style of painting was not so suitable to female portraiture. His art was thoroughly English in feeling and in execution, albeit he was much impressed by the work of Velazquez. His early fame was quickly made by pictures of a genre character, chiefly melancholy in subject but full of truth to nature, “ The Lord gare, and the Lord hath taken away ” ( 1869) ; Deserted ( 1874) ; Her first-born ( 1876 ) ; and Newgate : committed for trial ( 1878 ) . In later years, however, he devoted himself almost exclusively to portraiture, and many of the most famous men of the day sat to him . Amongst his most successful portraits have been those of Semuel Cousins, the engraver, by which he at once made his reputation as a portrait painter ; Signor Piatti, Sir Frederick Roberts, Lord Ilolseley, Jr. Bright, Mr. Glailstone, the Duke of Cleveland and Eurl Spencer, which is by some considered his masterpiece. THE PRE-RAPHAELITES. The movement commenced in 1818 by a body of young artists , to whom the name of Pre- Raphaelites has been given, headed by men most of whom are still living, exercised a remarkable influence at the time. The members of this school professed to repudiate all imitation of the works of other men , and to ignore entirely all that was done by Raphael and his school, taking the direct study of nature as their chief inspiration. Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti, the son of an Italian refugee, was born in London in 1828, and received his art e lucation at Cary's school * and the Royal Academy. In conjunction with Holman Hunt, John Millais, and a few other young artists, Rossetti commenced what was termed the “ Pre-Raphaelite Revolt,” † in which the brother hood was greatly assisted by the writings of Mr. Ruskin . When Francis Stephen Cary, the son of the translator of Dante, succeeded Sass in his well- known School of Art in Bloomsbury about 1840. + The seven members of the P. R. B. were Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Michael Rossetti , W. Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais, James Collinson, F. G. Stephens, and J. Woolner. 400 PAINTING a Rossetti's painting, The Girlhood of the Virgin Mary, was exhibited , it was met with a storm of angry criticism , but a few years afterwards it was admitted that the brotherhood had done much to improve the tone of English art, which had previously become mannered and commonplace. His most celebrated pictures are the Lady Lilith , Monna Vanna, The Beloved Beata Beatrix , and The Blessed Damozel. His Ecce Ancilla Domini, a beautiful creation, is in the National Gallery. He made several illustrations to the works of Tennyson and other poets, and designed church windows. All his pictures are filled with his own strange imaginings. Rossettiwas also a clever though eccentric poet. The leaders of this school have, some of them, forsaken its prin ciples ; and the movement may perhaps be said to be dying out, having, however, served to stimulate an attention to detail and to the study of nature, although the brethren were, in their search after truth and poetic inspiration, led into strange eccentricities. Later English Water -colour Painters. Before we close our notice of the British schools of painting, it is our pleasant task to speak of a group of men who are allowed , even by foreign critics, to be unrivalled in their peculiar line by any of their European cotemporaries : this group is , however, unfortunately not represented in the National Gallery. We refer to the distinguished painters in water-colours, who carried on the work inaugurated by Cozens, Girtin and Turner. John J. Chalon'and Thomas Heaphy attained to considerable eminence as water-colour artists in the early part of the present century ; but were both far surpassed by David Cox, who may be said , indeed , to rank second only to Turner in fertility of imagination, feeling for the poetry of nature, and power of rendering the characteristic beauties of English landscapes. His works are truly ideal productions, in which the leading features are breadth and transparency of colour, truth of foliage, whether at rest or in motion, and life - like play of light and shade. Of Cox, Redgrave IN GREAT BRITAIN . 401 says, “ No painter has given us more truly the moist brilliancy of early summer -time , ere the sun has dried the spring bloom from the lately -opened leaf . The sparkle and shimmer of foliage and weedage in the fitful breeze that rolls away the clouds from the watery sun , when the shower and the sunshine chase each other over the land, have never been given with greater truth than by David Cox . ” A Welsh Funeral is cited by the same author as a typical example of his peculiar excellences. The series of landscapes by him in the South Ken sington Museum are emi nently characteristic. Peter de Wint worked out an original style of his own , giving faithful and effective renderings of the general aspects of nature and of vast expanses of country , without any at tempt at the finishing of details, cultivating tone and colour rather than form . Anthony Vandyke Cop ley Fielding , one of the best Wint ByDePark .Greenwich from London 171.- HHA — PAINTING D D 402 PAINTING English painters of the Sussex Downs, and of marine effects, did much as President of the Water- Colour Society to improve the position of the professors of his own branch of art. George Fennel Robson was an admirable interpreter of the lake and mountain scenery of England. Samuel Prout excelled in drawing architecture, and has never been surpassed in the rendering of buildings. He was very chary of his work —a little drawing was made by him to go a long way ; but then every line represented firmly and accurately as much as it was intended to show. He had a keen sense of the picturesque, his points of sight വൾ HIQUE 172.—The Old Gate. By Fred . Walker. were well chosen, and his grouping was always happy. As a colourist he was not very successful. The South Kensington Museum contains several valuable water - colour drawings by Prout. Our limits forbid us to attempt any detailed account of the many men who contributed to the development of the present British school of water-colour painting, such as William Hunt, who is amongst the best English colourists of the present century. Hunt's subjects were usually either rustic scenes or fruit and flowers, and his textures were marvellously rendered . His colouring was that of Nature herself, IN GREAT BRITAIN. 403 and his finish has never been excelled, if equalled. George Cattermole is chiefly distinguished for his lifelike figure painting. His paintings are usually of a dramatic character. Samuel Palmer, who owed much to the teaching of his father -in -law , John Linnell, and to Blake, whose works produced much impression on his mind, was a landscape painter of no common order. His works, especially his sunsets, are characterized by an almost too great brilliancy of colouring. He worked in oil as well as in water - colour ; and is also celebrated for his etchings. Francis William Topham was a very successful water- colour artist . His subjects are frequently drawn from Italy and Spain, and from Scotland and Ireland. Frederick Walker, in his all too short career, made himself justly famous for his pictures of landscapes with figures. Like Mason, he treated ordinary rustic scenes in a dignified, classic style, and his works are now valued very highly. He was the only Englishman who received a medal for water - colour painting at the International Exhibition in Paris in 1867. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, but never lived to receive full academic honours. Best known among his works are the l'agrants, in the National Gallery, the Bathers, the on Gate ( Eng. 172 ) , and the Harbour of Refuge. George John Pinwell, another promising artist cut off in his prime, began his artist- life as a wood - engraver for book illustration. He con tributed frequently to the Water - Colour Society , of which he was a member. Among his best known pictures are the Pied Piper of Hamelin ( 1869 ), and the Elixir of Love ( 1870 ). He illustrated Jean Ingelow's Poems, and other works. His posthumous fame rests on the pathos, imagination, and poetry of his pictures, rather than on any marked technical ability, though his modelling and chiaroscuro were of an essentially high order. It has been well said that, when these two men died,-Walker at thirty - three, and Pinwell at thirty -four - they left a blank which English art has as yet been unable to re- fill . In these days of rapid travelling and its consequent cosmopolitanizing influences, it is a matter as well of surprise as of congratulation, that England preserves so successfully a truly national Art-more especially when we consider that several of our best painters received D D 2 404 PAINTING 66 their early training in foreign studios. But it must not be thought that continental art bas been without its influence in this country. The characteristics of the present school of England have recently been claimed by its head — the President of the Royal Academy - as being “ sincerity, healthiness and versatility ; " and in these qualities we plainly see every prospect of a bright and glorious future. The Pre- Raphaelite movement, if it did perchance give rise to a few works of sickly sentimentality, did much to combat the influences of mannerism , triviality and commonplaceness, and has resulted in the formation of what has been termed the Daylight School. * Some few painters there are—we may call them the modern Classicists—who, placing beauty of form, learning, scientific know ledge, and historic detail high in the scale of artistic requirements, produce works which, though they appeal to the head rather than the heart, can not but tend to elevate the tone of English Art, and are thus worthy of the highest consideration. Others have willingly gone back from this every-day world to try to conjure up upon their canvases the scenes of ancient Greece and Rome, in one instance at least with signal success. English painters are perhaps most at home when depicting scenes of domestic history. While the traditions handed down from Steen, Dou and Mieris, by Wilkie, Mulready and Leslie , are passing away, the modern painters of genre have, though gaining in truth , lost in senti ment ; but they well know that worthy treatment can ennoble the simplest subject. In pictures of aa marked dramatic quality, English painters have not been very happy as a rule, though one or two rising artists have successfully treated difficult subjects of this class ; and there are amongst us a few painters of battle scenes who for dramatic power will rank high in future ages. For many years the East has afforded scenes for the artist's pencil , and the brilliantly -coloured works which are the result of brighter skies than ours have a charm of their own. In Portraiture enough has been done to prove that the latter half of the nineteenth century will hold its own even beside the glorious epochs of Reynolds , Gainsborough, and Lawrence, despite the only too numerous

  • “ Fifty Years of British Art, ' by J. E. Hodgson, R.A. Manchester, 1887.

IN GREAT BRITAIN. 405 examples of the commonplace, due in many instances, no doubt, rather to the sitter than the artist. No shoulders have been found fit to assume the fallen mantle of Sir Edwin Landseer ; but his influence did not die with him, and the sympathy which exists between man and dog is still portrayed. That England should have produced so few marine painters is perhaps a subject for wonder, considering the influence which the sea has played in the history of our national existence . But there is at least one artist who paints the sea as it should be painted. In Landscape pure and simple, though no living painter will in the future probably be ranked by the side of Constable and Gainsborough , or Turner and David Cox, yet there are many painters who turn to nature with an earnest desire to depict the truth, “ men of a new type which has grown up in the last twenty years ; brave, hardy enthusiasts who pitch their easels in the open , and brave all weather, wind, rain, and even snow , in pursuit of truth. The result is, that secrets have been wrested from Nature utterly unknown to an earlier race of landscape painters, who were satisfied to paint from sketches and pencil notes." In the conclusion of his Fifty Years of British Art,' Mr. Hodgson tells us that the average of art in England is “ many degrees higher than at the beginning of the Queen's reign. It is higher in its technical accomplishment ; the artists are better workmen ; it minis ters to more spiritual needs, and embraces a wider field of sympathies ; and it has none of the symptoms of stagnation or decay.” • . . 6 66 a PAINTING IN AMERICA. The last school of painting which claims our attention, both from its merit and its promise of future excellence, is that which , during the last hundred years, has sprung up in America. Beginning, as in England, with portraiture, this school has progressed until it now numbers in its ranks many very excellent figure and landscape painters. Indeed, if American Art can be said to have a bias in favour of one branch of subjects rather than the others, it must be said to be of landscape painting. American works are not unfrequently brought to Europe to be exhibited, and are received with great admiration. In an article on American Art, Mr. S. G. W. Benjamin ( to whose writings we are indebted for much information contained in the follow ing short notice) says— “ There is one fact connected with the early growth of our art which is entirely contrary to the laws which have elsewhere governed the progress of art, and is undoubtedly due to the new and anomalous features of our social economy. Elsewhere the art feeling has undeviatingly sought expression first with earthenware or plastic art, then with architecture and sculpture, and finally with painting. We have entirely reversed this order. The unsettled character of the population, especially at the time when emigration from the Eastern to the Western States caused a general movement from State to State, together with the abundance of lumber at that time, evidently offered no opportunity or demand for any but the rudest and most rapidly constructed buildings, and anything like archi tecture and decorative work was naturally relegated to a later period ; and for the same reason, apparently, the art of sculpture showed no sign of demanding expression here until after the art of painting had already formulated itself into societies and clubs, and been represented by numerous artists of respectable abilities . ” We here give a short account of those painters who have hitherto been most distinguished ; regretting that the plan of our book does not permit us to include the names of living artists . Although hard-and PAINTING IN AMERICA. 407 fast lines of demarcation are impossible in the history of art, it is yet desirable, for the sake of convenience, that some sort of periods should be observed. In the present case we can not do better than follow the plan adopted by Mr. S. R. Koehler, who divides American Art into ( 1 ) The Colonial Period ; ( 2 ) The Revolutionary Period ; ( 3) The Period of Inner Development ; ( 4 ) The Period of the Present ; during the two first of which it was decidedly under English influence. The Colonial Perioil. A.D. 1715-A.D. 1770. In spite of the stern Puritan feeling of the early settlers in America, which was most unfavourable to the culture of the Fine Arts, there existed , as works still remaining testify , portrait painters in America at a very early period ; but they were principally foreigners, and those of them who were natives were influenced in a great measure by such works of Van Dyck, Lely or Kneller as the settlers in the New World had taken out with them . John Watson, a native of Scotland, who emigrated to America in 1715, and painted portraits in Philadelphia ; and John Smybert, who left England and settled in Boston about ten years later, are but two of the most prominent of a crowd of foreigners of more or less merit, who earned a living by painting portraits in America in the early years of the eighteenth century. Smybert took with him to America a copy, done by himself, of the head of Cardinal Bentivoglio, by Van Dyck, and this picture is said to have produced a great impression on the minds of Trumbull, Allston and other famous painters, and was no unimportant factor in the directing influences of early American Art. Smybert's best work is the Family of Bishop Berkeley, in Yale College. Robert Feke, of Newport, -a town which produced several early American painters of note — who acquired a little knowledge of art in Spain, and Matthew Pratt of Philadelphia, who want to England in 1764, and studied under West, are two of the first American artists worthy of record. a 408 PAINTING 7 The Revolutionary Period. A.D. 1770—A.D. 1780. “ The Revolutionary Period is,"” says Mr. Koehler, “ in many respects, the most interesting division, not only in the political, but also in the artistic history of the United States. It is so, not merely because it has left us the pictorial records of the men and the events of a most important epoch in the development of mankind, but also because it brought forth two painters who, while they were thoroughly American in their aspirations, were at the same time endowed with artistic qualities of a very high order " -- Stuart and Trumbull. But the true foundation of American Art was laid by Copley and West, who were almost cotemporaneous. John Singleton Copley, the historic painter, was born of Irish parents at Boston, United States, then a British colony. After paint ing for several years in his native city, he -- forced, like many another American artist after him, by lack of material for study in his native country, to seek instruction in art in foreign countries — started in 1774 for England, where, after a tour on the Continent, he finally settled and died. In the Public Library at Boston is his Charles I. demanding the five Members from Parliament. Benjamin West, who was born at Springfield , Pennsylvania, went to England in 1763, and rapidly rose in public favour, until he reached the height of his ambition in 1792 , by becoming President of the Royal Academy. Of these two artists , we have already given a fuller notice among the British school. Gilbert Charles Stuart, one of the best portrait painters of America, was born at Narragansett, in Rhode Island, of Scotch and Welsh descent. He received his instruction in art at Newport from Cosmo Alexander, who took him to Scotland with him, but Stuart returned to America soon afterwards. In 1781 he went again to Great Britain, studied under West, and established himself as a portrait painter in London, where he enjoyed the friendship and society of some of the famous men of the day. It was during this visit that he painted the IN AMERICA. 409 fine portrait of Mr. Grant skating, which was exhibited at the Exhibition of Works by the Old Masters in 1878, when it attracted much attention, . . 173.-General Knox. By Gilbert Stuart. Copyright 1879, by Harper and Brothers. and was for the moment ascribed to Gainsborough. In 1793, Stuart returned to America , and after residing in New York, Washington, and 410 PAINTING Philadelphia, he re -established himself finally, in 1806 , at Boston, where he continued to paint with uninterrupted success until his death. His works are commonly seen both in the public and private galleries in America. His chefs- d'oeuvre are his portrait of Judge Stephen Jones in the Richards Collection at Boston, and his so- called Athenæum head of Washington, whose portrait he painted several times. His pupil, James Frothingham , also acquired fame as a portrait painter, John Trumbull, the historic painter, born at Lebanon , Connecticut, was one of the best of the early American artists. He combined the professions of a soldier and a painter, and thus had the means of being an eye -witness of scenes-such as the storming of the works of Bur goyne at Saratoga—which suggested the subjects of many of the works which have made his name famous. He graduated at Harvard, entered the army, and was made aide- de-camp to Washington. In 1780 he went to London, where he studied under his fellow - countryman , West, whose influence is distinctly traceable in his pictures. Arrested as a spy, he was obliged to return to America, but on the cessation of hos tilities, he went again to England, and resumed his studies under West. After a visit of nineteen years ( 1796–1815) , seven of which were spent in diplomatic service, he lived constantly in America . He died in New York, at the advanced age of eighty-seven, and was buried in Yale College. His four great works executed in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington — the Declaration of Independence ; the Surrender of Burgoyne ; the Surrender of Cornwallis ; and the Resignation of Wash ington at Annapolis—have since been moved to the Art Gallery in Yale College. Of other works we may notice—in the City Hall , New York, por traits of Governors Lewis and Clinton ; at New Haven the Death of General Montgomery ((Eng. 174) , “ one of the most spirited battle - pieces ever painted ,” the Battle of Bunker's Hill, and a full -length Portrait of Washington . His works were unequal in merit ; his male portraits were far more successful than his female. He was one of the founders, and the first President, of the American Academy of Fine Arts. Charles Wilson Peale, a native of Chesterton, Maryland, was not only a painter, but a worker in wood, metal and leather. Besides his IN AMERICA. 411 oil-paintings, he executed numerous miniatures, for which he “ sawed his own ivory, moulded the glasses, and made the sbagreen cases . " He also served in the American army, where he rose to the rank of Colonel. He studied under various masters — in Philadelphia under a German, in Boston with Copley, and in London with West. а 1 1 174.—Death of Montgomery in the attack of Quebec. By Trumbull. At Yale College. Copyright 1879, by Harper and Brothers. > į Peale, though lacking the highest qualities of an artist , was one of the most popular portrait painters of his time, and was especially remarkable from the fact that he painted the earliest authentic like nesses of Washington , who subsequently appears to have obligingly sat to a number of artists. E. Savage was another versatile genius like Peale. His picture in the Boston Museum, representing The Signers of the Declaration of 412 PAINTING Independence, is interesting rather from an historic than an artistic point of view. Some of his portraits, however, have more merit. > The Period of Inner Development. A.D. 1780—A.D. 1870. Washington Allston , who until recently was generally considered the chief painter of the American school, but who really did not do half so much good for a truly American National Art as Stuart or Trumbull, was a native of Waccamaw in South Carolina . After the completion of his university career at Harvard, he went to London in 1801 , and at once entered the Royal Academy schools, where he be came acquainted with his fellow- countryman West, who was then president. In 1804 Allston went with Vanderlyn to Paris, and thence to Rome, where in the following year he painted his Joseph's Dream , At Rome, Allston commenced with Washington Irving a friendship which lasted for life. He also became acquainted with Coleridge, and the Danish sculptor, Thorwaldsen. In 1809 he returned to America, married a sister of Dr. Channing, and then went again to London, where he produced his Dead Man revived by the bones of Elisha , which gained a prize of two hundred guineas from the British Institution, and is now in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia . Then followed the Liberation of S. Peter by the Angel, now in the Worcester Lunatic Hospital ; Uriel in the Sun, in possession of the Duke of Sutherland ; and Jacob's Dream, in the Petworth Gallery. In 1818 Allston returned to America, and settled at Boston, with his health weakened by sorrow for his wife, lately deceased, and by over work. In the same year he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. Of the works which he executed in the following years, we may notice, the Prophet Jeremiah, now in Yale College ; Saul and the Witch of Endor ; Miriam's Song and Dante's Beatrice. In 1830 he married again, and settled at Cambridge, Mass. , where he spent the rest of his life. His Spalatro's vision of the bloody hand, from the ' Italian ' by Mrs. Radcliffe, was formerly in the Taylor Johnson Collection in New York. IN AMERICA. 413 serve to The works of Allston, the “ American Titian ,” are especially remark able for the beauty and power of colour. In his subjects, he was fond of the terrible, especially noticeable in Spalatro's Vision , Saul and the Witch of Endor, and in his unfinished Belshazzar's Feast. He painted many excellent portraits. That of Coleridge, by him, is in the National Portrait Gallery. Edward G. Malbone, a native of Newport, in his 'short career of thirty years, executed some charming works in miniature painting. The Hours by him , now in the Athenæum at Providence, is full of grace and poetry. Our illustration ( Eng. 175 ) will give an indication of his style. John Wesley Jarvis and Thomas Sully, natives of England , were also successful as portrait painters. Sully's female portraits possess great sweetness, but his likenesses of men are lacking in power . His pupil, John Neagle, of Philadelphia, also produced 175.- Portrait of Elizabeth Southgate Bowne. portraits which were not Miniature. By Malbone. without merit. John Vanderlyn, who was born at Kingston, New York, went in 1803 to Europe, and was in Paris and at Rome (where he lived in the house formerly owned by Salvator Rosa), the friend and companion of Allston . In Rome he painted, in 1807, his famous Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage, to which Napoleon personally awarded the prize medal in the Salon of 1808. His next best picture was a Sleeping Ariadne, in the Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts ; and he also executed numerous portraits. Samuel F. B. Morse, of telegraphic fame, practised for some years 414 PAINTING as a painter. He was a pupil of Allston, and one of the founders in 1826, and second president, of the National Academy of Design. He abandoned art as a profession in 1839 . Rembrandt Peale, the son of C. W. Peale, after a short career as a portrait painter in Charlestown, South Carolina, went to London, and studied under West. He also resided for some time in Paris, where he painted, among other pictures, portraits for his father's museum. His Portrait of Washington was purchased by Congress for 2000 dollars. John James Audubon, was born in Louisiana, and studied in Paris under David. On his return to America in 1826 he devoted himself to portraying birds, just in the same manner as Catlin gave himself up to the painting of American Indians. He published, in Edinburgh, a book containing more than one thousand birds' portraits, the originals of which are now in the possession of the New York Historical Society. Having exhausted the feathered tribe, Audubon was engaged on a work on the quadrupeds of America, when he died . Chester Harding began his career in painting as a sign -painter, at Pittsburgh, but subsequently turned his attention to portraiture, in which he afterwards became successful. From Pittsburgh he went to Philadelphia, thence to S. Louis, and then to Boston, where he became the fashionable portrait painter of the day. In 1823 Harding paid a visit to England, where he received much patronage from the nobility. He afterwards revisited England, but died at Boston , U.S. Of his portraits, that of Daniel Webster, in the possession of the Bar Associa tion, New York, is the most famous. George Catlin , the painter of the aboriginal Indians, was originally intended for the law, but abandoned that profession in favour of painting, and established himself in Philadelphia . In 1832 he started on a journey among the tribes of American Indians, and made the acquaintance of no less than forty-eight of them. On his return to civilization in 1839, he published the result of his journey in the form of a book with illustrations by his own hand. He resided for eight years in Europe. Many of his Indian sketches were exhibited at Philadelphia in 1876. William J. Hays chose his subjects from the animal kingdom of the great West, but his talents never rose above second class. IN AMERICA. 415 Robert Charles Leslie, who was born of American parents in Clerkenwell, was taken when quite a child to the United States ; in 1811 he went to England , and , with the exception of a short visit to America in 1833, resided there for the rest of his life. Henry Peters Gray, a pupil of Huntington, was President of the National Academy from 1869 to 1871 , when he wert to Florence. He painted chiefly genre subjects until his later years. Amongst his best paintings are Wages of War, sold for 5000 dollars, and now in the Metropolitan Museum , New York , and The Apple of Discord , which was highly commended by the jury at the Philadelphia Exhibition of 1876. He was also famous for his fenale portraits ; but there is very little nationality about his art . Gilbert Stuart Newton, who was born at Halifax, Nova Scotia , in America, studied under his uncle, Gilbert Stuart, went to Europe, in 1817, and paid but one short visit to America in 1832, and died in London ; he belongs to the English school. On the other hand , Thomas Cole -- who was born at Bolton - le -Moor, Lancashire, of American ancestry, and went when eighteen years of age to Steubenville, Ohio ----belongs to America . After travelling about the country for some time, he visited New York , where he was patronized by Trumbull and other artists. Cole made two journeys to Europe, and stayed chiefly in Italy and England, the scenery of which countries furnished him with subjects for many of his best works. He died among his own dear Catskills, " as he calls them ; for, with all the magnificent scenery of the Alps and elsewhere in Europe, and the works of Claude Lorrain , Salvator Rosa , and Turner and Constable, which he saw in England, he remained true to his first love, although the influence of these masters tended to mar the individuality of his style. Of Cole's works we may notice, in the possession of the New York Historical Society , the Course of Empire - five landscape scenes , his master-piece ; his famous series of Voyage of Life, formerly in the Taylor Johnston Collection of New York ; and the Mountain Ford , and Kenilworth Castle, both of which were shown at Philadelphia in 1876. Many of his works, frequently views of the Catskills, are in the private and public galleries of America. Cole may be considered the father of American landscape art. 66 416 PAINTING Side by side with Cole must be mentioned Thomas Doughty, who did much for the furtherance of landscape art. He did not commence painting until he was twenty- eight years old , and he was entirely self taught. Of the next generation of landscapists, a foremost man was John F. Kensett, who began life as an engraver, studied painting for seven years in Europe -visiting Italy, Switzerland , and the Rhine. He then settled in America, and rose to fame as a landscape painter. “ Kensett's best pictures,” says Tuckerman, “ exhibit a rare purity of feeling, an accuracy and delicacy, and especially a harmonious treat ment perfectly adapted to the subject." Sandford R. Gifford , a good painter of landscapes and sea pieces, excelled in the representation of the effect of sunlight. The Pre-Raphaelite movement, which we have referred to in the British school, had some slight influence on the art of America. One of its foremost disciples to the new world was John W. Hill, a land scape painter, chiefly in water-colours . Henry Inman studied for some time in New York under Jarvis, a good artist of the period . After several years spent in New York, he settled at Philadelphia, where he became famous as a painter of portraits, and occasionally of landscapes and genre pictures. In 1843 he went to England, where he remained for two years ; and painted among other portraits those of Wordsworth and Macaulay. The works of this artist are commonly seen in the public and private galleries of America . The City Hall, New York, has some good portraits by him ; noteworthy among these is that of Governor Van Buren ; others are in the Boston Athenæum . His landscapes and genre pictures are best seen in private galleries . William Sidney Mount, who has been called " the American Wilkie, " was one of the first in that country to practise genre painting suc cessfully. His works, such as The Long Story, in the Corcoran Gallery, Washington , and Bargaining for a Horse, in the New York Historical Society, display great sense of humour ; but their colouring is poor. His Trvant Gamblers, in the last- named institution, is also a good work. Emmanuel Leutze, a native of Emingen in Würtemberg, went, when still young, with his father to America. He at first maintained himself by portrait painting, but his favourite subjects were of an historic ? IN AMERICA . 417 nature. His earliest work of note is an Indian gazing on the Setting Sun. In 1841 he determined to visit Europe. He arrived at Amster dam early in the year, and thence went to Düsseldorf, where he studied under Lessing. His Columbus tefore the Council of Salamanca was purchased by the Art Union of that city. From Düsseldorf, Leutze went to Munich, and became the disciple of Cornelius and Kaulbach . After his “ Wanderjahre " through Italy and Switzerland , he returned to America in 1859, and became justly famed as a painter of historic subjects. A picture of Western Emigration by him is in the Capitol at Washington. Other good works by him are Washington crossing the Delaware and the Iconoclast. Shortly after Leutze had died, a letter came announcing his election to the presidentship of the Düsseldorf Academy, rendered vacant by the death of Lessing. Richard Caton Woodville also studied at Düsseldorf, and made himself known during his short career by his Mexican views and similar subjects. Charles Loring Elliott was a pupil of Trumbull, in New York . On the completion of his studies, he established himself as a painter in that city, where, with the exception of several years spent in the Western part of the State, he chiefly resided . He is said to have executed nearly seven hundred portraits, many of which are highly praised for their representation of individual character. Of these the acknowledged masterpiece is that of Fletcher Harper, which was selected to represent American portraiture in the Paris Exbibition of 1878. George A. Baker is known for the beauty of his portraits of ladies and children . Louis Rémy Mignot, the landscape painter, lived some part of his life in New York ; he then removed to " South Carolina, and subse quently, at the outbreak of the Civil War, took up his residence in England, though he paid visits to his native land. He exhibited in the Royal Academy from time to time, and many of his works are in England. One of his best pictures is Snow in Hyde Park. Three foreigners, who settled in America, executed many landscapes and sea-pieces of considerable merit William Frederick de Haas, a native of Rotterdam , celebrated for his coast scenes ; A. van Beest, a Dutchman, who was famous HHA—PAINTING E E 418 PAINTING as a teacher of art ; and Johann Erik Christian Petersen, a native of Copenhagen, where he first studied art, who settled in America in 1865 —worked, the first two in New York, the last in Boston. Christian Schüssele, a native of Alsace, exercised, as Director of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy, some influence on American art. His style was founded on modern French classicism. William Rimmer, who began life as a physician, is better known as a sculptor than an artist ; but he executed, in addition to his oil . paintings, many drawings which are full of strange thoughts and fancies. J. B. Irving, a pupil of Leutze, painted genre subjects in a French One of his best works is The End of the Game. William Henry Furness, of Philadelphia, was one of the most successful portrait painters of his time. He was especially noted for his crayon drawings. manner. ) The Period of the Present. A.D. 1870-A.D. 1888. Speaking of the modern American artists who have learned their art in France, Mr. Koehler says, “ What the art of America has gained in outward attractiveness and in increase of skill, it has had to pur chase at the expense of a still greater de - Americanization than before. The movement is , however, only in its inception , and its final results cannot be predicted ." William Morris Hunt, a man of versatile talents, but a better draughtsman than colourist , was a native of Brattleborough, Vermont. He first studied sculpture at Düsseldorf, and then entered the studio of Couture in Paris, but soon became much impressed by the work of Millet, whose pictures he bought and whose subjects and style he appreciated. In 1855 , Hunt returned to America, and after a stay at Newport, settled at Boston, where he afterwards resided, and became celebrated for his genre subjects, but more especially for his landscapes and his portraits, and where he had great influence on the rising artists of the day. In 1878 he began and completed the decoration of two great walls in the Senate Chamber of the new Capitol at Albany. IN AMERICA. 419 Among his best works are the Prodigal Son , the Fortune- Teller, the Violet Girl, and the Flight of Night, his master-piece. He occasionally lithographed from his own designs. Two other artists must be mentioned, who both died at a compara tively early age Robert Wylie, a native of the Isle of Man, well known for his subjects of Breton life ; and R. H. Fuller, of Boston, a self- taught artist, who based his style on those works by modern French artists which he saw in his native country, which he never left. In 1863 a collection of English water - colour paintings, which was taken to New York and there exhibited , aroused a strong feeling in favour of that medium in America. A Water -Colour Society was soon started, and that branch of art now holds a permanent and important position among the painters of the New World. While in recent years American artists have proved themselves formidable rivals of their European brethren in the use of the etching needle. a In conclusion, we may briefly point out that Art in America beginning with portraiture, which has, perhaps, failed to realize its early promise - is now most strongly represented in landscape and marine subjects ; that true historical painting, especially of a national character, is at a somewhat low ebb ; that, with a few noteworthy exceptions, the natural history painters are of no high order of merit ; but that painters of genre subjects and still - life are asserting themselves with a vigour and a display of talent that argue well for the future. Iu later days, American painters have shown greater sympathy with French art than with that of the mother country. A notice of American art which does not deal with living painters must necessarily be very incomplete, and to a certain extent misleading ; for several men who are yet working, made for themselves a name as early as many who now rank in the history of the past ; and it is to the present and the future, rather than to the past, that the history of American art belongs.

THE PRINCIPAL GODS AND GODDESSES OF GREECE AND ROME.

the Latin > 7 91 > Ζεύς, Zeus ; Iloreidwv, Poseidon ; ' Απόλλων, Apollo ; " Hpalotos, Hephaestus ; " Αρης , Arēs ; " Epuñs, Hermēs ; " Ηρα, Hera ;

  • Αθήνη,

Athēna ; " Αρτεμις, Artėmis ; ' Αφροδίτη, Aphrodite; “Εστία , Hestia ; Anuntnp, Dēméter ; Alorvoos, Dionysus ; llepoepórn, Persephoné ; Αίδης, Hades ; Κρόνος, Cronus ; ' Péa, Rhea ; Λητώ, Νίκη, Nike ; " Έρως, Eros ; Jupiter. Neptūnus. Apollo. Vulcānus. Mars. Mercurius. Juno. Minerva. Diana. Venus. Vesta. Ceres. Bacchus. Proserpina. Pluto . Saturnus. Cyběle. Latona. Victoria . Cupido. 97 » 92 Lēto ;

INDEX OF NAMES OF ARTISTS. *

. . . . Page Paze Acton, Adams 293 Artois, Jacobus van 516 Adam , The Brothers 152 Asoka 5 Agelades of Argos 187 Asselt, Jean van der Agesander 202 Athenodorus 202 Agnolo of Siena 240 Audubon 653 Agoracritus 193 Austen, William 284 Agostino of Siena 240 Akers, Benjamin 295 BACKER . 527 Alan de Walsingham 138 Bacon, John 287 Albani, Francesco 461 Bagnacavallo . 400 Albertinelli, Mariotto 371 Bailey, Edward 289 Alcamenes 193, 209 Baker, George A. 658 Aldegrever 452 Bakhuisen 544 Alexander . 650 Bandel, Ernst von 276 Alfaro'y Gamez · 495 Banks, Thomas 287 Allan . 640 Barret, George 617 Allar . 279 Barret, George 622 Allston 652 Barrias Altdorfer 452 Barry, Sir Charles 114, 155 Amato d' Antonio 371 Barry, Edward 136 Amberger 442 Barry, James , 618 Amman, Jost : 452 Bartholomew . 295 Angelico, Fra , 353 Bartolini 279 Anselm , Archbishop 124 Bartolommeo of Florence 336 Antigonus 203 Bartolommeo, Fra . 371 Antonello da Messina 357, 364 Barye, Antoine . 279 A pelles . 320 Barzaghi . 279 Apollodorus 53, 319 Basaiti, Marco 365 Aretino, Spinello 341 Bassano . 418 Aristeides 320 Bastiani, Lazzaro 365 Aristodemus 201 Bazzi 381 Armstead 293 Beaugrant, Guy de : 262 Arnolfo . 240 Beaumont 608 The artists are indexed under their popular namus ; no notice has been taken of prefixes. 279 . . . . . . . INDEX. 663 • 271 . . . . . . Page Bouchardon . Boucher , . 577 Boulogne, Bon . 572 Boulogne, Louis de . 572 Bourdon 570 Bouts, Dieric . 429 Braekeleer, F. de · 518 Bramante 104 Bril , Matthys 434 Bril, Pauwel . 434 Britton 157 Broderick 156 Broederlam 422 Bronzino 387 Brosamer 452 Brouwer 529 Brown, Madox 309 Brueghel, Jan 434 Brueghel, Pieter 432 Brueghel, Pieter (“ Hell ") 432 Bruges, John of 422 Bruggemann, Hans. 238 Brun , Charles le 571 Brunelleschi, F. 100, 244 Bry, Theodor de 452 Bryaxis . 200 Buonaventura Berlinghieri 335 Buoni, Silvestro de' . . 371 Buono, Bartolommeo 249 Burckmair 442, 452 Burton · 154 Bushnell, John 285 Busti, Agostino 249 Becerra , Jaspar Becker Beckford Beechy Begas , Karl Begas, Reinhold Beham , Bartel Beham, Hans Sebald Behnes, William Bell, John Bellange Bellini, Gentile Bellini, Giovanni Bellotto . Beltraffio Benedict of Wearmouth . Berchem Berck -Hevile, Gerrit Berck -Heyde, Job Bernini . Bernward, Bishop Berruguete, Alonso Bink , Jakob . Birch Bird , Edward : Bird, Francis . Bissolo Blake Bles, Herri Bloemart Bloemen, Jan Frans van Bloemen, Pieter van Blondeel, Lancelot . Boehm Boethus . Bol Bonifazio, Veneziano Bonifazio, Veronese Bonington Bono di Ferrara Bonsignori, Francesco Bonvicino Bordone, Paris Borgognone Borromini, Francesco Bosch, Jerom Bosio, François Both , Andries Both , Jan Botticelli . Page 262 556 156 620 557 276 452 452 292 293 592 365 364 463 381 118 540 547 547 106 227 262, 483 452 293 633 285 365 620 431 435 518 . 516 262 293 201 527 415 415 632 363 363 414 414 366 106 429 276 539 539 358 . . . CABANEL Cain Cajesi, Patricio Calamis . Callcott . Callicrates Callot, Jacques Canachus of Sicyon . Canaletto Cano, Alonso Canova, Antonio Capelle, Jan van de Caravaggio Carducci, Bartolommeo Curducci, Vincenzio Caroni 595 279 . 488 . 188 629 40 563 187 463 272, 475 267 545 462 487 487 . 279 . . . 664 INDEX. . . Page 642 620 600 618, 649 . 514 . 435 553 590 401-404 463 • 276 . . Carpaccio, Vittore . Carpeaux Carracci, Agostino Carracci, Annibale Carracci, Lodovico Carreño de Miranda Carstens . Casentino, Jacopi di Castagno, Andrea del Castillo, Augustin del Castillo, Juan del Castillo yу Saavedra, A. del Catena Catlin Cattermole Cavallini, Pietro Cavelier . Caxés ,Eugenio Cellini, Benvenuto . Cephisodotus : Céspedes, Pablo de . Chalon Chambers, Sir William Champagne, Philippe de . Chantrey, Sir Francis Chapu Chardin . Chares Chaudet, Antoine Chodowiecky Christus, Petrus Cibber, Cajus Gabriel Cima da Conegliano Cimabue . Cipriani . Claude Lorrain Cleef, Joost van Cleomenes Clésinger Clouet, François Clouet, Jean Clovio, Giulio . Cockerell Coello, Claudio Cole, Thomas . Collins Colombe, Michael Colotes Conrad de Hochsteden Constable Page 365 Cooke, Edward , W. . 279 Cooper, Abraham 457 Cooper, Samuel 457 Copley 457 Coques 486 Cornelisz 456 Cornelius 341 Corot 357 Correggio 473 Cortona , Pietro da 473 Cortot, Pierre 475 Cosimo, Piero di 365 Cosmato, Giovanni. 654 Costa , Lorenzo 644 Cotman 343 Courbet . 279 Cousin , Jean 488 Couston , Guillaume . 256 Couston , Nicolas 199 Couture 471 Cox, David 642 Coxcien, Michiel van 151 Coxcien , Raphael van 516 Coypel, Antoine Coypel, Noël . 279 Coysevox, Antoine . . 578 Cozens Cranach , the elder : · 276 Cranach , the younger 456 Crauk 427 Crawford, Thomas 285 Crayer, Kasper de 365 Creswick , Thomas 336 Cristall 617 Crivelli, Carlo 567 Crome, John 597 Crome, John Bernay 211 Cuevas, Pedro de las 279 Cuyp 561 561 DAHL · 289 360 336 366, 400 628 594 260, 562 271 . 271 594 643 394, 432 504 · 201 . . • . . 399 Danby . 154 Dance, George 495 Danhauser 655 Dannecker 629 David , Gheerardt 259 David, Jacques Louis 193 Decamps 95 Decker 628 Delacroix 574 . 574 . 270 621 454 454 279 294 . 504 641 622 364 637 627 486 538 . 609 631 152 557 . 974 581 592 538 591 INDEX. 665 . . . . . . 455 Page · 527 . 279 . 279 648 486 381 643 279 250 341 593 288 . 517 . 527 432 293 279 497 • . . . . . Fabritius Falguière Fantacchiotti . Feke Fernandez, Antonio Arias Ferrari, Gaudenzio . Fielding, A. V. Copley Finelli Fiore, Angelo Aniello Firenze, Andrea di . Flandrin Flaxman, John Flemalle . Flink Floris, Frans Foley, John Henry Fontana . Fortuny yу Carbó Fouquet : Fowke, Captain Foyatier . Fraikin Francia . Franciabigio Fréminet Frost Frothingham Führich. Furness Fuseli Fyt . • 561 . Page Delamotte 622 Delaroche 591 Delen , Dirk van 545 Denner, Balthasar 455 Desportes 577 De Wint 643 Diaz de la Peña 592 Diepenbeck 509 Dietrich . Dietz 558 Dionysius of Colophon 319 Dipenus . 187 Dobson 600 Dolci, Carlo 461 Domenichino 459 Donatello .. 245 Donner • 271 Dossi, Battista 400 Dossi, Dosso 400 Dou, Gerard 532 Doughty 656 Drake, Friedrich 275 Duban 112 Dubois, Paul : 279 Dubufe . 589 Duccio di Buoninsegna 336 Dürer, Albrecht 263, 444–452 Durand, Amédée 279 Duret . 277 Dusart . 537 Dyck, Antoon van 505—509, 598 EASTLAKE 638 Eeckhout, G. van der 527 Egg 636 Elliott 657 Elmes, James . 154 Elmore, Alfred 642 Elshaimer 455 Erwin of Steiibach : 95 Espinosa 470 Etex 279 Etty 638 Euphranor • 321 Everdingen . 540 Eyck , Huibrecht van 423 Eyck, Jan van 424 Eyck, Lambert van 426 Eyck, Margareta van 426 FABRIANO, Gentile da 343 . . · 156 . 277 . 280 . 370 387 563 642 650 551 658 . 619 . 511 . . . GADDI, Agnolo 341 Gaddi, Gaddo 336 Gaddi, Giovanni 341 Gaddi, Taddeo 340 Gärtner . 111 Gainsborough 614--616 Gandy, James 600 Gandy, William Garnier . • 600 . 112 Garofalo . 400 Garrard, Marc 432, 597 Gatta , Bartolommeo della 560 Geefs Genelli 555 Gerbier, Sir Balthazar 599 Gérard 583 Géricault . 585 Gerome . 279 · 280 . . . .666 INDEX. . . . · 111 . . 622 Page 244 , 350 358 427 105 • 285 151 290 656 · 617 496 407 341 337 258 368 270 583 146 622 335 187 593 622 427 481 159 623 , 640 259 295 496 . Ghiberti, Lorenzo Ghirlandajo Ghent, Justus van Giacomo della Porta Gibbons, Grinling Gibbs, James . Gibson , John . Gifford Gilpin Giordano, Luca Giorgione Giottino . Giotto Giovanni da Bologna Giovanni di Pietro . Girardon, François . Girodet de Roucy Trioson Girolamo da Treviso Girtin Giunta of Pisa Glaucus of Chios Gleyre Glover Goes, Hugo van der Gomes Goodall Gordon Goujon , Jean Gould Goya y Lucientes Goyen, Jan van Gozzoli, Benozzo Grande, Ercole Granet Grant Gray Grebber, Pieter de Greenough, Horatio Greuze Gros Gruyère . Guardi Guercino Guérin . Guido of Siena Guillaume, Eugène. Gumery . 431 · 555 . . Page Hals, Dirk 521 Hals, Frans 520 Hamilton , David 155 Hamon 594 Hansen , Theophil Harding, Chester 654 Harlow 623 Hartley · 295 Hasenclever 557 Havell . Hawksmoor, Nicholas 151 Haydon . 637 Hayman . 603 Hecyles . 187 Heem , Jan de . 547 Heere, Lucas de 597 Helst , B. van der 531 Herp 510 Herrara, el Viejo 472 Herrera , el Mozo Hess, Heinrich von Hess, Peter von 554 Heyden, Jan van der 546 Hildebrandt 556 Hilliard . 598 Hillin , Bishop 72 Hilton 637 Hittorff 112 Hobbema 542 Hogarth . 60 --- 607 Holbein , Hans-the elder 439 Holbein , Hans—the younger 146, 439–412, 596 Holbein, Sigismund Holland , Henry 154 Holt, Thomas , 147 Hondlecoeter, Melchior – 547 Honthorst 601 Hooch , Pieter de 537 Hoogstraeten . 528 Hoppner. 620 Horebout 597 Hoskins, 600 Hosmer, Harriet 295 Houasse, Michel Ange 496 Houdon, Jean Antoine 271 Howard . 637 Huchtenburg . 513 Hudson . 603 Hübner . 556 . . 538 . . . 357 366 584 640 655 514 294 580 583 279 464 461 584 335 279 . 279 Haas, de Hagen, Jan van der 658 542 INDEX. 667 Hunt, William . Hunt, William Morris Huysmans, Cornelis Huysum Page 644 659 517 548 Krafft, Johann Peter Kruger Kulmbach, Hans von Kunz Page 557 557 452 . 345 · 617 . . IBBETSON Ictinus 40 Imola , Innocenzio Francucci da 400 Ingres 587 Inman, Henry 656 Inwood, H. W. 153 Iriarte 481 Irving 658 Isigonus 203 . . 640 599 435 , 598 504 541 651 280 558 603 . . 467 JACKSON Jamesone Janssens, Comelis Janssens van Nuyssen Jardin , Karel du Jarvis Jerichau Jerichau - Baumann Jervas, Charles Joanes, Juan de Joceline, Bishop John , Bishop . John of Padua Jones , Inigo Jones, Owen Jordaens Joseph, Samuel Joutſroy . Jouvenet Juste , Jean LAAR, Pieter van 539 Laguerre 602 Lairesse, Gerard de 517 Lamothe 595 Lance 638 Lancret . 575 Landseer, Charles 641 Landseer, Sir Edwin 640 Lanfranc, Archbishop 124 Largillière 574 Lawrence 622 Lazzarini 279 Lefebvre, Claude 574 Leighton, Sir Frederick 200 Lely 514, 601 Leochares 200 Leonardo da Vinci : 250, 376-380 Lescot , Pierre 108 Leslie, Robert Charles 636 , 654 Lessing 554 Lethière 583 Leutze 556, 657 Lewis, J. F. 642 Leyden, Lucas van 429 Leys 518 Liaño, Felipe de 486 Liberale . 366 Liberatore, Niccolò di 366 Libri, Girolamo dai 366 Liesborn, Master of 347 Lievens · 528 Lingelbach 546 Lippi, Filippino 357 Lippi, Filippo 353, 355 Lochner, Stephan 347 Loo , Carle van 578 Loo, J. B. van 577 Lombard, Lambert 432 Lombardi, Family of the 249 Lorenzetti, Ambrogio . 341 Lorenzetti, Pietro 343 Lorrain , Claude 567 Losinga, Bishop . 124 Lotto 407 Lough, J. g. : . 293 . . 134 72 146 147 322 509 291 277 572 259 . . . . . KALF Kauffman, Angelica Kaulbach Kave, Theodore Kensett, John F. Ketel, Cornelis Kiss, August Klenze, Leo von Klober Kneller : Koch Kolbe Koninck Krafft, Adam . 547 456, 617 553 146 656 597 276 111 557 601 557 557 527 263 . 668 INDEX. Page Loutherbourg 617 Luini, Bernardino 380 Luitfrecht, Master . 229 Lysippus 200 Lyversburg Passion, Master of 347 . . . . . Millet, Aimé . Millet, Jean François Mnesicles Mocetto, Girolamo . Modena, Tommaso da Mol Molin, Johann Peter Mont, Deodat del Montagna, Bartolommeo Montferrand, A. R. de Monti Mor Morales, Luis de Morando, Paolo Moretto . Morland . Moroni Morse Moucheron Mount, William Sidney Moya, Pedro de Mulready Munro Murillo Myron Mytens Page 279 518, 594 41 365 .315 510 279 510 365 114 279 432, 597 484 366 407, 414 620 414 653 542 657 476 635 293 476-481 188 . 598 . . • 365 . MABUSE 431 Macdonald 293 Macdowell, Patrick 291 Maclise . 639 Maderno, Stefano 258 Magni, Pietro 279 Magnus . 557 Mahomed ben Alhamar 84 Malbone, Edward G. 652 Mansueti, Giovanni 365 Mantegna 362 March 470 Margaritone 335 Maria, Duchess of Wurtemberg 280 Marochetti, Baron 291 Marshall, Calder 293 Martin 630 Marziale, Marco Masaccio . 351 Masolino da Panicale . 350 Mason, G. H. .642 Maes 528 Mathai · 551 Matsys, Quinten 430 Matteo da Siena . 370 Mazo, J. B. Martinez del 495 Mazzolini, Lodovico 401 Meade 295 Meckenen, Israel von 347 Meer, Jan ver 535 Meer, Jan van der 543 Melzi, Francesco 381 Memling 427 Memmi, Simone 341 Mengs 455, 496 Metsu 533 Meulen, A, F. van der 517 Michelangelo . 104, 251 , 381-386 Mierevelt 435 Mieris, Frans van 535 Mieris, Willem van 535, 536 Mignard 573 Mignot 658 Milano, Giovanni da 341 . . . NASH Nasmyth Navarrete Neagle Neer, Aart van der . Neer, Eglon van der Nelli , Suor Plautilla Netscher, Kaspar Netscher, Konstantin Netscher, Theodorus Newton, Gilbert Stuart Nicias Nicomachus Noble Nollekens, Joseph Noort , Adam van Northcote Notker , · 154 632 485 652 539 536 373 536 , 601 . 536 536 636, 655 321 320 293 287 498 . 619 . . 344 ODO , Archbishop O'Donovan Oggione, Marco d' Oliver, Isaac . 124 295 381 . · 598 Index. 669 . Page Oliver, Peter . 598 Opie · 620 Orcagna, Andrea 240, 340 Orley, Barend van 431 Orrente . 470 Ortolano, G. B. Benvenuti dell’ 401 Osorio 483 Ostade, Adriaan van 531 Ostade, Isack van 533 Ottin 279 Qudry Ouwater, Albert van Overbeck 551 Owen 623 . 577 429 . . Pisano, Niccolo Pollaiuolo, Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Piero del Polycletus of Sicyon Polydorus Polygnotus Poppo, Archbishop Pordenone Potter Poussin, Gaspard Poussin , Nicolas Powers, Hiram Pradier Pratt, Matthew Praxiteles Previtali Primaticcio Protogenes Prout, Samuel Prud'hon Puget, Pierre Pugin , Augustus Puntormo, Jacopo da Pyne Pyreicus. Pyromachus Pythagoras QUELLINUS, Erasmus Quellinus, Jan Erasmus Quercia , Jacopo della Page 238 , 335 360 360 193 202 319 72 414 . 540 . 565 563 294 277 649 199, 209 365 399 320 644 584 269 114 387 622 322 203 188 . . • . . . . • 486 . . . 510 510 242 . . PACHEco 472 Palladio , Andrea 105 Palma Vecchio 407, 414 Palmer, Samuel 644 Palomino y Velasco 482 Pamphilus . 320 Pantoja de la Cruz : Pareja 494 Parmigiano . 405 Parry, Gambier 308 Pater . 577 Patinir, Joachim de 430 Paul, Abbot of St. Albans 126 Pausias . 320 Payne 621 Peale, Charles Wilson 649 Peale, Rembrandt 650 Peeters 436 Pellegrino 407 Pencz 452 Penni 400 Pepyn 504 Perraud 279 Perugino . 367 Peruzzi 104 Pheidias 40, 192, 209 Philip 293 . 641 Phillips : · 623 Pierode Franceschi 350 Pilon , Germain 266 Pinturicchio 368 Pisanello 366 Pisano, Andrea 240 Pisano, Giovanni 240 . . . . . RAEBURN 623 Rahl . 558 Ramsay 608 Ranc, Jean 496 Raphael. 104 , 255, 368 , 388-398 Rauch, Christian 274 Ravestyn 435 Regnauld 584 Régnault 595 Rembrandt 521-526 René of Anjou . 560 Reni, Guido 460 Rethel 557 Reynolds 609-614 Rhecus 187 Ribalta, Francisco de 467 Ribalta, Juan de 467 Ribera 462 , 468 Phillip, John : . . 1 670 INDEX. • 286 · 590 . . . . . Page Ricci, Antonio 488 Richardson, Jonathan 603 Rickman, Thomas · 157 Rietschel, Ernst 275 Rigaud . 574 Riley, John . 601 Rincon, Antonio dei 465 Rinehart . 295 Rizi, Francisco 488 Rizi, Fray Juan 488 Robert 589 Roberts . 631 Robson 644 Roelas, Juan de las 471 Rogers 295 Roman, Bartolomé : 486 Romanino 407, 414 Romano, Giulio . 398 Rombouts 505 Romney : 619 Rosa , Salvator 462 Rosselli, Cosimo 360 Rottenhammer 455 Roubiliac 285 Ruben , Christian 555 Rubens .498—503, 598 Rude, François 277 Rupert, Prince 514 Ruysbrack 286 Ruysch 548 Ruysdael, Jacob van . 541 Ruysdael , Salomon van . 539 Rysbraek 518 . Page Scheemakers . Scheffer . Schilling, Johann 276 Schinkel, C. F. · 110 Schlüter, Andreas 271 Schnorr von Carolsfeld 554 Schongauer 437 Schonhofer, Sebald : 236 Schoreel, Jan van 431 Schraudolph 555 Schrödter . 557 Schut 510 Schwanthaler, Ludwig 275 Scopas 43, 200, 209 Scott, General · 156 Scott, Sir Gilbert . 157 Scyllis 187 Sebastiano del Piombo 386, 407 Seeuw , Marinus de 430 Semitecolo, Niccolò 343 Semitecolo, Paolo 343 Semper, Gottfried 111 Sesto, Cesare da 381 Shee 623 Siegen, Ludwig von 514 Signorelli 358 Simart, Charles 277 Simonis 280 Sint Jans, Geertgen van 429 Slingeland 536 Sluter, Claes Smirke, Sir Robert . 154 Smith, George 608 Smith, John . 622 Smithson 147 Smybert, John 648 Snyders . 504 Soane, Sir John 154 Sæur, Herbert le 285 Sohn 556 Solari, Andrea 381 Solario , Antonio 370 Solis, Virgilius 452 Somer, Paul van 432 Sorgh 533 368 Spence, Benjamin 293 Squarcione 361 Stanfield 629 Stark 628 235 . . . . . . ST. GAUDENS Salaino, Andrea Salvini . Sanchez Coello, Alonso Sanchez de Castro Sandby Sandrart, Joachim van Sansovino, Jacopo Santerre . Sarto, Andrea del Sassoferrato Schadow , Gottfried Schaffner Schalken Schaper, Hugo Schäufelin 295 381 . 279 485 465 621 455 105, 250 572 387 461 274, 554 439, 442 536 276 452 Spagno, Lo . INDEX. 671 • 293 . • 601 Steen :: Stefano Fiorentino . Steinhauser, Karl Stephan, Meister Stephens, E. B. Stevens, Alfred G. Stilke Stone , Henry : Stone, Nicholas Stoop Story, W. W. Stoss Stothard Stratonicus Streater . Street, George Edmund Stuart , G. C. Stubbs Stüler, August Sueur, Eustache le . Sully Suttermans Syrlin , Jörg . . . . Page Page 534 Tintoretto 415-417 341 Titian 408-414 . 276 Tobar, Alonso Miguel de 483 . 347 Topham , F. W. 644 Toriti, Jacobus 336 · 292 Torriggiano , Pietro . 284 556 Tristan, Luis . 486 600 Troyon 593 284 Trumbull, J.: 650 Tryphon 219 295 Tulden 510 238 Tura , Cosimo . 366 623 Turner 622, 624_627 203 Tutilo 344 601 114 UCCELLI, Paolo 350 650 Uden , Lucas van . 505 617 Udine, Giovanni da 400 111 Udine, Martino da . . 365 . 570 .651 VAGA, Pierino del 400 . 505 Vaillant . 514 . 262 Valdés Leal, Juan de 482 Valentin 569 336 Vanbrugh, Sir John 151 567 Vanderlyn 652 Vandyck 505-509, 598 187 Varela 475 . 279 Vargas, Luis de 470 . 510 Varley 622 . 511--513 Vasari, Giorgio 388 529 Vázquez . 471 259 Veen, Otto van 435, 498 293 Veit 551 187 Vela 279 345 Velazquez, D. R. de Silva y . 187 489_ - 494 . 321 Velde, Adriaan van de 485 Velde, W. van de, the elder 279 544, 601 292 Velde, W. van de, the younger 295 544, 601 602 Veneziano, Domenico . 357 293 Veneziano, Lorenzo 343 147 Venne, Adriaan van der . 435 273 Venusti, Marcello 386 487 Verboeckhoven 519 558 Verhaeght, Tobias . 498 464 Vernet, Carle . 579 200 Vernet, Claude Joseph . 578 . . · 151 2 . . TAFI, Andrea Tassi, Agostino Taylor, Sir Robert Telecles . Tenerani Teniers, the elder Teniers, the younger Terborch Texier, Jean Theed Theocles Theodorich of Prague Theodorus Theon Theotocopuli Thomas . Thomas, John Thompson Thornhill Thornycroft , Hamo Thorpe, John . Thorwaldsen, Bertel Tibaldi, Pellegrino . Tidemand Tiepolo . Timotheus . 543 . . . . . 672 INDEX. . . . . . Page 505 118 346 633 154 436 . 126 124 607 286 643 . 546 276 Vernet, Horace Veronese, Paolo Verrio Verrocchio, Andrea Victors Vien Vignola . Villavicencio . Vincent . Vischer, Peter Visconti Viti, Timoteo Vivarini, Antonio Vivarini, Bartolommeo Vlieger, Simon de Volterra, Daniele da Vos, Cornelis de Voss, Karl Vouet Vroom Vulliamy, Louis . Page 589 : 415—417 602 246, 360 · 527 . 580 105 482 628 264 112 400 364 364 543 . 386 433 280 563 436 156 Wildens Wilfrid , Bishop of York Wilhelm, Meister Wilkie Wilkins Willaarts William de Carilepho William of Wykebam Wilson , Richard Wilton, Joseph Wint, Peter de Witte , Emanuel de . Wolff, Albert and Emil Wolgemut Wolsey, Cardinal Woodward Woolner, Thomas Wouters . Wouwerman Wren, Sir Christopher Wright, Joseph Wright, Michael Wurmser, Nicolaus . Wyatt, Sir Digby Wyatt, Richard James Wyatt, T. H .. Wyatville, Sir Jeffrey Wynants . . . . . 144 157 293 510 539 • 118 . 619 • 600 345 156 290 . 156 · 157 . 538 . . . WALDMÜLLER 557 Walker, Frederick 645 Walker, Robert . 600 Walpole, Horace 156 Wappers 519 Ward , Edward Matthew . 639 Ward, James . 640 Watson, John 648 Watson, Musgrave . 291 Watteau . 575 Weenix, the elder 540 Weenix , the younger 547 Werff, Adriaan van der 537 West, Benjamin 617, 649 Westmacott, Sir Richard 290 Weyden, R. van der , the elder . 426 Weyden, R. van der, the younger 429 . ZAMACOIS . Zegers, Daniel Zegers, Gerard Zeitblom Zeuxis Zoppo, Mareo : Zuccarelli Zuccaro, Federigo Zurbaran 497 . 511 505 438 319 • 362 617 . 597 473 . BUNGAY : CLAY AND TAYLOR , PRINTERS. ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF MUSIC ITALIAN LUTE-PLAYER. 16th Century. Not in ko 415221 04 ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF MUSIC BY N. D'ANVERS, pseud. of AUTHOR OF ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART, " ETC. laney R.E. ( Meudens ) Bell NEW EDITION » , EDITED BY OWEN J. DULLFA S NEW YORK SCRIBNER AND WELFORD LONDON SAMPSON LOW , MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON 1882 ( All rights reserved .) PRINTED BY CLAY AND TAYLOR , BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. PREFACE. WHHEN a new edition of the Elementary History of Music was called for, the Author, N. D'Anvers, was seriously ill, and the work was therefore intrusted to the present Editor. In the course of a careful revision, many additions have been made ; thus, the early history of music in Italy—most important in connection with the growth of the opera and the oratorio , and with the rise of monodic music - has been re -written , and an endeavour has been made to render it clearer by a classification of the com posers under the various schools to which they belong. A similar course has been adopted with regard to the history of English music, which it was felt required ampler consideration. Again, brief notices have been added of many composers, such as Lotti, Corelli, Hasse, Graun , and Cherubini, without mention of whom no musical history would be complete. 0. J. D CONTENTS. CHAP PAGE INTRODUCTION-TIE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC 1 V I.1. Music AMONG THE ANCIENT NATIONS . 7 VII. MUSIC IN THE Middle Ages li III. Music in THE NETHERLANDS, IN ITALY, AND IN FRANCE, IN THE SIXTEENTA, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES . 15 IV. MUSIC IN GERMANY UNTIL 1750 . 32 V. MUSIC IN GERMANY IN THE Classic Period 43 . . VI. MUSIC IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY . 61 VII. MUSIC IN ENGLAND 83 INDEX 99 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Frontispiece 9 13 14 29 37 39 41 45 49 ITALIAN LUTE- PLAYER. 161H CENTURY 1. GREEK HARP AND LYRE 2. ORGAN. 12TH CENTURY 3. REGAL, OR PORTABLE ORGAN. 15TH CENTURY 4. VIOLA DA GAMBA. 17TH CENTURY 5. JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH 6. GEORG FRIEDRICH HANDEL 7. HANDEL'S HARPSICHORD 8. CHRISTOPH Von Gluck . 9. FRANZ JOSEPH HAYDN 10. WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART 11. LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN 12. CLAVICHORD. 18TH CENTURY 13. SPINET. LATTER HALF OF 17TH CENTURY . 14 KARL MARIA VON WEBER 15. FELIX MENDELSSOHN BARTHOLDY 16. ROBERT SCHUMANN 17. IGxAZ MOSCHELES . 18. GIACCHINO ANTONIO ROSSINI . 19. ANGLO-SAXON HARP. 11TH CENTURY 20. A VIRGINAL. 1oru CENTURY 21. HENRY PURCELL · 四 阶 n Emm5mmSn 仍 仍 51 . 55 59 59 65 71 73 75 79 84 87 89 J ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF MUSIC. INTRODUCTION. —THE ELEMENTS OF Music. THIHE study of the history of Music involves the con sideration of an art differing in its most essential characteristics from Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting, which appeal to the senses through the eye, whilst Music is emotional, appealing to the feelings through the ear. The exact position of music in the scheme of the Fine Arts has never yet been defined , nor is there any agree ment with regard to the true limits of musical art There can, however, be no question that music is the most ex pressive language of the soul, or that it represents the beautiful by means of sound as painting does by means of lines and colour. Music embodies and represents the emotional life of the mind and heart as no other art can : every shade of feeling finds its most natural and fitting expression in music ; yet, in spite of its apparent licence, the art of music is bound by laws as strict as those which govern architecture, and which none but the greatest geniuses can infringe with impunity. The theory of musical sounds is founded on the science EHA-M B 2 Music. 1 of acoustics, into the principles of which it is not within the province of this book to enter. It must, however, be stated that sound is the effect of a series of undulations of the air striking upon the ear, and that when these undulations take place in a uniform and regular manner — to speak scientifically, when they are isochronous — a musical sound called a note is produced. The pitch of such a note is in exact proportion to the number of vibrations produced in a given time. The difference in pitch between any two notes is in musical language an interval. Any suc cession of musical sounds or notes constitutes melody ; but a melody, to be pleasing to the ear, is dependent on time and rhythm. The simultaneous sounding of two or more notes produces a chord , and a succession of such combinations of sounds constitutes harmony. AA chord is called a concord when it does not require to be followed by another combination of sounds in order to produce a sense of rest or finality on the ear. A discord is a chord which requires to be resolved, or followed , by a concord so as to produce the sense of completeness. It is not necessary in a work like the present to enter into the details of musical notation, or to explain the various signs and symbols which serve to represent music. All this is but the artificial language of music, and it will be sufficient, therefore, to enumerate the leading varieties of musical compositions, and to relate the main facts of the History of Music. Musical compositions are for the voice, or for instru ments, or for the voice accompanied by instruments. Musical instruments are either wind instruments — such as the clarionet, the organ , and the flute ; stringed instru ments such as the pianoforte and the great family of the VOCAL MUSIC. 3 -a violins ; or instruments of percussion - such as the drum , the cymbals, etc. The chief forms of vocal music are generally classed as church music, dramatic music, chamber music, and national music. Church music includes the chorale - music to which rhythmic hymns are sung ; the anthem — literally, music sung by two opposite choirs, but now applied to music set to words, generally of the Psalms or other parts of the Bible, and sung as part of Divine worship ; the motet,and the offertory - sung at certain portions of the Roman Mass ; the requiem — a solemn service sung for the repose of the dead ; and above all, the oratorio — a sacred composition partly dramatic and partly epic, the words of which are frequently taken from the Bible. This highest form of sacred music includes recitatives ( i.e. music set to wordsof a declamatory character), duets, trios, quartetts, choruses, &c. The accompanying instrumental music of oratorios is generally produced by an orchestra ( i. e. a combination of stringed, wind, and percussion instruments ), with or with out an organ. Dramatic music includes every variety of vocal music accompanied by action . That kind of opera in which singing takes the entire place of speech is the highest form of secular dramatic music, as the oratorio is of sacred . Under the head of vocal chamber music may be named the madrigal, that is, music written for three or more voices, without instrumental accompaniment, in the old polyphonic style ; the glee, and the part- song, the counter parts in the modern monodic style of the madrigal. Two terms are here employed, which may fittingly be here explained. By polyphony is meant that kind of music which came to perfection in the sixteenth century, and in B2 4 MUSIC. a which each of the various parts or voices has a melody of its own, co- equal in value ; the laws of counterpoint being employed to weld them into an harmonious whole . The term monody is applied to that class of music in which the melody is allotted to one part or voice, the other parts being employed to supply the accompanying harmony. This style had its rise in the beginning of the seven teenth century, and its development has continued to the present day. The following passage from an able modem writer aptly describes the difference of the two styles : “ Of a chord , as an isolated fact, the old masters took little account. They were not harmonists at all in our sense of the word, but contrapuntists ; laying melody upon melody, according to certain laws, but uncognisant of, or indifferent to, the effects of their combinations as they successively came upon the ear. Their construction was horizontal, not perpendicular. They built in layers, and their music differs from most of ours as a brick wall does from a colonnade." * Instrumental chamber music is of various kinds, such as solos, duets, trios, quartetts, etc. , for various instruments. In all instrumental music, the Sonata occupies a most prominent position. Many works not so styled, but which are called duets, trios, quartetts, etc. , are really sonatas. A somewhat detailed description of this musical form is therefore necessary. It is composed of from three to six movements. The first is generally in an allegro ( i. e. quick) time, and is occasionally preceded by a short introduction in a slower time. This latter is , however, quite outside the general scheme of the first movement, on which the composer expends his deepest thought and science. Its

  • Ilullah , " History of Modern Music."

. 6 INSTRUMENTAL Music. 5 subjects are thoroughly worked out in accordance with definite laws. The second movement is usually in a slower time, and is invested with much sentiment. The third movement is generally a Scherzo ( anglicé, a jest) or a Minuet with Trio, and by its lightness and playfulness forms a pleasing contrast to the deeper emotions raised by the previous movement. The finale , while perhaps lacking as a rule that amount of scholarship which is bestowed on the first movement, is nevertheless worked out with such fulness and animation as to render it a fitting termination to the work. Mention should also be made of the rondoso called from the original subject coming round repeatedly in the course of the composition : it frequently forms the concluding movements of a sonata ; the concerto-a composition to show the skill of the per former on some particular instrument, accompanied by a full orchestra or other instruments; the capriccio and the fantasia - terms which were formerly more restricted , but are now applied to compositions not bound by regular form . The chief compositions for the orchestra are the symphony and the overture. The symphony is the very highest form of instrumental music, and consists of from three to six movements, constructed in accordance with the sonata form . To prevent misconception, it should be borne in mind that the term symphony is sometimes freely used to designate the instrumental introductions and conclusions of vocal compositions. Overtures are introductory compositions for a full orchestra, employed as prefaces of operas, oratorios, etc. , and generally harmonise with the work of which they form the prelude. During the present century, the term “ Overture ” has frequently been applied to independent 6 Music. orchestral works, written for the concert room . They are cast in the form of the first movement of the Sonata , and are generally descriptive, or intended to illustrate some train of ideas. Before quitting this part of the subject, it is necessary to mention two very important forms of musical com position written either to be performed alone, or to form part of larger works : Fugues - compositions in which the different voices or parts do not begin together, but chase or follow each other at intervals, each one repeating the subject in turn, but at a higher or lower pitch ; and canons — compositions in which one voice or part has a melody which is strictly imitated by another part at a short distance throughout the entire work. I. MUSIC AMONGST ANCIENT NATIONS. In one sense music may be called the earliest, in another the latest, of the fine arts. Music, in its crude rudimentary forms, existed in the inflections of the human voice, the dash of the waves upon the shore, or the song of birds, as soon as the material world came into existence. It may be called the universal language of humanity, the mother tongue of every sensient human being, intelligible to all who have ears to hear, and needing no interpreter in its direct appeal to the emotions. On the other hand, modern music, as represented by the great works of Beethoven, Mozart, or Mendelssohn, is an art of recent growth , numbering not more than four hundred years. Music was probably vocal only until the discovery of Jubal, “ the father of all such as handle the harp and organ ” (Genesis iv . 21 ) , that instruments might be con structed to give more forcible expression to musical sound . The “ harp ” alluded to in the verse quoted above is supposed to have been of the kind of lyre used amongst the Egyptians in very remote ages ; and the " organ ” was probably merely a bundle of reeds played upon with the mouth, such as is now known by the name of Pan's pipe. After this first mention of music in the Holy Scrip tures, there are constant indications of the use of musical instruments amongst the Hebrews : the triumph- song of the children of Israel on the overthrow of the Egyptians 8 Music was accompanied by the music of the timbrels or tam bourines of the women led by Miriam ; the walls of Jericho fell down at the blast of the trumpets; and the glorious Psalms of David were sung with the accompaniment of the harp or lyre, the dulcimer and psalteries ( instruments belonging to the lyre or harp genus), cymbals (small basin shaped instruments of percussion, made of brass, producing a ringing sound when struck together), the sackbut , or trombone (a large deep-toned double trumpet), and many other instruments. The music of the Hebrews attained to its fullest develop ment in the ornate Temple services under Solomon, and it is considered by many writers that traces of it are to be found in the music, now commonly known as Gregorian, adapted by S. Ambrose and S. Gregory to the service of the Church , That the Egyptians were acquainted with music, and made use of musical instruments, is proved not only by the allusions to the practice of the art in Herodotus, but also by the numerous representations of singers with instruments which occur in the mural bas -reliefs. The harp and flute, with a jingling instrument peculiar to Egypt called a sistrum , were in use as early as the fourth dynasty ; lyres, with seven or five strings, in the twelfth ; and drums, trumpets, tambourines, cymbals, etc. , in the eighteenth. The Greeks numbered music amongst the sciences, and studied the laws of sound. It was also an important accessory to their drama. In Greek plays, such as the tragedies of Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, a leading part was played by the chorus — a band of singers and dancers, who remained on GREEK Music. 9 the stage throughout the performance of a play as witnesses or spectators, and intoned poetry in the pauses between the scenes. This poetry had reference to the subject repre sented, and the music was probably of the simplest descrip tion, the musical element being entirely secondary to the dramatic. Sometimes the chorus was sung antiphonally that is to say, in alternate verses, by different divisions of Fig. 1. — Greek Harp and Lyres. the chorus, the divisions moving from side to side of the stage. Hence the terms now in use of strophe, which origin ally meant the dancing or turning of the chorus from one side to the other of the stage ; and antistrophe, the turning back again of the chorus. The word orchestra—now em ployed to denote the band itself, or the position occupied 10 Music by musicians in modern concert- rooms, theatres, etc. was the name given to the place assigned to the chorus in Greek theatres, and is derived from a Greek word signifying “ I dance ." The Romans, who were wanting in imaginative genius, borrowed their music, as they did their architecture, sculp ture, and painting, from the Greeks and Etruscans. The foreign slaves and freedmen of Rome were the chief musical performers in the times of the Empire. II. MUSIC IN THE MIDDLE AGES. MODERN European music is a totally different thing from that which was practised amongst the ancients, and centuries of developinent were required before the great tone system of the classical period was built up. There had been no need, in the matter-of-fact practical life of the ancient Greeks and Romans, for any complex means of expressing deep emotion ; and it was not until the Roman Empire had been overthrown, and some kind of recognition accorded to the converts to Christianity, that the first germs of Christian music struggled into life. So long as the Christians lived in daily fear of their lives , meeting secretly in the gloomy catacombs round Rome, there was but little chance of their being able to work out any adequate means of art -expression ; but the new emotions excited by the doctrines of Christianity craved some new mode of utterance -some more articulate expression than pictorial art, cold and lifeless at the best, could supply ; and simple melodies, borrowed partly from the Hebrews and partly from the Greeks, appear to have been sung even in the catacombs. By the time of S. Ambrose ( 340—397 A.D. ) , the music of the Church had fallen into a state of chaos, and it was under that prelate that a simple kind of ecclesiastical music known as the Ambrosian Chant was introduced. It was based on a system of four scales, or modes as they were 12 MUSIC called, derived from the music of the ancient Greeks, and which began and ended on the notes now known as D, E, F, and G. To these four modes, Gregory the Great (born about the middle of the sixth century) added four others, to which again subsequent musicians added at least four more. It was on this basis that the science of music rested in the Middle Ages. No further great advance was made in the course of the next three centuries, although Charlemagne is known to have patronised musicians, and to have invited Italian singers to his court. In the eleventh century, however, arose Guido Aretino, a Benedictine monk, who did much to regenerate music, and is said to have been the inventor of modern musical notation. The circumstances which led to this invention have been very differently related, but the generally received version appears to be that, when singing a hymn to the honour of S. John the Baptist, with other members of his monastery, the gradual ascent of the opening sounds of each line in the three first verses struck him as admirably suitable for the nomenclature of the ascending notes of the musical scale. The following are these now famous lines , the first syllable of each line being sung one note higher than that which preceded it “ Ut queant laxis Re - sonare fibris Mi- ra gestorum Fa - muli tuorum Sol - ve polluti La -bii reatum ," etc. To ut, re, mi, fa, sol, and la : si was added by Guido to IN THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES. 13 represent the seventh note of the scale. Ut was subse quently changed to do, and for a very long period these seven syllables, to which the term Solfeggio has been given, have been used for teaching singing. Their equivalents in ordinary musical notation, applied to the key of C, are C, D, E, F, G, A, B, but they may be applied to other keys, with do always representing the key-note. Fig. 2. - Organ, 12th century. ( MS. Psalter, Trinity College, Cambridge.) The close of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth centuries formed the golden age of the troubadours and minnesingers, when their songs were no rude ballads, but fine lyrical poems, nobly expressive of the ideal and exalted chivalry of the day. With its decline-between 1250 and 1290—a corresponding falling -off took place in the poetry of the troubadours, and the art of song fell into the hands of the guilds of master-singers, who did little to further its progress. 14 MUSIC. Franco of Cologne, who is supposed to have flourished in the thirteenth century or even earlier, deserves here a passing mention. He appears to have been the first to indicate the difference in the duration of notes by differ ences of form in their symbols, and he is also said to have introduced sharps and flats, together with other improve ments in musical notation. Fig. 3. – Regal, or Portable Organ, 15th century. ( From a painting in the National Gallery .) The invention of the organ , or rather its development in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ( Figs. 2 and 3) , exercised a most important influence ; and at the close of the fifteenth century both sacred and secular music were gradually advancing, although only the foundations of the science were yet laid . III. MUSIC IN THE NETHERLANDS, IN ITALY, AND IN FRANCE, IN THE SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. It was in the Netherlands that the trammels of scholastic conventionalism were first thrown off, and a successful attempt made to combine musical science and musical art. As early as the thirteenth century, a certain Adam de la Hale, who was educated in the Netherlands, produced some counterpoint writing. He was, however, far beyond his age ; and the first of the Flemish or Belgian School was really Guillaume Dufay ( died 1432) , who settled at Rome, and became a singer in the Papal chapel. He was succeeded amongst others by Ockenheim , or Okeghem (died 1513) , first chaplain to Charles VII. of France, and afterwards Treasurer of St. Martin , Tours ; by Josquin Desprès, who held an honourable position at the court of Louis XII. , and was one of the most distinguished musicians of his time ; by Adrian Willaert, who migrated to Venice , where he founded a great school, and became chapel master of St. Mark's ; by Arcadelt, for some years singing master to the boys at St. Peter's, Rome; and by Goudimel ( 1510–72 ) , who established the first music school at Rome, and had the honour of being the master of Palestrina. Greater than any of these, however,, was Orlando di Lasso ( in his native tongue Roland de Lattre), of Mons, in 16 MUSIC. Hainault ( 1520–1594) , who, taking up the work begun by his predecessors, carried the science of counterpoint to marvellous perfection, astonishing all Europe with his wonderful sacred and secular compositions. From 1556 till his death, he held a position of much honour at Munich , being chapel-master to the Duke of Bavaria, by whom he was treated with great distinction . He and Palestrina are universally allowed to have been the greatest musical composers of the sixteenth century ; and his works, of which the psalm “ In convertendo " and the hymn “ Jam lucis arte sidere " are favourable specimens, are masterpieces of musical science. He was the last of the great Flemish masters, and after his death Italy and Germany success ively took the lead in the art of music. It will have been noticed how many of the Flemish masters settled in Italy, and Italian music owes much to their influence. This is very apparent in the group of composers known as the Roman school, the greatest of whom , Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina ( about 1521 1594) , occupies an exceptionally high position with regard to the history of music. It was mainly due to his influ ence that music was retained in the service of the Roman Church . Such grave irregularities had grown up in the character and performance of the music used in divine worship that the Council of Trent passed a strong resolution as to the necessity for reform . Thereupon Pius IV. in 1563 appointed a congregation of cardinals to consider the sub ject, and by them Palestrina was commissioned to produce a mass which should form a model for future writers of church music. In response, he wrote three masses — one of which, for six voices, was the world - famous mass subse quently christened by him “ Missa Papæ Marcelli.” Not ) THE ROMAN SCHOOL. 17 withstanding the fame which he gained by this ,and many other noble works — his life was a continuous outpouring of song in the service of the Church - his career was passed amidst straitened circumstances. He was created composer to the Pontifical Choir, and held one or two other offices, but the maximum regular emoluments he ever received from these posts did not exceed thirty scudi per month. Palestrina was the first musician fully to combine musical science with musical art, and to write such music as would bring out and intensify the meaning of the words to which it was allied . There is no doubt that his masses saved sacred music from a decline which appeared immi nent, by establishing a type of composition far superior to anything which had before been attempted. His “ Stabat Mater," composed for performance in the Sixtine Chapel, is considered as one of his masterpieces, and would have sufficed to immortalise him had he written nothing else . Amongst the successors of this great master must be named Gregorio Allegri ( 1580—1662) , whose “ Miserere,” written for two choirs, one of four, the other of five voices, has won him a world -wide reputation , and is still sung in the Sixtine Chapel in Passion-week. This won derful composition, in spite of its simple structure, takes rank among the most original of the works composed at the period under notice, on account of the intense sadness by which it is pervaded, the admirable arrangement of the voices, and the perfect agreement between the music and the accompanying words. Festa (died 1545) , well known by his “ Down in a Flowery Vale ” ; Luca Marenzio (died 1599 ), who produced a great number of excellent madrigals, many of which have been translated and become EHA - M с 18 Music. familiar to English ears ; the two Anerios ; and the two Nanninis were also prominent amongst the Roman school. Mention should here be made of Tommaso Ludovico da Vittoria ( about 1540—1602) , who, though Spanish by birth, belongs to the Roman school, of which he is one of the brightest ornaments. He held various musical appoint ments in the churches at Rome till about the age of fifty, when his fame caused him to be summoned to Spain by Philip II. , who conferred on him a post in the Royal Orchestra. His works are chiefly masses and motetts for from four to eight voices. At this period it becomes necessary to consider the rise of two of the most important forms of musical art, the oratorio and the opera, in which some of the greatest musical inspirations have been cast. San Filippo Ner ( 1515-95) , the founder of the Order of the Oratorians, was accustomed to have the week -day services in his Oratory at Rome prefaced and concluded by a selection of popular hymns. To these “ Laudi Spirituali,” as they were called , Palestrina and Giovanni Animuccia (died 1571 ) contributed. Occasionally, a modification of the ancient “ inysteries,” interspersed with singing, was introduced. After the death of Neri this custom was extended, and in 1600, what may be called the first oratorio, “ La Rappresentazione dell'Anima e del Corpo,” by Emilio del Cavaliere, was produced Amongst those who contributed most to the amplifica tion of the form thus initiated by Cavaliere were Carissimi and Stradella . Giacomo Carissimi, born towards the close of the sixteenth century, most probably received his musical training in the Venetian school-of which more anon . His reputation was acquired in Rome, where he resided STRADELLA. 19 C during the greater part of his life, and held the post of chapel-master in the German church of S. Apollonaris. In his works - of which “ Jephtha,” “ Daniel, ” “ Jonah ,” and “ Job,” are the chief– he made great advances in his treatment of the orchestra and of the recitative. Alessandro Stradella ( born about 1645 ) , a great Neapoli tan musician, also contributed largely to the development of the oratorio ; his “ San Giovanni Battista , ” composed in 1676, has been very highly praised by musical critics, and he exercised an important influence upon the great com posers of the eighteenth century. In addition to his oratorios, Stradella composed an opera, and numerous minor works. His romantic life and tragic death have, bowever, contributed almost as much to his fame as his musical genius. Being engaged to give music -lessons to a young lady with whom a Venetian nobleman was in love, he won her affections himself, and married her. The rest of his life was spent in wandering from place to place with his wife, pursued by the hired assassins of the enraged Venetian , who , after more than once missing their prey, finally murdered the unhappy pair in their bedroom at Genoa (about 1681 ) . Side by side with the music of the church a secular music was developed, guided at first more by the ear than by science, but slowly advancing, both in melody and harmony, as the true relations between musical art and musical science became recognised. At first simple vocal melodies, such as have become national in various countries, were all that were required. The old intimate connection between the song and drama, at which we hinted when speaking of music among the Greeks, appeared to be dissolved ; but with a cessation of the wars of the Middle C 2 20 Music. Ages, and the re - establishment of a settled society , the long-parted arts met once more, and from their union sprang the modern opera . The earliest existing example of a drama with which music is interwoven is the comic “ Li Gieus ( le jeu) de Robin et de Marian ,” by Adam de la Hale, already referred to. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries there appear to have been various attempts in this direction, but no great advance is perceptible till the end of the sixteenth century. About this time, several Florentine literati formed themselves into a body, with the object of reviving the musical declamation of the Greeks. Amongst the works produced under their auspices were, “ Il Conte Ugolino," a setting of a scene from Dante's “ Divina Commedia ," by Vincenzo Galilei ( the father of the great philosopher), a pastoral called “ Dafne, " written by the poet Rinucci and set to music by Peri, followed by the tragedy of “ La Morte di Euridice,” by the same authors, assisted by Caccini, brought out at the theatre of Florence in 1600. Somewhat later Claudio Monteverde ( 1568—1643) composed his “ Orfeo, ” for which an orchestra of thirty - six performers was required. This opera was but one of many others composed by Monteverde; and to the representation of his “ Proserpina rapita , ” in the palace of a senator of Bologna, is mainly due the popularisation of the opera, its success having suggested to Ferrari and Manelli the idea of performing operas before mixed audi There is still one point in which Monteverde has even greater claims to remembrance than in connection with the rise of the opera. He may be looked upon as the founder of monodic music. However elaborate and beauti ful may have been the structure raised with infinite pains and science by the great polyphonic writers, there was one ences. VENETIAN SCHOOL. 21 point in which their music fell short. In saying this, it is not wished to depreciate the composers themselves — more learned and scientific musicians than Orlando di Lasso and Palestrina have perhaps never existed — but the failing was inherent in the style itself. It was the want of expression and dramatic force which gave the fatal blow to polyphony. The rise of the oratorio and opera intensified the feeling of this deficiency. To supply it was the object of many com posers at the commencement of the seventeenth century, and the greatest of these pioneers into the then unknown land of monodic music was unquestionably Monteverde. Returning to the general history of Italian music, it is convenient to consider the various composers in certain groups or schools. These groups often coincide in point of time, but they are so homogeneous, and possess such well defined characteristics, that it leads to a much clearer con ception of musical history to follow this classification. Mention has already been made of what is known as the Roman school, of which Palestrina was the chief ornament. The Venetian school now claims attention. It will be remembered that amongst the Flemish composers who migrated to Italy in the sixteenth century was Adrian Willaert. To him the Venetian school owes its origin, and the following are amongst the chief composers by whom he was succeeded. To begin with the polyphonic writers, there are A. Gabrielli ( 1510-86 ) , the pupil of Willaert, and a noted contrapuntist; G. Gabrielli ( 1557– 1613) , the nephew and pupil of A. Gabrielli , successively organist and choir - master of St. Mark's, Venice, who is best remembered by his “ Magnificat ” for double choir ; Zarlino ( 1519-90) , another organist of St. Mark, and author of the celebrated treatise “ Istitutioni Harmoniche ” ; Claudio 22 Music. Merulo ( 1533 — 1604) , organist at Venice and Parma, whose organ works show a considerable advance from the polyphonic to the monodic system ; and Giovanni Croce ( 1560—1609 ) , a pupil of Zarlino, who is celebrated for his motetts and madrigals. The later Venetian school may be said to have been founded by Gasparini ( 1665—1727) , “ maestro di coro ” at the Ospedale di Pietà, Venice, who wrote both for the church and the stage; and Lotti ( 1667-1740 ) , whose influence was very great, and who, besides writing for the church, also composed madrigals, operas, and oratorios. His celebrated “ Miserere” was composed for St. Mark's, Venice —of which he was successively organist and chapel-master ----where it has since been annually sung. Amongst their successors were Marcello ( 1686–1739) , whose “ Psalms' obtained for him a wide reputation ; Caldara ( 1678–1768) , for many years chapel-master to the Emperor Charles VI. at Vienna, and who wrote both operas and oratorios ; and Galuppi ( 1706 — 1785) , who was chiefly noted as an operatic composer. An important group of composers, known as the Bo lognese school now claims attention . Its founder was Colonna ( 1640–1695) , a composer of much sterling music, and four times President of the then newly- founded, but afterwards famous, musical academy at Bologna. He had many celebrated pupils, amongst whom were Buononcini ( died 1750 ) , the rival of Handel in England ; and Clari ( 1669—1745) , who wrote much excellent church music , besides a fine collection of vocal duets and trios. Pistocchi ( 1659 — after 1717) deserves especial mention, not as a composer, but as the founder of an academy where singing was first systematically taught, and which produced many - a THE SECOND ROMAN AND NEAPOLITAN Schools. 23 renowned vocalists. Two other names remain to be noticed in connection with the school of Bologna : those of Perti ( 1661–1756) , who, during a long and honourable life, wrote several operas and much sacred music ; and Martini ( 1706-1784)), known as “ Padre ” Martini, whose reputa tion as a scientific musician was European. The early Roman school of Palestrina exercised great influence on vocal music : it was reserved for what may be called a second Roman school to exert a correspond ing influence on the development of purely instrumental music. The pioneer in this great movement was Arcan gelo Corelli ( 1653-1713) , to whom belongs the credit of freeing instrumental music from its subservience to vocal music, and of rendering it an independent means of musical expression. His first collection of sonatas for two violins, violoncello, and cembalo, was published in 1683 at Rome, where he passed a life of honour and repute, and formed a numerous school of pupils. Space will only permit of mention being made of two : Locatelli ( 1693—1764) , who wrote some good sonatas and concertos, and settled at Amsterdam ; and Geminiani ( 1680–1761 ) , the greater part of whose life was spent in England. There remains one other school-the most important in numbers, and , excepting the Roman school, in its influence that of Naples. Its founder was Alessandro Scarlatti ( 1659 -1725) , a native of Sicily, who may be said to have led a new departure in music. His works, which are very numer ous, including one hundred and seventeen operas, several oratorios, and a great variety of church and chamber music, -are characterised by boldness and fertility of invention, purity of style, and especially by his knowledge of harmony and counterpoint. It was owing to his scientific knowledge . 21 MUSIC of music that Scarlatti made great advances over his predecessors in the monodic school, who, in breaking away from old traditions, had also cast aside the science which had been the glory of the polyphonists. Scarlatti invented new forms of the recitative, but his greatest claim to re membrance is as the inventor of the original form of the aria, with the Da Capo. His son Domenico Scarlatti ( 1683–1757) was the best player on the harpsichord of the day, and contributed greatly to the development of instrumental music by his sonatas, well -conceived com positions with melodious subjects. Of Scarlatti's actual pupils, Durante ( 1681–1755) was among the most celebrated . He was a clever composer and a good teacher. His works are all of a sacred character -such as masses, psalms, anthems, and hymns, and are usually without orchestral accompaniment. Although perhaps wanting in originality, they are remarkable for a certain grand severity of style. Under the influence of Durante the compositions of the Neapolitan school acquired a strictness, a regularity, a severity of harmony, so to speak, which had not before characterised them ; and he is universally considered to have been the best instructor of his day. Another of Scarlatti's pupils was Leo ( 1694-1746) , joint organiser with Durante of the Neapolitan school in the eighteenth century. The works of Leo have been very highly praised by Handel ; equal to Durante in the grandeur of his style , he excelled him in inventive power ; and in addition to much sacred music of a high class such as the “ Ave maris stella , " the oratorio , “ Santa Elena al Calvario," and the “ Miserere " for a double choir - he produced several operas of considerable excellence. THE NEAPOLITAN School. 25 There is one more of Scarlatti's pupils to be named, J. A. Hasse ( 1699—1783) , who, though a German by birth, belongs by his music to the Neapolitan school. He spent many years at Dresden, conducting and composing operas, of which during his life he wrote more than a hundred, besides oratorios, masses, and various other works. Perhaps the most important name about this period is that of Giambattista Pergolesi ( 1710—1736) , one of the last great Italian composers of sacred music. Pergolesi, finding melody constantly sacrificed by a too rigid ad herence to scholastic rules, which threatened to check entirely the development of originality and individuality, endeavoured in his works to lay aside conventionalism , whilst remaining true to the great principles of music. His complete success in the aim he had set himself was not, as is often the case, recognised until after his death. His career opened favourably —his first work, “ San Guglielmo d'Aquitania,” an oratorio, being well received ; but his grand operas, “ L'Olympiade,,” “ Il Flaminio," etc., were not understood, and his life was embittered by the narrow -minded criticism and bitter slanders of his contemporaries. Of Pergolesi’s numerous works, all of which are remarkable for easy grace of style and sweetness of expression, “ La Serva Padrona " bears the palm amongst the operas, whilst among the sacred music, the “ Stabat Mater " is the finest, and ranks amongst the masterpieces of sacred music of every age. It is full of the tenderest, most pathetic feeling, and breathes forth love and pity in every line. It stands alone amongst the numerous compositions on the same subject by Pales trina, Allegri, Haydn, or Mozart, resembling none of them in style or character ; it is a powerful dramatic work, full · 26 Music. of passionate expression. Next in importance to Pergolesi is Jommelli ( 1714-1774 ) , one of the most brilliant com posers of the Neapolitan school, whose works are charac terised by dramatic expression, refinement of feeling, and nobility of style, and who has been called the Gluck of Italy ; he produced numerous operas, of which the “ Armida” and “ Iphigenia in Aulis ” are among the best, and various sacred compositions of high excellence -the “ Miserere,” for two voices, his last work, being in every respect a masterpiece. The name of Piccinni ( 1728—1800 ) , a pupil of Leo and Durante, brings us to the latter half of the eighteenth cen tury, when music in Italy was almost entirely operatic, and the old school of sacred music founded by Palestrina was rapidly declining. Piccinni was but twenty years of age when he made his debüt as a dramatic composer ; and his master-piece, “ La Cecchina, ossia La Buona Figluola ,” the fame of which quickly spread over Italy and Europe, was produced at the age of thirty -two. “ Didon , ” an opera of later date, is scarcely, if at all, inferior to “ La Cecchina, " and both are alike remarkable for the grace and sweetness of their melodies, the suitability of the accompaniments, the variety of the rhythm , and the general harmony of the whole. It would exceed the limits of a handbook to enter into the details of the hot controversy as to the respective merits of Gluck and Piccinni, which so long agitated the Parisian critics : suffice it to say, that Piccinni, though now acknowledged to rank lower than his great German rival, must ever hold a high position amongst operatic composers. Amongst the other operatic composers of the Neapolitan school must be named Sacchini ( 1734–1786) , another a THE NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL 27 6 pupil of Durante, whose industry and fertility of imagin ation were alike marvellous. His numerous operas — of which the " Ædipus ” and the " Cid ” are among the principal — are chiefly distinguished for the tender pathos of the airs and the general purity of the style. No less illustrious was Cimarosa ( 1749--1801), whose opera “ Il Matrimonio Segreto ” is the only one of all the Italian works of this class produced in the last century which still retains a place on the stage of the present day ; he was a man of wonderful imaginative genius, and his numerous comic operas are alike characterised by brilliancy, force of effect, and richness of invention . Paisiello ( 1741– 1815 ) wrote many operas — of which “ Il Re Teodoro ," “ Nina o la Pazza d'Amore," and "“ La Molinara ," are among the principal — which are chiefly remarkable for the beauty of the melodies and purity of the accompanying harmonies. Before leaving the Italians, it is necessary to speak of four composers who have not been classed with any of the schools just mentioned, and who exercised an important influence on instrumental music. These are, Frescobaldi ( born 1587 ) , a great player on, and composer for, the organ, for which he wrote many canzonas and toccatas, and amongst whose pupils was Frohberger, one of the founders of the great German organ school ; Tartini ( 1692—1770 ), a great violinist, and composer of the celebrated “ Trillo del Diavolo ," who settled at Padua, where he taught many pupils; Clementi ( 1752–1832) , the author of a number of sonatas for the pianoforte, which Beethoven preferred even to those of Mozart, and which had a great influence on pianoforte music ; and Viotti ( 1753–1824) , who may be considered as the father of the modern violin school. 28 Music. As was natural, the rise of the Italian opera exercised a most beneficial influence on the art of singing, and in the eighteenth century a number of great vocalists arose , amongst whom were Carlo Broschi ( called Farinelli ) , Caffarelli, Regina Mingotti, Bernacchi, and Faustina Bordoni, who married Hasse, the composer. The first three of these singers were pupils of Niccolo Porpora ( 1686 -1767) , one of the greatest of singing -masters, and who is also sometimes considered as the co - founder with A. Scarlatti of the Neapolitan School. In the fifteenth and two following centuries a great improvement took place in the construction of organs, and the names of the Antignati family of Brescia stand out as famous organ -builders. With the development of the organ coincided that of the violin, which was brought to perfec tion by the Amati of Cremona, the yet greater Stradivarius, and the Guarneri and Ruggieri families, in the seventeenth century. An illustration is here given of the Viola da Gamba, an early member of the great family of bowed and stringed instruments. The improvement of instruments exercised a most important influence, and gave a great impetus to the production of purely instrumental music. During the eighteenth century the culture of music declined in Italy and passed to Germany; but before tracing the progress of the art in its new home, the com posers of the French school who flourished in the seven teenth and eighteenth centuries must be briefly noticed. The first French musicians of eminence were Chambonières ( about 1610—1670) , a composer for the clavecin , a fore runner of the pianoforte ; Couperin ( 1668–1733) , another writer for the clavecin, for which he wrote an excellent “ Methode, " and whose works exercised a considerable THE VIOLIN. 29 influence on J. Seb. Bach ; and Cambert (1628–1677 ), the true founder of the French lyrical drama, although his fame Fig. 4. - V10LA DA GAMBA, 17th century . has been eclipsed by the Italian Lulli, his contemporary 30 Music and rival. The Abbé Perrin was the first to obtain royal sanction for the performance of musical dramas in Paris ; and the opera of “ Pomona,” the joint production of that ecclesiastic and Cambert, was the first regular opera performed in Paris. Lulli ( 1633—1687 ) , an Italian by birth , settled in France early in his career, and partly owing to his talents and partly to court favour, exercised a great influence on French music. Taking up the work began by Cambert, he produced a great number of operas, -such as “ Amadis," " Roland,” etc., -- which , owing to their dramatic power, were well- suited to the French taste, and long maintained a great reputation. To Lulli, the Overture owes its invention, and on the model thus formed by him the preludes to both operas and oratorios during the next hundred years were written. An important name at this period of French musical history is that of Lalande ( 1657–1726) , the best French composer of sacred music of his age, well known by his magnificent psalm , “ Beati quorum ,” which is characterised, as are all his compositions, by intense religious fervour. Rameau ( 1683–1764) , the greatest French musician of the eighteenth century, contributed — not only by his com positions but by his writings on harmony, works of great scientific research-to the development of music in France. His “ Castor and Pollux,” a tragic opera in five acts, con sidered his masterpiece, contains a chorus which has been very greatly admired. He also left some good clavecin music. As not unworthy French contemporaries of the Italians already noticed, must be mentioned Philidor ( 1726–1795), author of many comic operas, but now chiefly remembered as an authority on chess ; Schobert ( 1730—1768) , the composer of some pleasing clavecin a IN FRANCE. 31 sonatas ; Gossec ( 1733—1829) , the first French composer of symphonies - antecedent even to Haydn — who produced compositions of every variety, and did much to improve instrumental music in France ; Monsigny ( 1729—1817) the composer of several operas distinguished for their melodic grace, of which “ Le Deserteur” is the best ; Grétry ( 1741-1813) , a celebrated writer on music, and the author of many fine operas, of which "“ Richard Caur de Lion ” is his masterpiece ; Dalayrac ( 1753–1809) , who in his comic operas was the predecessor of Boieldieu and Auber ; Lesueur ( 1763—1837) , a composer of original genius and independent spirit, whose works include some of the best sacred music of France, and are characterised by boldness of conception and grandeur of style ; Méhul ( 1763-1817) , one of the founders of the French School of the present century, whose numerous operas-of which Joseph ” is considered the best-are written in a grand and elevated style ; and Della Maria ( 1768-1800 ), who gave promise of great talent, but died just as his reputation had become established . The French and Italian composers of the latter part of the eighteenth century do not, however, rank with the men now about to be noticed. Italy, whilst retaining the gift of melody, allowed the science of music to be neg lected ; and the talents of the French composers were chiefly devoted to a single branch of musical art, the opera. It was consequently reserved for Bach, Handel, Gluck , Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and others of the great German school, to carry on and perfect the work so gloriously com menced by the composers whose labours have been briefly sketched in the foregoing pages. 66 IV. MUSIC IN GERMANY UNTIL 1750. 7 GERMAN' music received its first impulse from abroad . When the earliest germs of a national music began to show themselves in Germany, the Flemish had already made great advances in the art, and the Italian school was exciting the admiration of all Europe. It was the Italians who first revealed to the Germans the wonders of the world of sound , and unlocked the mysteries of melody and harmony. The Germans, however, did not long remain imitators; but carrying on the work begun by their teachers, built up a national school, the members of which, for boldness of conception, purity of style, rich ness of invention, and depth of expression, have never been surpassed. The commencement of the German school of music may be said to date from the extensive use of chorales in con gregational worship at the time of the Reformation. The distinctive beauty of the German hymnology consists in the indivisibility of the music and the words for which it is composed. Martin Luther, an enthusiastic lover of music, did much to encourage the growth of the chorale, translating Latin hymns which had long been in use in the Roman Catholic Church, and generally setting them tunes already popular and many of them secular, with such slight modifications as were necessary to suit them to the new metres. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries IN GERMANY. 33 formed the golden age of German hymnology, when all that was best in chorales of foreign origin was absorbed ( so to speak ) into the German system of music, and the greater number of the beautiful hymn and psalm tunes now in use in Germany and England were produced in their present form . It would be impossible here to give any detailed account of the German composers of chorales who preceded Sebas tian Bach, the great master whose name is so inseparably connected with German sacred music. Suffice it to say, that the names of Johann Eccard ( 1553-1611 ), a pupil of Orlando di Lasso , and Johann Crüger ( 1598-1662 ) , stand out prominently from many others who contributed to the building up of the German hymnology. About the middle of the seventeenth century , a change is noticeable in the music of the church ; the improvement in organs, flutes , violins, etc. , led to the growth of a school of instrumental music. First, vocal secular music, accompanied by instru ments, and then the opera, were introduced into Germany from Italy ; the two countries dividing the bonour of per fecting orchestral music. Heinrich Schütz has been called the father of the German opera ; and the libretto of the first German opera was a translation by Martin Opitz of the “ Dafne " by Rinucci and Peri, already alluded to. As was natural, this advance in secular music was accompanied by a corresponding decline in the simple chorale ; and in the latter part of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries the hymn-tunes produced were of an altogether inferior character to those of the Reformation period . This was, however, more than atoned for by the rise of the sacred cantata , and the oratorio. The close of the seventh century witnessed the birth of EHA-M D 34 Music. two great German musicians, each of whom attained a world -wide reputation in his own day, and will live for ever in his works. Johann Sebastian Bach ( 1685-1750 ) and Georg Friedrich Handel ( 1685-1759) may be said to have ushered in the classical period , and were the imme diate precursors of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven , Spohr, and Mendelssohn. Johann Sebastian Bach, born at Eisenach on the 21st March, 1685 , was one of a large family of musicians, each of whom attained to eminence in some branch of the art of music. Left an orphan at the age of ten years, he received his first lessons on the clavichord from his eller brother, Johann Christoph Bach, an organist at Ohrdruff . His natural genius was so great that he rapidly mastered the elements of music, and eagerly turned to the composi tions of the most celebrated men of his day, such as the Frohbergers, the well- known organists and writers of organ music, and many others. It is related that, being unable to obtain permission from his brother to learn some compo sitions which had fascinated his youthful imagination, he stole the book containing them , and copied them by moon light in his own room . Unfortunately his deceit was discovered ; the copy made at so great a cost was taken from him , and he did not recover it until the death of his brother, which occurred soon afterwards. Being left desti tute by this event, Bach entered the choir of St. Michael's, Luneburg, as a soprano singer, devoting every spare moment to the cultivation of the organ , which was always his favourite instrument, and constantly journeying to Hamburg to hear the playing of Reinken , a celebrated Dutch organist. In 1703, when only eighteen years of age, the young musician entered the court of Weimar as a JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH. 33 violinist ; and in the following year became organist to a church at Arnstadt. Here he zealously employed himself in mastering every branch of music. He procured the works of all the best organists, and zealously studied their construction . Not content with this, he obtained leave of absence to visit Lubeck for the purpose of listening to the performances of the celebrated organist, Dietrich Buxte hude, and studying his manner of playing. In 1708 he went as court organist to Weimar, where during the next few years he produced his chief organ works. His fame was now established, and in 1723 he was appointed cantor at the Thomas Schule at Leipsic, an office with which his name will ever be associated . In 1747 Frederick the Great invited him to Potsdam and treated him with marked dis tinction . As was so often the case with great musical composers, too close an application to study resulted in the loss of Bach's eyesight. He died on the 28th July, 1750, from an apoplectic seizure. Great as was Bach's reputation during his life, it has become far more widespread in the present century . When living he was chiefly known as a player on , and composer for, the organ , and not until he had passed away did the full extent of his wondrous genius become adequately appreciated. His works are mostly of a sacred character. With the exception of Handel, he has absolutely no rival in this class of composition. In his works the stately fugue reached its fullest development. His sublime “ Matthew Passion Music ” -written for two choirs and two orchestras —and the great B Minor Mass are amongst the most wonderful musical creations in existence ; and his church cantatas, organ works, clavecin music, etc., are all alike D 2 36 MUSIC. remarkable for scientific construction and grandeur of style. In his works chorales are frequently introduced , interwoven in such a manner with the body of the composition that they appear to form part of it, whilst they are in reality but modifications of hymn- tunes already in existence. It is to the zeal of his sons and pupils that we are indebted for the preservation of the manuscripts of Bach's numerous works. With characteristic modesty he kept all his pro ductions under lock and key, and appeared to have no desire for their publication. Complicated and elaborate as they are, the compositions of Bach are becoming more and more fully appreciated as musical science advances. The enthusiasm of Mozart at the close of the eighteenth cen tury, and that of Mendelssohn later on , did much to spread the knowledge of them in Germany ; and the formation of two societies for their study and practice in London has to some extent naturalised them in England ; the perform ance of the “ Passion Music ” in Holy Week has become a regular institution in London of late years. Three of Bach's sons deserve mention as musicians of considerable power : Wilhelm Friedemann, a reckless and dissipated genius, whose works, even with his wasted talents, would have won him a high reputation under any name but that of his illustrious father ; Carl Philipp Emanuel, the creator of the modern sonata, whose works had a great influence on Haydn ; and Johann Christian, known as the English Bach , from his long residence in London, who wrote several fine operas. Georg Friedrich Handel ( 1685—1759) , the great master of oratorio, though a native of Germany, spent so large a portion of his life in England that we are almost justified in claiming him as a fellow -countryman. He has been called 6 JOHANN SEBASTIAN Bach. 37 the Milton of music — his sacred compositions resembling, in their sublime imagery and massive grandeur, the poems bet Fig. 5. - Johann Sebastian Bach. of his great predecessor. Handel, like Bach, met with considerable opposition in his early endeavours to study 38 Music. 2 music. In his day music was not cultivated in Germany as it now is , and , though Italian professors were bonoured, native composers were held in but slight esteem . It is related that Handel, when a boy, was kept away from school lest he should there learn music, and that his only instrument in his early years was a dumb spinet, on which he taught himself to play. At seven years old , however, an unexpected incident led to the discovery of his great genius. When on a visit with his father to the Duke of Saxe Weissenfels, he obtained access to an organ, and his performance being overheard by the Duke, that prince persuaded his father to have him educated as a musician. He became the favourite pupil of his master, —the great organist Zachau of Halle, —for whom he composed a motet every week . On the death of his father in 1697, Handel was compelled to earn his own livelihood , and for some time held a situation as violinist in the orchestra of the Hamburg theatre. He soon, however, rose to the position of director, and composed his first opera, — " Almira ,” -quickly followed by “ Nero,” “ Florinda, ” and “ Dafne. ” He then spent some time in Italy, where he published several operas which were very greatly admired ; but his best works were produced in England, which he visited for the first time in 1710. On the arrival of Handel in London , he found the enthusiasm of the English for Italian music at its height; and his first opera—“ Rinaldo ” —was written with a view to pleasing the public taste, and was brought out at a theatre which occupied the site of the present Haymarket. It contained the famous air “ Lascia ch'io pianga ,” which is still as popular as ever, in spite of all the changes which music has undergone since its pro duction . “ Rinaldo ” was followed by other operas produced > HANDEL. 39 by him while acting as an operatic manager, which venture resulted in severe pecuniary loss . It was in his oratorios, Fig. 6 .--Georg Friedrich Handel . however, -most of which were not composed until much later, —that Handel excelled all his contemporaries. Of 40 Music. " these works, “ Deborah , ” “ Athaliah,” “ Israel in Egypt, " " The Messiah, ” “ Samson," " Judas Maccabeus," " Joshua , “ Solomon,” and “ Jephtha,” are the principal . They were all produced between 1733 and 1752, when the great master's career was drawing to a close, and some of them after the blindness which saddened his declining years ha: fallen upon him . The “ Israel in Egypt” and “ The Messiah ” are generally considered the finest works of the class ever produced, but all his oratorios are alike remark able for grandeur and solemnity. Handel attended a performance of his “ Messiah ” on the 6th of April, 1739, and died on the 14th ; he was buried in Westminster Abbey. During his long residence in Enzland he exercised an important influence on music. His hasty temper involved him in frequent quarrels; but his rea li ness to forget and forgive, and his generous eagerness to aid those less fortunate than himself, won him a place which he still retains in the affections of his adopted countrymen. As distinguished contemporaries of Handel and Bach , must be named Karl Heinrich Graun ( 1701-1759 ) , in his lifetime chietly known as singer and opera composer, but now best remembered by his “ Te Deum ," and the ora torio “ Der Tod Jesu " ; Pepusch ( 1667-1752 ) , adapter of the famous “ Beggar's Opera ” ; Kuhnau (1667—172 ), one of the most learned musicians of his day, and the pre decessor of Bach in the office of Cantor at the Thomas Schule , Leipsic ; Matheson ( 1681—176+ ) , with whom Handel fought a duel at Hamburg ; Krebs ( 1713–1780 ), a composer for the clavecin and the organ, who was esteemed by Seb. Bach as his best pupil ; and Eberlin ( 1716-1776) . CONTEMPORARIES OF HANDEL AND Bach. 41 Handel and Bach occupy an exceptional position with regard to the development of the German school of music. Fig .7.- Handel's Harpsichord (Inthe South Kensington Museum .) TRANSITA -.. LORIA MUNDI SIC AS mo MUSICA DONUM DEI. Both men of the highest genius, and true reformers, they stand like advanced sentinels at the threshold of the golden 42 MUSIC. age of music. It was theirs to lead the open up the promised land to their successors ; but before that land was reached they had passed away, and other men entered into their labours. With them closes the transition period, during which the old tonality had been superseded by a uniform system , and musical art and musical science had become blended into one harmonious whole. It was not until the second half of the eighteenth century ,—which was for music what the early part of the sixteenth was for painting — that the full results of that wonderful and mysterious union were manifested . way and V. MUSIC IN GERMANY IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD. The golden age of German music coincided with that of literature, and the great musicians of the classical period were the contemporaries of Goethe, Sebiller, and Richter. As has been seen, sacred music attained its fullest develop ment in the works of Bach and Handel in the early part of the eighteenth century ; we now find secular, operatic, and instrumental music making a corresponding advance. Gluck , Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, form a group of distinguished German composers, each of whom was endowed with the greatest genius, and with a versatility seldom if ever equalled, and never surpassed. Christoph von Gluck ( 1714-1787) , who has been called the father of the modern opera, was the son of a gamekeeper, and was born at Weidenwang in the Upper Palatinate. He learnt the rudiments of music partly in the Jesuits' College at Komotow and partly at Prague . It was in the latter town that the exceptional talent of the future composer of the world -famed “ Orpheus ” was first discovered. He was however looked upon merely as a performer on the violin and organ , etc. , and it is probable that he did not himself yet recognise his own creative power. In 1736 the young musician determined to go to Vienna, whence, owing to the friendship of Prince Lobkowitz, he was enabled to go to Italy, where his musical education 44 Music. was completed under the Italian Sammartini. During four years spent in Milan, Gluck produced no less than eight operas — in none of which, however, did he give proof of any of his distinctive excellences. It must be remembered that, although a great German national school of sacred music had been founded by Bach and Handel, secular music in Germany was still almost entirely under Italian influence, and the early works of Gluck were producel in accordance with the public taste. They were eminently successful, and led to an invitation to London from the proprietors of the Haymarket Theatre. The acceptan : e of this invitation was the immediate cause of Gluck's disenchantment; a chance remark of Handel's after the representation the “ Fall of the Giants , ” an opera in the Italian style , opened the young composer's eyes to the mistake of cops ing Italian works, and revealed to him the necessity of complete harmony between the words and music of an opera. The suggestions of Dr. Arne, the great English composer, and a flying visit to Paris, where Rameau's operas, with their wonderful recitatives, were being per formed, appear to have completed the work. Returning to Vienna by Hamburg and Dresden , he set himself res lutely to the study of his new ideas. After 1750 he spent some years in Italy, producing various operas, in which a decided advance is perceptible ; but it was not until 1762, when he had become acquainted at Florence with the great poet Calzabigi, author of “ Orpheus and Eurydice, " “ Alceste , ” and other dramas, that he composed his great operas of " Alceste," " Paride e Elena , " and " Orfeo.”" in which his simple, noble, and exalted style was fully developed, and the power of his great lyric genius dis played. In them the music and poetry were welded into GLUCK. 45 one harmonious whole ; and their production on the stage was the commencement of the movement which resulted in the overthrow of the meaningless and artificial style which Fig. 8. - Christoph von Gluck. had so long been admired. The “ Orpheus” and “ Alceste” were performed at Vienna, and met with great success, but it was in Paris that their author enjoyed his greatest tri umphs. In 1774 the opera of “ Iphigenia in Aulis ” was 46 Music. C brought out in that city, under the patronage of Marie Antoinette, the former pupil of Gluck. It was received with acclamation , and was performed one hundred and seventy times in the course of two years. From this date until 1779, Gluck carried all before him , and was the idol of a large section of the Paris aristocracy and populace. His rival Piccinni was powerless against him : but in 1779 his “ Echo and Narcissus ” was performed in Paris and entirely failed to achieve success. This sudden reverse appears to have been a heavy blow ; he retired to Vienna in the following year, and, after seven years of inactivity, died suddenly of apoplexy. Gluck was in every sense an artist, and his distinctive merit consists in his having broken through the blind imita tion of the Italian style which prevailed in his day. In his own words, his purpose was “ to restrict music to its true office- that of ministering to the expression of the poetry without interrupting the action.” In his works, every tone is in exact harmony with the meaning of the word which accompanies it, and he may justly be said to have combined the melody of the Italian school with the powerful recita tive of the best French masters. He exercised a most important influence alike on his contemporaries and his immediate successors. Franz Joseph Haydn ( 1732-1809) , who has been called the creator of the modern symphony, was the son of a wheelwright, and was born at the village of Rohrau, on the borders of Austria and Hungary. His great talent for music was manifested at a very early age , and he was admitted into the choir of the cathedral of St. Stephen's, Vienna, when only eight years old, remaining there until he was sixteen, when the breaking of his voice lost him HAYDN. 47 his place. For a short time, the young genius lived in a miserable attic, with an old barpsichord for his only com panion. He did not, however, waste his time: he studied diligently, especially devoting himself to the works of Fux and Emanuel Bach. By degrees, employment of one kind or another sprang up ; and he was fortunately introduced to Porpora, the celebrated and eccentric Italian singing master, who long held despotic sway over the musical world of Vienna. Besides playing his accompaniments, he performed various menial offices for the great man , and in return received from him some instruction in composition . In 1752 , Felix Curtz, director of the theatre at Vienna, struck by the beauty of a serenade composed by Haydn, commissioned him to write the music for a libretto of his own— " Der neue krumme Teufel” —and was so delighted with the result that he gave him one hundred and fifty florins for his composition. Three years after, Haydn produced his first quartett for stringed instruments, which -although it gave promise of future excellence - did not differ in any essential respects from those of his prede cessors. In 1759, he entered the service of a certain Count Morzin as musical director and composer, and about the same time fulfilled his promise of marriage to the daughter of a wig-maker, into whose family he had been introduced while a chorister at St. Stephen's. The union was far from happy, and the ill-matched pair were subsequently legally separated. The next important step in Haydn's career was the publication of his first symphony ( 1759) , which may be said to have been an epoch in the history of music, for in it were laid the foundations of all modern works of a similar class. In 1760, Haydn was fortunate enough to attract the notice of Prince Paul Esterhazy, a 48 Music. liberal patron of musical genius, and from that date his position was made. He became the Prince's Kappelmeister ( leader of the band) at Eisenstadt and Esterhaz, and on the death of his patron, a year afterwards, retained the office in the household of his successor ( Nicolaus Ester hazy) , with whom he remained for thirty years, during which period he produced an incredible number of ad mirable works, including symphonies, numerous quartetts, some of them among his best, several oratorios, masses , etc. At the end of these thirty years of ceaseless creative ac tivity, Haydn accompanied the celebrated violinist Salomon to England, where he obtained the full recognition which was due to his genius. Between 1791 and 1794, he pro duced the twelve grand symphonies, known as the Salo mon's set, which were performed at the Haymarket. At the close of 1795, Haydn retired to Vienna, where he spent the remainder of his life, and composed his beautiful oratorios — the “ Creation " and the “ Seasons Seasons.." In 1802 he published his two last quartetts, and died in 1809, at the ripe age of seventy - seven. Haydn is one of the few great geniuses who may be said to have fully worked out their career, and to have lived until their work was completed. His whole life was devoted to music ; he existed but to produce, or to render, the productions of others. His industry was prodigious : in the early part of his life he worked sixteen, sometimes eighteen, hours a day ; and even when conducting concerts and attending fêtes in his honour in England, he managed to devote five hours a day to study. During his residence at Eisenstadt, he supplied his patron with a new composi tion every day, and the total number of his works is estimated at but little under eight hundred , of which one HAYDN. 49 hundred and eighteen are symphonies, eighty - four quar tetts, five oratorios, and thirty -four pianoforte sonatas. In his quartetts, Haydn has never been surpassed. They are Fig. 9.- Franz Joseph Haydn. remarkable alike for scientific form , pathos of expression, and suitability for the instruments for which they are composed ; and in them the gradual development of their EHAM E 50 MUSIC. author's mighty genius can be distinctly traced ,—the first, containing but the germ, while each of its successors marks a step in advance, until at last perfect symmetry of form and perfect individuality and freedom from conventional ism are attained. In his symphonies, there is a corre sponding growth ; and the best—those produced during his visit to England, when at the zenith of his powers are allowed to rank with those of Mozart, Beethoven , and Mendelssohn , in whose works this class of composition reached its fullest development. It is now time to speak of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ( 1756-1791 ) , a man of universal genius, and one of the greatest of all musical composers. Like Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, and other master -spirits of the great age of paint ing, Mozart appears to have been endowed with the highest qualities. His brief career was one art-triumph from be ginning to end. He combined the best characteristics of his predecessors with an originality and an intensity of feel ing all his own. Mozart was the son of the subdirector of the archiepiscopal chapel at Salzburg, and was born in that town on January 27th , 1756. When only four years old , he had composed a number of pleasing pieces of music, many of them still to be seen, and was a good player on the clavichord . At the age of six , he and his sister, who was also very talented, were taken to Munich and Vienna, where their performances excited universal admiration . In 1763 and 1764, the young Mozart visited Paris and London, and when in the latter city composed and pub lished his first symphony and several sonatas. Returning by Holland, France, and Switzerland, he settled again at Salzburg in 1766, and his father renewed his attention to the solid part of his child's studies. When twelve years old , MOZART. 51 he composed sacred music for a public service and for a concert of wind instruments, which he conducted himself at Vienna ; at thirteen, he was made director of concerts Fig 10.– Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. to the Archbishop of Salzburg, and in the same year paid his first visit to Italy. It was on this occasion that he E 2 52 MUSIC. performed the celebrated feat of writing down from memory Allegri's “ Miserere,” after once hearing it sung in the Sixtine Chapel. About this time, he composed the opera of “ Mithridates,” followed by compositions of every variety, such as sonatas, symphonies, hymns, etc. The years 1778 and 1779 were spent in Paris, and appear to have been the most wretched of his life, owing to the death of his mother and the loss of his first love. He conceived an intense dislike both to the French and Italian style, and returned to Salzburg in 1779. His opera of Idomeneo ” was produced in 1781 , and formed an era not only in the career of its author, but also in the history of music. It surpassed in every respect all works of the kind previously produced, and its production at Munich was the turning point in Mozart's history as a dramatic composer. “ Die Entführung aus dem Serail ” appeared shortly after the “ Idomeneo, " and about this time he married Constance Weber, the third sister of his former love. In 1785 , the six quartetts dedicated to Haydn were published, followed in 1786 by the “ Nozze di Figaro." In 1787, “ Don Giovanni, " Mozart's operatic masterpiece, was written for Prague, the people of which appear to have understood and appre ciated the great master far better than the Viennese , and were ever his favourite audience. “ Don Giovanni," the opera of operas, is a marvellous expression in music of every emotion which can agitate the human heart, and it has justly been called the “ Faust ” of music. The “ Cosi fan tutti ” was produced in 1790 ; and in 1791 , the last year of his life, were composed “ La Clemenza di Tito, ” “ Il Flauto Magico, " and such portions as he lived to complete of the grand Requiem Mass, commissioned by an unknown and mysterious stranger. The symphonies, 9 BEETHOVEN. 53 quartetts, and masses, with which the musical world of every nation is familiar, were produced at intervals between his larger works, and have greatly aided in refining the public taste of the present century. In his short and brilliant career, Mozart was brought into intimate connection with Haydn, and the two great masters appear to have exercised a mutual and beneficial influence upon each other. The early death of Mozart was a bitter grief to his veteran contemporary, who could never afterwards mention his name without tears. In spite of his great reputation, Mozart died poor ; his works were badly paid for, and it was not until he was on his death -bed that brighter prospects began to dawn. After Mozart, the next name is that of Ludwig van Beethoven ( 1770—1827) , the fourth and perhaps the greatest star of this favoured period -a man of transcend ent genius, whose lonely life and yet more lonely death afford a touching proof of the powerlessness of the greatest gifts to confer happiness upon their possessor. His father, a singer in the Elector's Chapel at Bonn , appears to have recognised his son's exceptional talent, and began to teach him music at the age of four. Under his father's harsh treatment, little progress was made, and it was not until the court organist, Van der Eden, offered to give Ludwig gratuitous lessons, that the spell was broken, and the boy's eyes were opened to his true vocation . His successor, Neefe, carried on the course of instruction thus begun, and taught him Bach's “ Wohltem perirtes Klavier.” The result justified the master's dis cernment, and at the age of thirteen Beethoven published at Mannheim some songs and sonatas, which were very well received. When Beethoven was rising into notice, 51 MUSIC. Mozart was at the zenith of his fame, and the early compositions of the former distinctly betray the influence of his great contemporary. In 1792, Beethoven went to Vienna and received some instruction from Haydn, whose influence upon his further career has been very differently estimated by various authorities. The people of Vienna received the young composer with so much cordiality that he made their city his home, and never again left it except for an occasional visit. On his arrival there in 1792, his prospects could not have been brighter: he was gradually awakening to the knowledge of his marvellous powers ; the Elector, his patron, had raised him above want, and he had begun to make many friends. But with the open ing of the nineteenth century all was changed: the Elector died in 1800, leaving Beethoven destitute ; and at about the same time came the first warning of that terrible affliction which was to sadden his future life, and isolate him from sympathy. As early as 1800, Beethoven con fided his dread of total deafness to his friend Ferdinand Ries, and in the early years of the century that dread was gradually realized . He has been called morose, reserved , and ill -tempered ; and to these accusations there can be no more touching reply than the apology in his will, in which there are these two pregnant sentences : " O ye who consider or declare me to be hostile, obstinate, or misanthropic, what injustice ye do me ! ye know not the secret causes of that which to you wears such an appear O men !! when ye shall read this, think how ye have wronged me ; and let the child of affliction take com fort in finding one like himself, who, in spite of all the im pediments of nature, yet did all that layin his power to obtain admission into the rank of worthy artists and men... ance. BEETHOVEN. 55 In 1809, a small life pension was secured to Beethoven by the Archduke Rodolph, and in 1815 he accepted Fig. 11.- Ludwig van Beethoven . the guardianship of a nephew, whose ingratitude and unworthiness added one more to the heavy sorrows of his 56 MUSIC. life. It was when struggling with poverty and misfortune that his greatest works were composed —works which have delighted the ears of thousands, but were never heard by their creator. Unable to receive, he poured out the whole wealth of his gifted nature in a flood of harmony, which expresses to the initiated all the strug gles and divine consolations of his troubled spirit. This brief notice of the life of this great genius cannot be more appropriately closed than in his own words : “ What is all this compared to the grandest of all masters of harmony - above ! above !” - striking as they do the key note of his nature, which could never rest satisfied even with its highest achievements. Ludwig van Beethoven died in his fifty -seventh year, and is buried in a cemetery near Vienna. As is well known, the Philharmonic Society of London generously sent Beethoven a cheque for a large sum when he was on his death - bed . The works of Beethoven are generally divided into three classes, in which his gradual intellectual development is reflected. The works belonging to the first period betray the influence both of Haydn and Mozart, and manifest thorough knowledge both of the laws of music and of their application. As typical examples may be cited the two symphonies in C and D. The second periodfrom — about 1804 to 1814 — was that of the full and independent development of Beethoven's genius, when all foreign influ ence was shaken off, and the most magnificent of his symphonies, overtures, etc., were produced. To this period belong, amongst many other important works, the “ Eroica," the C minor, the “ Pastoral," and the A major symphonies, all alike remarkable for logical power, masterly construction , and depth of expression ; his one opera, — “Fidelio, ” — a 6 BEETHOVEN . 57 marvellous and essentially German composition ; the over tures, etc. , written for Goethe's “ Egmont ” ; and the in strumental music of the “ Ruins of Athens."” In the third and last period were produced — in addition to several grand overtures, quartetts, sonatas, etc.—two mighty works : the “ Missa Solennis, ” and the ninth symphony in D minor ( known as the “ Choral Symphony ” ), both of which rise above all the ordinary laws of musical composition, and are instinct with the noblest, most divine enthusiasm . With all his mighty gifts, Beethoven appears not to have fully appreciated the beauty and capabilities of the human voice, and in many of his choral works he used the voice merely as an additional orchestral instrument. It is as a composer of instrumental music that he stands pre eminent ; he fully realised the capacity of every instru ment ; and his pianoforte sonatas, his symphonies, over tures, etc. , entirely fulfil the highest requirements of instrumental music. The influence his works have exercised over his contemporaries and successors cannot be over estimated ; and this influence appears to be increasing with the greater spread of musical culture. Amongst the contemporaries of these four great men , -whose glory has eclipsed that of all the lesser lights of the classical period ,—were Albrechtsberger ( 1736–1809) , a learned musician and contrapuntist, amongst whose pupils were Beethoven , Hummel, Eybler, etc .; the Abbé Vogler ( 1749–1814) , a composer of small originality, whose chief claim to remembrance is as the instructor of Weber and Meyerbeer ; Winter ( 1754–1825) , who wrote much church music and many operas, the best of which is “ The In terrupted Sacrifice ” ; Himmel ( 1765—1814) , another composer of operatic and sacred music with a great gift 58 Music of melody : his best opera is “ Fanchon ” ; Eybler ( 1765— 1846) , who was much connected with Mozart and Beeth oven , and wrote chiefly for the church ; and A. Romberg ( 1767—1821 ) , who besides much instrumental music wrote a Te Deum and the " Lay of the Bell. ” The invention and successive improvements of the pianoforte in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries exercised a wonderful influence on the development of instrumental music. Handel, Sebastian Bach, and the other masters of their time wrote for the clavichord or harpsichord. In the clavichord or clavicytherium , the earliest precursor of the pianoforte, the strings were struck by tangents or simple brass uprights from the keys. In the harpsichord, spinet, or clavicembalo, the strings were set in vibration by being plucked by plectra of quill or stiff leather. These instruments chiefly fell short in power, and in obtaining gradations of tone. It will, therefore, readily be seen what immense advantages the pianoforte had over them , and what a wide field was opened to composers by its invention. Emanuel Bach may be considered as the first writer for the pianoforte, and compositions for it received a great impulse from Mozart, Clementi (who has been mentioned under the Italian school) , and Beethoven. Amongst the other writers of this period, who contributed to the advancement of pianoforte music, were Ignaz Pleyel ( 1757-1831 ) , a pupil of Haydn, who settled in Paris, where he subsequently founded a firm of pianoforte makers of great renown ; J. L. Dussek ( 1761-1812) , the friend of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, a great virtuoso, and composer of many charming works, amongst which are the Invocation " sonata, “ La Consolation, etc.; D. Steibelt ( 1764-1823) , the writer of the “ Storm ” rondo ; J. L. ) THE PIANOFORTE. 59 TLULULLLLLLL CLM Fig. 12. - CLAVICHORD — 18th century . ThomasBreskefondos freit N2 1434 Fig. 13. - SPINET - latter half of 17th century . 60 Music. Woelf ( 1772—1812) , who imagined that he had reached the ultima Thule of execution in his “ Ne plus ultra ” sonata ; J. B. Cramer ( 1771-1858) , for many years a respected figure in the musical world of London, whose studies contain some excellent music ; and J. N. Hummel ( 1778–1837 ), the pupil of Mozart, who besides many good sonatas, concertos, rondos, capriccios, for the piano forte, wrote other fine instrumental music ( notably the Septett " in D minor ), masses, operas, etc. VI. MUSIC IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. SIDE by side with the new school of German poetry arose a school of song, whose works delighted their con temporaries, and are still cherished by all true lovers of melody. At the head of it stands the prince of song writers, Franz Schubert ( 1797—1828) , whose compositions of this class have never been surpassed . The son of a poor schoolmaster at Vienna, Franz Schubert began to compose almost as soon as he could speak, and from the age of thirteen until his death poured forth song after song, interspersed with masses, symphonies, quartetts, pianoforte sonatas, and some few operas. Amongst his best songs are “ The Erl King,” “ The Wanderer, ” “ Ave Maria, ” “ Good-Night,” “ The Young Nun,” the “ Winter Journey , " and the “ Maid of the Mill,” which are all alike characterised by wealth of imagination, power of construction , and charm of melody. Of his miscellan eous compositions, the eighth and ninth symphonies, the Quintett, the Pianoforte Sonata in A minor, and the “ Impromptus” and “ Momens Musicales," are considered the best. With one exception, Schubert's operas were not successful; he does not, in fact, appear to have been endowed with the necessary qualities for the production of such works ; it is as a song-writer that he stands pre -eminent, and as a song -writer he should be “ Trout 62 MUSIC. judged. Schubert's short life was saddened by illness, poverty, and disappointment ; and not until after his death was his greatness fully appreciated. The preserva tion of many of his most valuable MSS. is due to the devotion of his stedfast friends, the brothers Hutten brenner ; and Schumann, and subsequently Mr. George Grove, have rescued several of his finest works from oblivion. The early part of the nineteenth century witnessed the rise of the so-called “ Romantic School ” of music, the members of which, rebelling against the rigid rules by which composers were bound in the classical period, endeavoured in their works to introduce a greater freedom of construction and a greater variety of rhythm , melody, and harmony. Schubert, whose melodies were the spon taneous outpourings of his own poetic spirit, may be said in some sort to have inaugurated the movement, which was carried on by Weber, Chopin , Berlioz, Liszt, and many others. It would be difficult within the limits of this work to draw any definite line of demarcation between the members of the classical and romantic schools-- the works of many eminent men having combined truly scientific construction with much of the freedom which has been claimed as the distinctive characteristic of romanticism ; it must suffice , therefore, to give a brief account of each great composer, with the names of his principal works. Ludwig Spohr ( 1784-1859) , the son of a doctor of Brunswick, attained to great eminence as a composer and violinist. He was appointed a violinist in the chapel of the Duke of Brunswick at the age of fourteen . In 1802 , he travelled through Germany and Russia, giving concerts Spohe. 63 in all the towns through which he passed, and establishing a high reputation as a performer on the violin, the result of which was his appointment as director of concerts at the Court of Gotha. There he married the daughter of one of the Duke's chamber musicians, a young lady celebrated as a player on the harp. In 1813, accompanied by his wife, Spohr went to Vienna, and was appointed musical director of one of the principal theatres in that city. After a journey through Italy and France, which was one long triumph , he visited London ( 1819 ) , and was very favour ably received at the concerts of the Philharmonic Society. In 1822 he accepted the post of chapel-master at the Court of Hesse Cassel , retaining it until 1857, when he retired into private life, two years before his death , which took place in 1839. Spohr's works include numerous operas, of which “ Jessonda,” “· Faust,” ““ Derr Berggeist Berggeist ”” ( Spirit of the Mountain ), and “ The Alchymist,” are considered the finest ; three oratorios— “ Die letzten Dinge " ( The Last Judgment), " Des Heilands letzten Stunden ” ( The Cruci fixion ) , and “ Der Fall Babylons ” ( the Fall of Babylon ) ; several hymns, psalms, masses, and songs. Spohr takez high rank as a composer : his works are remarkable for purity, delicacy and power of expression , and scientific knowledge. Of his instrumental compositions, the C minor symphony and that called “ Die Weihe der Töne ” (the Power of Sound) , are especially fine. Karl Maria von Weber ( 1786-1826) , one of the most popular of German composers, was born at Eutin in Hol stein , and from his earliest childhood showed his bent for music. When only thirteen, he composed an opera called “ Die Macht der Liebe und des Weins " ( the Power of ( 6+ Music. Love and Wine)—a strange subject for a child of his age. It was not until 1803, when he was brought under the influence of the Abbé Vogler, that he begun to give proof of his distinctive excellences. In 1804 he went to Breslau , as conductor of the opera, where he composed his opera of “ Rübezahl. ” In 1806, he became director of music at the Court of Carlsruhe, and during the succeeding years he visited many of the principal cities of the Continent, hold ing various musical appointments. From 1813 to 1816, he was director of the opera at Prague, and during his resid ence in that city he composed , amongst other fine works, the famous series of patriotic songs on the poems of Theodor Korner. From the date of their publication, the name of Weber became inseparably connected with the political his tory of his country, his music having had a large share in stirring up the enthusiasm of the people for the war of independence. In 1817 his popularity was at its height, the soldiers engaged in the War of Liberation having spread his music from end to end of Germany ; and the rest of his career was one long ovation. In the same year, he accepted an invitation to Dresden, where he founded a German opera , and was appointed director of music to the King of Saxony — an office which he held until his death . Dresden he composed his grandest works: “ Der Freischütz, " Euryanthe, ” “ Oberon, " and others. The first-named , considered his masterpiece, at once achieved a great reput ation throughout Europe. In 1826, the year of his death , Weber came to England, and conducted first a selection from “ Der Freischütz " and subsequently the whole of “ Oberon ” at Covent Garden theatre. Shortly afterwards (on the 26th of May, 1826) , he was found dead in his bed , and it subsequently transpired that he had been suffering ) WEBER. 63 from the disease which proved fatal, before he left Dresden. Weber married Caroline Brandt, the celebrated opera Fig. 11. --Karl Maria von Weber. singer, and it is to her that his famous pianoforte piece , " Aufforderung zum Tanz ” ( Invitation to the Dance ), is dedicated. EHA — M F 66 Music. Weber occupies the highest rank as a composer : his opera of “ Der Freischütz ” placed him at once at the head of the lyrical composers of his country. The overture alone would have sufficed to make the reputation of another man . It is a summary of all that is contained in the opera itself, and is instinct with fire and energy. The romantic element is the distinguishing feature in Weber's composi tions of every class, but it is always duly subordinated to truth of construction. His effects of harmony are always pleasing, and there appears to have been absolutely no limit to his powers of dramatic expression. In addition to the operas and songs mentioned above, Weber produced a great number of instrumental works of high excellence, which have exercised a most important influence on the music of the present day. Amongst them may be named, as typical of his style, the rondo called “ Perpetuum mobile, ” forming the finale of his fine Sonata in C , the Rondo in E flat, the Concert- Stück, the Polonaise in E major, and above all, the overture to the " Ruler of the Spirits.” François Frédéric Chopin ( 1809–1849) , a native of Poland, was the founder of a new class of pianoforte music. Though the son of a French father, his mother was of pure Polish extraction, and it was due to her and to the educa tion he received at Warsaw that he acquired much of that intense sympathy with the misfortunes of his country which breathes through all his works. His musical education completed, Chopin visited Berlin , Dresden, Prague, and Vienna, finally taking up his abode in Paris, where he soon became very famous, although his style was at first much criticised . About 1837, the first symptoms were manifested of the disease of the lungs which finally CHOPIN. 67 proved fatal; his physicians ordered him to Majorca, and , for a time, hopes were entertained of his recovery. The celebrated Georges Sand ( Madame Dudevant ), for whom he had conceived a romantic attachment, attended him with the utmost devotion ; but her rejection of his offer of marriage on their return to Paris appears to have broken his heart and hastened his end. Although warned of the probable consequences, he visited England and Scotland in 1848, and was everywhere received with the greatest enthusiasm . His last public act was a performance at a concert in London in aid of the exiled Poles. He was then in the last stage of consumption, and returned to Paris in 1849 to die. His death - bed was attended by many devoted friends, and he was buried in the cemetery of Père la Chaise. Chopin was, in the truest sense, a poet, and in his own peculiar line has absolutely no rival. With him , the most technical studies become interesting, and his finished compositions for the piano have a freedom , a brightness, a tenderness, and a passionate melancholy all their own. His nocturnes, his valses, his mazurkas, his scherzos, are full of the boldest effects, the most brilliant and playful fancy ; and through them runs an under -tone of sadness which gives pathos to every phrase. As typical works may be named the set of mazurkas dedicated to M. Johns, the “ Marche Funèbre ," the scherzo in B flat, and the Fantaisie Impromptu,” in which all his peculiar excel lences are combined in the highest degree. Chopin's playing was as characteristic as his composi tions; and Mendelssohn, in one of his well-known letters, says of him, “ There is something thoroughly original in his pianoforte playing, and at the same time so masterly, that he may be called a perfect virtuoso ." F 2 68 MUSIC. Giacomo Meyerbeer ( 1794—1864) was born at Berlin of wealthy Jewish parents, and was a musical prodigy in his very babyhood. He is said to have played the tunes heb had heard in the streets by ear at four years old ; and at the age of six he performed at a concert at Leipzig. The best masters of the day took part in his education ; Lauska, Clementi, Zelter, Bernard Weber ( brother of Karl Maria ), and the Abbé Vogler , were successively his instructors. Whilst under the instruction of the last-named at Darm stadt, Meyerbeer became acquainted with the great Weber, whose friendship was of much service to him . In the same town, Meyerbeer composed his first oratorio, “ God and Nature,” which was soon followed by his first operas, “ Jephthah ” and “ The Two Caliphs." These works did not obtain any great success, and for some time he devoted himself to pianoforte playing at Vienna, where he made much sensation . In 1815, on the recommendation of Salieri, he visited Italy, and quickly fell under the spell of Italian opera, as represented at that time by Rossini. He composed many operas in the Italian style, during the next few years, of which the chief were "“ Emma di Resburgo ' and the “ Crociato ." Returning to Berlin , Meverbeer married in 1827, but the loss of his father and of his two first children cast so great a gloom upon his spirit that for some time he composed nothing but requiems, misereres, and other sacred works. During this period, however, he was engaged in a close study of French opera and musical art, which effected a complete revolution in his ideas. His new-born theories did not long remain untried, for in 1830 he accepted an invitation to Paris, where he com posed the series of “ grand ” operas on which his fame rests. In 1831 , the world - famous " Robert le Diable " was MEYERBEER. 69 C produced, followed in 1836 by “ Les Huguenots,” generally considered his masterpiece, and in 1843 by“ Le Prophète.” About this time, Meyerbeer was appointed Kappelmeister to the Court of Berlin, in the room of Spontini, and did not return to Paris until 1839. Whilst at Berlin, he produced a number of works of great variety, of which “ L'Etoile du Nord ” ( 185+ ) and “ Dinorah ” ( 1858 ) were among the principal. He died in Paris in 1864. The well-known opera “ L'Africaine," on which he had been engaged for many years, was not performed until after his death. Meyerbeer's works have been much criticised , and he has been charged, not altogether unjustly, with sacrificing everything to effect, and making the pleasing of the multitude his principal aim . However that may be, he did much to improve and raise dramatic art, and his greatest works— “ Robert le Diable," " Les Huguenots," and “ Le Prophète ” -give proof of high genius, and will probably long remain among the favourite operas of Europe. It is now time to speak of one of the greatest musical geniuses which this century has produced, whose works have exercised a marked influence on contemporary music. Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, commonly called Mendels sohn ( 1809-1847 ), the son of a wealthy banker of Ham burg, was born in that city on the 3rd February, 1809. He gave early proof of his great musical genius, and had none of those pecuniary difficulties to contend with in the beginning of his career which have often stood in the path of musical composers. His education from the first was confided to the best masters, and he learnt composition with Zelter, and the piano with Berger. At nine years of age, he made his first 70 Music. appearance in public at a concert in Berlin, at which he played the piano part in a trio of Dussek . In 1829 , he paid his first visit to England, for which country he had always a special predilection. It was in London, soon after his arrival, that he brought out his overture to the “ Mid summer Night's Dream , ” for which he subsequently com posed the remainder of the incidental music. The overture is pervaded by all the fascinating beauties of the play itself, combining, as it does, a certain weird and eerish humour with the most refined grace and beauty. A visit to Scotland, somewhat later, resulted in the production of the young com poser's “ Isles of Fingal,” a vivid tone- picture of the wild scenery of the North. In 1830, Mendelssohn returned to the continent, travelling through South Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and France. He remained for some time in Italy, and produced his music for Goethe's “ Walpurgis Nacht, ” which, in the form he subsequently gave to it, ranks amongst his masterpieces. In 1833, he returned to his native country, and endeavoured, without success, to found a theatre for the production of good music at Dussel dorf. In 1835, he was appointed director of concerts at Leipzig, and from that day till his death he was the centre of the musical world of Europe. When in Leipzig, he completed his oratorio of “ St. Paul,” which was first per formed at Dusseldorf, and subsequently brought out under the composer's own direction at the Birmingham Festival in 1837. In that year, Mendelssohn married the daughter of a pastor of the Reformed Church of Frankfort, to whom he was deeply attached. In 1841 , the King of Prussia ap pointed him director of music at Berlin. At the request of this monarch, who was endeavouring to revive the ancient MENDELSSOHN. 71 Greek drama,he set to music the “ Antigone” and “ Edipus ” of Sophocles, and Racine's “ Athalie, " which are among Fig. 15. - Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy. his best-known works, and have been keenly criticised . 72 Music. In spite of the brilliant career opened to his genius in Berlin, Mendelssohn chafed at the restrictions put upon his liberty, and in 1842 he obtained a modification of his appointment, which enabled him to live at his favourite Leipzig, where he took the leading part in the foundation of the celebrated Conservatorium . In 1816-a date ever memorable in the annals of music - he brought out his oratorio of “ Elijah ” at the Birmingham Festival. This great masterpiece had cost him many years of intense labour, and into it Mendelssohn appears literally to have infused his own life. It is instinct with genius, full of the noblest enthusiasm , the grandest passion, the most tender yet exalted pathos, and contains daring innovations such as none but a composer so richly gifted could have ventured to introduce. Its completion - together with the cares and anxieties caused by his numerous works and engage ments - appears to have left him exhausted and unnerved. It was the crown of all his works ; and the enthusiasm it aroused when given for the first time is still unabated. His mission in England fulfilled, Mendelssohn returned to Leipzig ( 1846) , but his health was shattered, and the death of his favourite sister Fanny, which occurred about this time, affected him deeply, and hastened his end. He died at Leipzig in 1847, leaving his oratorio of “ Christus," his opera of “ Loreley, ” and many other works, unfinished . The early death of Mendelssohn threw the musical world of Europe into mourning. He had won all hearts as much by the beauty of his character and the fascination of his personality, as by the greatness of his genius. He devoted his whole life to music; and in addition to the great works noticed above, he produced many other compositions of great beauty - such as the “ Lieder ohne Worte," and MENDELSSOHN. 73 several magnificent symphonies, concertos, trios, etc. — of which the “ Scotch ” symphony in A minor is one of the finest. He was the inventor of the modern capriccio ; and Fig . 16. -Robert Schumann . his compositions, with those of Schumann, have greatly influenced the character of modern instrumental music. 74 Music. Robert Schumann ( 1810-1856) was born at Zwickau in Saxony, and is thought by some to have almost equalled Beethoven in power and originality. However that may be, there can be no doubt that he combined , in the highest degree, inventive and critical power, and his influence has been widely felt throughout Europe. He was originally intended for the law, and it was not without some opposition that he was allowed to follow the bent of his inclination for music. He received some instruction from Wieck, whose daughter he subsequently married . She has since achieved an European reputation as a pianist, especially by the rendering of her husband's works. Of an exceedingly nervous temperament, he endured much suffering, and his latter days were clouded by loss of intellect. Schumann's works are remarkable for imaginative and intellectual power, and for great beauty of detail. They include several symphonies, of which those in D minor and C are among the most admired ; a cantata, “ Paradise and the Peri ” ; and a great number of pianoforte pieces, solo and duet, which have a world -wide circulation. With Mendelssohn and Schumann, the art of song attained to its fullest development ; and these two great masters may be said to have completed the work begun by Schubert. Amongst other German musicians of the present century may be mentioned Neukomm ( 1778–1858 ) , who for some years was greatly esteemed in England, but whose star quickly paled before that of Mendelssohn ; Schneider ( 1785-1853), who in his organ compositions worthily upheld the traditions of Sebastian Bach ; Kalkbrenner ( 1788–1849) , one of the leaders of the pyrotechnic school MOSCHELES. 75 in pianoforte music ; Karl Czerny ( 1791–1857) , whose labours as a writer for the pianoforte were Herculean ; Ignaz Moscheles ( 1794–1870) , a great pianoforte player, and Fig. 17 – Ignaz Moscheles. friend of Mendelssohn, through whom he was appointed a professor at the Leipzig Conservatorium , to which he became a tower of strength ; Heinrich Marschner ( 1796– 76 Music. 6 1861 ) , an operatic composer, whose “ Vampyr" had a great success, notwithstanding its unpleasant subject ; Reissiger ( 1798—1859) , a composer of instrumental music, now best remembered by the overture to “ Die Felsenmuehie ” ; Molique ( 1803–1869 ) , a celebrated violinist, who as a composer achieved a reputation by his works for his own instrument, and the oratorio of “ Abraham ” ; Nicolai ( 1810 -1849) , whose " Merry Wives of Windsor” is one of the most charming comic operas of the century ; Sigismund Thalberg ( 1812–1871 ) , who in his works enlarged the scope of the pianoforte to a degree before unknown ; and Hermann Goetz ( 1810–1876 ), who was cut short in a career of much promise, leaving as a chef-d'auvre his “ Taming of the Shrew.” The chief amongst living German musicians, whose works and merits it is not advisable to discuss within the limits of this book, are, Hiller, Benedict, Liszt , Heller, Henselt, Flotow , Reinecke, Wagner, Max Bruch, Brahms, Lachner, Raff, Rheinberger, and others. In the present century many composers of great talent have arisen in France, and Paris has become a centre of musical activity, in which musicians of every nationality find cordial welcome and hearty recognition. Of the French musicians of the nineteenth century , who have already passed away, Boieldieu, Auber, and Berlioz are among the most remarkable. Boieldieu ( 1775—1834) worked almost exclusively for the opera comique. One of his first works, “ Le Calife de Bagdad," had great success. The years 1803 to 1811 he spent in Russia as conductor of the Imperial opera. It was on his return to Paris that he produced his “ Dame AUBER. 77 Blanche, ” “ Petit Chaperon Rouge,” and “ Jean de Paris,” which effected, by their delicacy, refinement, and genuine humour, a complete reformation in the comic stage of Paris. Auber ( 1784-1871 ) also wrote for the stage. He re ceived some instruction from Cherubini, but his style in his early works was essentially that of Boieldieu, and is characterised by variety of rhythm and power of expression . The works of the latter portion of his career, when he had become enamoured of the style of Rossini, though they contain many sweet and original melodies, betray an attempt to imitate the great Italian composer. His earliest opera was produced in 1813, but his success only dates from 1822, when he first set to music a libretto written by Scribe, with whom he always afterwards worked in conjunction. Auber's chief works are “ Le Domino Noir,” “· Fra Diavolo," “ Le Cheval de Bronze," “ Les Diamants de la Couronne, " and his masterpiece, “ Masaniello." Berlioz (1803-1869 ), one of the most distinguished and advanced of the French members of the Romantic school, has been much criticised on account of what may be designated his realistic style . He was originally intended for the medical profession, but, in spite of parental objec tions, he became a student in the Conservatoire. Here, his individuality and leaning to the German composers ob tained for him no favour from the autocratic Cherubini. It was only after many unsuccessful trials that his “ Sar danapalus ” won the first prize, which enabled him to pur sue his studies in Italy. His works, with the exception, perhaps, of the “ Hymne à la France," never obtained a fully favourable recognition in his own country during his lifetime. The chief of them are the “ Damnation C G 78 MUSIC. de Faust” and the oratorio of “ L'Enfance du Christ," and the symphonies of “ Harold ” and “ Romeo and Juliet .” Mention must also be made of Fétis ( 1784-1871 ) , who deserves special recognition for the services he has rendered to music by his writings ; G. Onslow ( 1784—1853) , a Frenchman by birth, though English by descent, who wrote some good chamber music ; Hérold ( 1791–1833) , whose operas of “ Zampa " and " Le Pré aux Clercs ” have gained him a distinguished reputation ; Halevy ( 1799– 1862 ) , whose opera of the “ Juive ” still retains a place on the stage ; Adolphe Adam ( 1803-1856 ) , a pupil of Boiel dieu, who wrote many comic operas, of which " Le Postillon de Longjumeau " achieved a great success ; Niedermeyer ( 1802-1861 ) , author of a series of melodies illustrating some of the works of the French romantic poets; Félicien David ( 1810–1876) , whose Oriental tone -picture “ Le Desert - Ode-Symphonie ” is most excellent ; Offenbach ( 1819–1880) , whose burlesque operas have done little for the advancement of music ; and Bizet ( 1838-1875 ) , a pupil of Halevy, who showed great promise, but died directly after the production of the opera “ Carmen," on which his fame rests. Amongst living French musicians may be named Gounod, Massé, Ambroise Thomas, Massenet, and Saint Saens. Turning to Italy, the greatest musician from a scien tific point of view that the Italian school has seen since the days of Leo and Durante, is Cherubini ( 1760 -1842) . He was taught by his father and Sarti, and produced his first opera at Milan in 1780. After visits to London and Paris, he settled in the latter CHERUBINI. 79 9 city in the year 1788, and subsequently was appointed director of the Conservatoire. For some fifty years, he was at the head of music in France, and exercised an inflexible sway. He wrote a great number of pièces d'occasion for the various governments which ruled France during his life - time. Amongst his chief works are the grand Requiem in C minor, the noble Mass in D minor, and the operas of “ Lodoiska,” “ Faniska,” “ Anacreon," and “ Les Deux Journées.” The greatest popular Italian musician of the present century is, without doubt, Gioacchino Rossini ( 1792– 1868) , a man of great versatility, whose works have achieved a world -wide celebrity. The son of a stroll ing musician in distressed circumstances, Rossini's early life was spent in wandering about with his parents. At the age of fifteen , however, he was enabled to enter the academy at Bologna, where he obtained some instruc tion in counterpoint and on the cello. In 1813, he brought out at Venice his opera of “ Tancredi, ” which won him at once a high position amongst contemporary composers. In 1815, Rossini obtained the coveted post of musical director of the theatre of San Carlo at Naples, and it was in that city that he wrote his great “ Barbiere di Seviglia , ” which was produced at Rome in 1816, and in Paris somewhat later. Strange to say, this now popular opera was at first received with the greatest disapproba tion, owing to the hold that an opera by Paisiello on the same subject then had on the public ear. It was followed during the next five years by “ Otello, ” “ Cenerentola , ” " La Gazza Ladra , ” “ Mosè in Egitto,” “ Zelmira ,” “ Semira mide,” and other works. In 1823 Rossini accepted an invitation to England, where he was received with the " ( 80 MUSIC. greatest enthusiasm , and remained five months. Early in 1824, he was appointed director of the Italian opera at Paris, where in 1829 he brought out his masterpiece, “ William Tell,” the music of which shows an entire departure from his previous style. He retired in 1836 to Bologna, and on leaving Paris, his career as a musical Fig. 18. - Gioacchino Antonio Rossini. ( 6 ( composer may be said to have ended — the only important works he produced after “ William Tell ” having been the “ Stabat Mater " and the “ Messe Solennelle. " The revo lutionary movement in Italy, at the close of 1847, drove Rossini from his retreat ; and, after a stay of a few years at DONIZETTI. 81 Florence, he returned to France, and died at his residence, at Passy, near Paris, in 1868. Rossini's works, especially those produced in early life, are essentially Italian, and are marked by great brilliancy of effect, animation , and force of melody. " William Tell,” with the sacred compositions produced after 1829, are of a more elevated character, and betray the closeness with which their author studied the works of composers outside the Italian school. Rossini had many followers, and his works have exercised great influence not only in Italy, but in the whole of Europe. Donizetti ( 1798—1848) ranks second only to Rossini, by whom he was greatly influenced ; and in his brief and brilliant career, the latter part of which was clouded by mental disease, produced no less than sixty operas, chiefly characterised by dramatic force, of which “ Lucia di Lammermoor,” “ Lucrezia Borgia,” “ Don Pasquale,” and “ La Fille du Regiment,” are among the most admired. Mention must also be made of Spontini ( 1778–1851) , author of several operas, such as “ La Vestale",” “ Fernando Cortez,” etc. , full of dramatic power and refinement of feeling; Pollini ( 1778–1847) , who wrote some good pianoforte music ; Paganini ( 1784—1840) , the greatest violinist of the present century, who left a few works for his instrument; Morlacchi ( 1784-1841 ) , an operatic com poser, whose professional life was passed at Dresden, and who is now best remembered by his Requiem ; Mercadante ( 1797—1870) , for some years Principal of the Naples Con servatoire, and author of numerous operas, of which “ Il Giuramento " is the best ; Bellini ( 1802—1835 ) , author of the well- known operas of “ Norma, ” “ La Sonnambula,” " I Puritani, ” etc., in which the great beauty of the EHA-M G 82 MUSIC. melodies atones for a certain want of completeness in the construction ; Luigi Ricci ( 1805—1859) , whose “ Crispino e la Comare ” is one of the best comic operas which have been produced in the century ; and Petrella ( 1813–1877 ), who left as his masterpiece, the opera . “ I promessi sposi.” Amongst living exponents of the Italian school are Verdi, Boito, Bottesini, Marchetti, Costa, Casamorata, and Ponchielli. VII. MUSIC IN ENGLAND. Although England has unfortunately not yet given birth to any musical composers of such transcendent genius as Bach, Handel, Mozart, or Beethoven, no history of music, however elementary, would be complete without some allusion to the old English melodies, or without a brief notice of the men who have raised English church music to the high position it now occupies, and of the writers of the charming madrigals which have been handed down from generation to generation. In his ' Popular Music of the Olden Time ’ Mr. Chappell finally refutes the oft- repeated assertion that the English have no national music. His collections of old English airs, which have been carefully gleaned from rare old MSS. and printed books, in England and on the Conti nent, contain many fine melodies. Among them may be instanced " The Hunt is up,” which has been traced back to the year 1537 ; the “ British Grenadiers, ” a form of which is found early in the seventeenth century ; and “ Drink to me only with thine Eyes, ” the origin of which has never been discovered. Little is known of the history of music in Wales, in Scotland , or in Ireland before the fifteenth century ; but poets and bards were held in high esteem in very remote times, and many of the G 2 84 MUSIC melodies of these countries bear the impress of great an tiquity. As characteristic examples of Scotch airs may be named " Auld Robin Gray," the “ Land o' the Leal," and the “ Blue Bells of Scotland ” ; and of the Irish , “ Love's Young Dream ,” “ Savourneen Deelish ," and the “ Groves ( Fig. 19. –ANGLO- Saxon HARP, 11th century . (MS. British Museum .) of Blarney . The general characteristics of all these time honoured airs, whether English, Welsh , Scotch, or Irish , are their simplicity and sweetness. The national peculiar ities of each race are as vividly reflected in their songs as in their language, and a practised ear can often detect the In ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 85 source of a popular melody without any examination of the accompanying words. In Anglo -Saxon times, the cultivation of music appears to have been diligently pursued. The works of the Vener able Bede ( 672–735 ) include two treatises on music, and, if further proof be desired of the pursuit of the art, it is only necessary to refer to the illuminated MSS. of the period, which contain many illustrations of musical instru ments, of which an example is here given. If in the following centuries, England cannot point to names of such importance in the history of music as Guido Aretino, Ockenheim , or Josquin Després, still she is not unworthily represented in this early period of the art by John Cotton ; by John Hothby, a learned theoretician, whose works are still extant ; by Hambois ; and by John of Dunstable ( first half of the fifteenth century), to whom was at one time attributed the invention of counterpoint. In the sixteenth century arose that great group of Church composers, the founders of the English School of sacred music, which differs in many essential characteristics from that of any other nation. First in date comes Christopher Tye, the musical instructor to the children of Henry VIII. who produced a setting of the Acts of the Apostles. He is now best remembered by his anthems “ Out of the deep ,” and “ I will exalt Thee.” Contemporaneous with Tye was John Redford, almoner and organist at St. Paul's Cathedral, who left a melodious setting of “ Rejoice in the Lord alway.” Then comes Tallis ( 1529—1585) , who de voted his life to the service of the Church , and superim posed those harmonies on the ancient plain song, which had just been adapted to the reformed English liturgy by Merbecke, and which in the present day form the festival 86 MUSIC > > 9 setting of the Anglican service. As typical compositions of this great “ father of the cathedral style in England, ” as he has been called , may be cited the Service in the Dorian mode, and the anthems “ I call and cry” and “ If ye love Me. ” His works are all stamped with the greatest origin ality, and are full of reverential feeling. Amongst the followers of Tallis were Farrant (died 1580) , author of some fine old Church music, notably “ Call to remembrance,” and “ Lord, for Thy tender mer cies ” ; Byrde ( 1538-1623) , the greatest of the pupils of Tallis, who, in conjunction with his master, had a curious Royal monopoly for the publication of music ; Dr. John Bull ( 1563–1628) , the first Gresham professor of music and afterwards organist of Notre Dame, Antwerp ; Elway Bevin, another pupilof Tallis ; Adrian Batten ; and Morley ( died 1604) , author of a beautiful burial-service. But the greatest of this illustrious group is Orlando Gibbons ( 1583 -1625) , who has been called, not without reason, the English Palestrina. He was born at Cambridge, and probably received his musical education in one of the College choirs. In 1604, he became organist of the Chapel Royal. He died from the small- pox at Canterbury, where he had gone to attend the marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria in 1625. His “ Hosanna, ” “ O clap your hands,” and “ God is gone up ” are noble specimens of his genius as a polyphonic composer. It was not in Church music alone that the English musicians of this period attained eminence. Contem poraneously with the great school of Italian madrigalists, there was an excellent band of English madrigal writers. Many of the composers just named are also remembered for their madrigals. Byrde was the composer, amongst IN ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 87 ( 6 other fine works, of “ While the bright sun ” ; Morley was the editor of, and contributor to , the famous collection of madrigals in praise of Queen Elizabeth, entitled “ The Triumphs of Oriana ” ; and to Orlando Gibbons are due “ Dainty fine bird ” and “ The silver swan .” Besides them were Wilbye, Weelkes, Dowland, Bateson, Michael Este, Bennet, Hilton, and many others, whose madrigals, ballets, and “ fa las,” have been, and are still, the delight of English musical societies. Several of the composers of this period also wrote good OD Fig. 20 .-- A VIRGINAL. instrumental music for the virginal (a predecessor of the harpsichord ), which was in great favour with Queen Eliza beth, and of which an illustration is here given. An interesting collection of pavans, preludes, galliards, &c. , by Byrde, Orlando Gibbons, and Dr. John Bull, entitled “ Parthenia ," was published in 1611. There are still the names of two musicians to be men tioned, whose works form somewhat of a link between the composers just mentioned, and those of the succeeding 88 Music school. They are John Jenkins ( 1592–1678) , who wrote much music for the viol and organ ; and Henry Lawes ( 1595—1662) , who, besides many “ Ayres, ” composed the original music for Milton's Masque of “ Comus.” The Commonwealth proved as disastrous to music as to the other arts, and the interregnum caused by the interrup tion of the choral service of the Church, marks a fresh departure in the history of English music. The com posers who have just been considered form a well-defined group, in whose works contrapuntal and imitative skill are pre-eminent. They hold a similar position in English music to that occupied by the great polyphonic composers of Italy in Italian music. Those who succeeded them formed and perfected a style which allowed a greater scope for expression, and gave greater force to the words to which the music was allied. But, unlike the founders of the monodic school in Italy, they also made good use of the science which was the glory of their predecessors. Thus English music did not need the advent of another Scarlatti to restore to it that science which should ever form an inte gral part of musical art. The founder of this new school was Pelham Humfrey ( 1647—1674) , a chorister in the Chapel Royal, who was sent by Charles II. to study at Paris under Lulli, through whom he was greatly influenced by the Italian composers, and especially by Carissimi. On his re turn, he was appointed to the Chapel Royal, for which he wrote several anthems, which effected a complete revolution in the Church music of England. His “ O Lord my God," and “ Have mercy upon me," which are to be found in Boyce's well-known collection, are especially fine works. His influence was distinctly noticeable in the works of Henry Purcell ( 1658–1695) , the greatest of English PURCELL . 89 composers, who combined great originality with assimi lation of all that was best in the productions of his pre decessors. He was born in Westminster, and was also brought up in the Chapel Royal, and received instruc Fig. 21.-- Henry Purcell. From the painting by Clostermann in the possession of Archdeacon Burney. tion from Dr. Blow, of whom more presently. His first public work was an opera “ Dido and Æneas,” produced in 1675, the success of which led to the production of music for a long series of dramatic works. In 1680, he became 90 MUSIC organist of Westminster Abbey, an office which he held till his death. His Church music - such as the celebrated Te Deum and “ Jubilate " -approaches, in grandeur and depth of expression, that of Handel, and it still retains its place in our cathedrals. His secular compositions take even higher rank. Of these may be named the “ York shire Feast Song " and the music of the “ Tempest, ” of " King Arthur ” ( in which is the well -known “ Come if you dare " ), and that of the “ Indian Queen, as among the most remarkable. John Blow ( 1648-1708) was, like Pelham Humfrey, one of the first choristers in the Chapel Royal after the Restor ation . He early showed great musical proficiency, and at the age of twenty- one was appointed organist of West minster Abbey. Under his care, the Chapel Royal became the nursery of many excellent musicians. His works include much incidental secular music, odes, &c. , besides many services and anthems, of which latter “ I was in the spirit ” and “ I beheld and lo ! a great multitude " are frequently heard at the present day. Michael Wise (died 1687) , another of the original “ children ” of the Chapel Royal in 1660, was a native of Salisbury, to which he afterwards returned as organist of the cathedral. His anthems, of which “ Awake up my glory” is a favourable and melodious specimen, hold a good position amongst those of his contemporaries. Jeremiah Clark was chorister in the Chapel Royal under Dr. Blow, and after wards became organist of St. Paul's. He died by his own hand in 1708. Besides sacred music he wrote for the theatre, and was the composer of the original music to Dryden's “ Alexander's Feast." Amongst the contemporaries of these composers, although > a IN ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, 91 their music belongs rather to that of the preceding school, are Dr. Child ( 1606-1697) , a pupil of Elway Bevin, and thus one of the last direct descendants of the style of Tallis : he was for about half a century organist of St. George's, Windsor; Dr. Benjamin Rogers, whose tuneful Service in D is still in frequent use ; and Dean Aldrich ( 1647—1710 ), architect, classic, logician, and musician, who wrote several services and about fifty anthems. But to return to the school of Humfrey, Blow, and Purcell. The eighteenth century opened auspiciously for English Church music. Croft ( 1677—1727) , another of the Chapel Royal boys educated under Blow, whom he succeeded at Westminster Abbey and at the Chapel Royal, was just coming into notice. He at first wrote for the stage, but his fame rests on his subsequent composi tions for the Church. His anthems “ God is gone up,” “ O Lord, rebuke me not,” and “ We will rejoice, ” are admir able specimens of his broad and massive style . John Weldon ( 1670-1736) is to be especially remembered for his anthem “ In Thee, O Lord ,” with its lovely and pathetic duet. Dr. Maurice Greene ( 1696—1755) wrote much music of various kinds. He was a friend of Handel until he became involved in the Buononcini quarrel. His best sacred compositions are included in the " Forty select Anthems ” published by him . Dr. Boyce ( 1710—1779) wrote much secular music, odes, &c. , as master of the king's band. He is now best remembered by his anthems “ Lord, Thou hast been our refuge,” and “ Surely I have built Thee an house ," and the valuable collection of cathe dral music which he compiled. The latter years of the century , however, saw a lamentable decline in English Church music, and it is only necessary to mention the 92 MUSIC names of Kent ( 1700—1776) and Nares ( 1715—1780) , as the two most prominent composers of a period in which mere prettiness and triviality were exchanged for the broad and scientific treatment of Purcell and Croft. But this condemnation does not apply to the whole of English musical art at this period. In opera, there was the well-known name of Thomas Augustine Arne ( 1710– 1778) , the greatest composer for the English stage in the eighteenth century. Taking up the work left by Purcell, he produced a great number of excellent works for the theatre. For the finale to his masque of " Alfred ,” he wrote “ Rule Britannia," and in his music to Shakespeare's “ Tempest is found “ Where the bee sucks." His greatest work was the opera of “ Artaxerxes,” which held the boards for the best part of a century, and was translated into Italian. Dr. S. Arnold ( 1740—1802) wrote music for forty-three dramatic pieces. In his works, he revived the complete musical representation of the plot. He also composed some oratorios and sacred music. Other English operatic writers at this time were Jackson of Exeter ( 1730-1803) , who is now best remembered by his songs, one of which was “ Time has not thinned my flowing hair ; ” Shield ( 1754—1829) , who produced “ Lock and Key ” and “ Rosina ” ; Michael Kelly ( 1762—1826 ),author of the “ Castle Spectre," " The Wood Demon,” &c .; Dibdin ( 1745—1814) , who, besides his numerous nautical and patriotic songs, wrote many operas, of which “ The Waterman ” is the best ; and Storace ( 1763—1796 ), who composed " The Haunted Tower, " “ No song, no supper," &c . This period saw the invention of an important form in English music, the glee, which, after the lapse of more than a century, took the place formerly occupied by the madrigal. > IN ENGLAND IN THE BEGINNING OF THE 19TH CENTURY. 93 The chief distinctions between a glee and a madrigal are as follows. The madrigal is strictly polyphonic, and its subjects - generally few in number — are treated in every possible way by means of counterpoint and imitation, until they are thoroughly worked out. In the glee, the parts are treated more in masses, and variety is obtained by means of frequent changes of time and subject. To guard against misconception, it is well to state that, according to its etymological derivation, a glee simply means music, and it need not necessarily be of a joyful character. Hence, there are both " serious " and " cheerful” glees. Samuel Webbe, the elder ( 1730—1816) , may be con sidered as the father of the glee. He wrote some of the earliest glees, and during his lifetime the finest were pro duced. His contributions include “ Glorious Apollo, ” “ When winds breathe soft," &c. R. J. Stevens ( 1756—1837) set to music several of the songs from Shakespeare's plays, among which “ The cloud capt towers," “ Ye spotted snakes , ” “ Sigh no more, ladies, " and many others, are well-known, and deservedly popular. Danby ( 1757–1798) wrote some fine glees, of which “ Awake, Æolian lyre !” and “ When Sappho tuned the raptured strain ” are excellent examples. Dr. Callcott ( 1766-1821 ) -brother to Sir A. W. Call cott, R.A. , the well -known artist — was a most prolific and popular composer. To him are due “ The Red Cross Knight,” “ Who comes so dark ," " Peace to the souls of the heroes, ” and many other works set to Ossianic words. W. Horsley ( 1774–1838) , -father of Mr. J. C. Horsley, R.A. , —with whom Mendelssohn was very intimate during his stays in England, wrote the well- known “ By Celia's arbour," and " See the chariot at hand .”” Amongst the 2 94 MUSIC other composers of glees, space does not permit more than a mention of Lord Mornington ( 1735—1781 ) , Battishill ( 1738-1801 ) , Dr. B. Cooke ( 1739—1793) , Paxton ( died 1787) , Spofforth ( 1768-1827) , and T. S. Cooke ( 1782 1848) . With the commencement of the nineteenth century, there was a marked improvement in English sacred music. Amongst the pioneers in this advance were the elder Samuel Wesley, Attwood, and Crotch . Wesley (1766 1837) by his achievements as a child, is numbered amongst infant musical prodigies. Besides some excellent Latin motetts ( “ In exitu Israel," &c. ) , he wrote some good organ and pianoforte music. Attwood ( 1767—1838) studied in Italy and under Mozart, who had a very good opinion of his musical capabilities. In his early career, he wrote many operas. He subsequently became organist of St. Paul's, and wrote more for the Church. Mendelssohn became very intimate with him during his visits to England, and dedicated some of his organ music to him . In his works - good specimens of which are the anthems " I was glad , ” and “ They that go down to the sea,” and the Coronation Anthems, with accompaniments — he shows him self by his command of melody a true pupil of Mozart. Dr. Crotch ( 1775—1847) had a great influence on the progress of music in England as the first Principal of the Royal Academy of Music. His chief work is the oratorio “ Palestine Palestine.."” The other sacred composers of the present century who must be mentioned are Sir J. Goss ( 1800—1880) , a pupil of Attwood , whom he succeeded as organist of St. Paul's ; amongst his fine anthems are the well -known “ Praise the Lord,” “ The Wilderness," &e.; J. L. Ellerton ( 1807-1873) , whose fame was greater on the IN ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY. 95 continent than in England, and who wrote the oratorio “ Paradise Lost,” besides many masses, symphonies, and operas. Samuel Sebastian Wesley ( 1810–1876) , the son of the elder Wesley just spoken of, left many fine anthems such as “ Ascribe unto the Lord ,” “ O Lord, Thou art my God ” —written for his doctor's degree— “The Wilderness,” and “ Blessed be the God and Father ” ; H. Smart ( 1813–1879) , who wrote some good services and anthems, but whose fame chiefly rests on his organ com positions and his cantatas “ The Bride of Dunkerron ” and “ King René's Daughter ” ; and Hugo Pierson ( 1815— 1873) , another English composer whose reputation was greatest abroad , and who left as his master-piece the oratorio “ Jerusalem . ” The English school in the nineteenth century can boast of several operatic composers of merit. Sir Henry Bishop ( 1786—1855) was the author of an immense number of operas, which his great gift of melody and the thoroughly English character of his songs, rendered very successful. Amongst the best are “ The Miller and his men, ” “ The Slave, " “ The Law of Java ” -containing the well-known “ Mynheer van Dunck ” —and “ Guy Mannering .” Frag ments of these works have become popular as part songs. Balfe ( 1808-1870) obtained an European reputation by his operas, which were translated into French and Italian. After study in Italy, he returned to England in 1835 and produced his “ Siege of Rochelle." His master piece, " The Bohemian Girl," followed in 1843, “ Satanella " in 1858, while his last work “ Il Talismano " was produced posthumously in 1874. There are also the well-known names of Loder ( 1813–1865) , composer of the “ Mountain 96 MUSIC. " Sylph, ” and Vincent Wallace ( 1818—1865) , who produced “ Lurline,”" “ Maritana," &c . Turning to instrumental music, there are two most im portant names to consider. John Field ( 1782—1837 ) exercised a great influence by his Nocturnes on Chopin and Mendelssohn. In fact, the form of the latter's world renowned “ Songs without words ” may be said to have been invented by the Englishman in his Nocturnes. He was the favourite pupil of Clementi, whom he accompanied to Paris, Germany, and Russia, in which latter country he remained for many years, and was held in great esteem . His intemperance shortened his life, and after a trip to Italy, he returned to die at Moscow. Field's pianoforte playing was the theme of universal admiration ; he is said to have been unequalled in his legato and cantabile effects. Sir William Sterndale Bennett ( 1816-1875) holds the proud position of being the greatest composer of the English school which the nineteenth century has seen . As a boy, he sang in the choir of King's College, Cambridge, and his musical studies were subsequently carried on at the Royal Academy of Music under Crotch, W. H. Holmes, and Cipriani Potter. His Opus I, the concerto in D Minor, was performed in 1833 and published at the expense of the Academy. In 1836, he went to Leipzic, where he gained much by the friendship of Mendelssohn and Schumann. He was conductor of the Philharmonic Society for ten years previous to his becoming Principal of the Aca demy, to which post he was appointed in 1866. This last appointment he held, together with the Professor ship of Music at Cambridge, until his death. Amongst his finest orchestral works are the Concert Overtures to “ The Naiades” (1836) , “ The Wood Nymphs " ( 1841 ), IN ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY. 97 and “ Paradise and the Peri” ( 1862) , whilst for the pianoforte he wrote many delightful works, such as the “ Rondo Piacevole ,” “ Maid of Orleans ” sonata , &c. He also left the pastoral cantata “ The May Queen ,” and the beautiful oratorio “ The Woman of Samaria ," works full of refinement and nobility of expression. Looking round upon the present position of music in England, there is every reason to be hopeful for the future. The foundation of the Philharmonic Society in the present century, and the influence of Mendelssohn gave a wonder ful impulse to musical activity ; and the Royal Academy of Music, under the successive direction of Dr. Crotch, Cipriani Potter, Charles Lucas, Sterndale Bennett, and Macfarren, has been the nursery of many excellent mu sicians. Besides the old Philharmonic Society, there are the Sacred Harmonic Society, the Festivals of the Three Choirs , and those at Norwich, Leeds, and Birmingham , the Monday Popular Concerts at St. James's Hall, and the concerts at the Crystal Palace, which have all aided in spreading a knowledge of music, and in popularizing the works of the great masters. There is also great room for hopefulness for the future, when amongst contemporary composers such names are included as those of Macfarren, Sullivan, Ouseley, Elvey, Hatton, J. F. Barnett, Gadsby, Cowen, Salaman, Stainer, and many others. EH - 1 HI

INDEX. ADAM, Adolphe, 78 Adam de la Hale, 15, 20 Albrechtsberger, 57 Allegri, Gregorio, 17 Anerio, 18 Anthem , The, 3, 32 Arcadelt, 15 Aretino, Guido, 12 Aria, The, 24 Arne, T. A., 92 Auber, 77 9 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 34 Balfe, Michael, 95 Batten , Adrian, 86 Beethoven , Ludwig van, 53 Bellini, G., 81 Bennett, Sir John Sterndale, 96 Berlioz, 77 Bevin , Elway, 86 Bishop, Sir Henry, 95 Bizet, 78 Blow, Dr. John, 90 Boieldieu, 76 Boyce, Dr. William, 91 Bull, Dr. John , 86 Buononcini, 22 Buxtehude, Dietrich, 35 Byrde, 86 CACCINI, 20 Caldara , 22 Cambert, 29 Canon, 6 Capriccio, The, 5 Carissimi, Giacomo, 18 Cavaliere, Emilio del, 18 Chambonières, 28 Cherubini , 77, 78 Chopin , François Frédéric, 66 Chorale, The, 3 Chord, 2 Cimarosa , 27 Clari, 22 Clementi, 27 Colonna, 22 Concerto, The, 5 Concord, 2 Corelli, Arcangelo, : 23 Cotton, John , 85 Couperin , 28 Cramer, J. B. , 60 Croce , Giovanni, 22 Croft, William , 91 Crotch , Dr. , 97 Criiger, Johann, 33 Czerny, Carl, 75 DALAYRAC, 31 David, Félicien, 78 Della Maria , 31 Després, Josquin , 15 Discord, 2 Donizetti, 81 Dufay, Guillaume, 15 Durante, 24 Dussek, J. L.,1 58 EBERLIN, 40 Eccard , Johann , 33 Egyptian Music, 8 Elvey, 97 English Music, 83 Song and Glee Writers, 92 Eybler, 58 H 2 100 INDEX. FANTASIA, The, 5 Festa, 17 Fétis, 78 Field, John, 96 Franco of Cologne, 14 French Music, 15 , 28, 76 Frescobaldi, 27 Fugue, 6 Leo, 24 Lesueur, 31 Locatelli, 23 Lotti, 22 Lucas, Charles, 97 Lulli, 30 GABRIELLI, The, 21 Galilei, Vincenzo, 20 Galuppi, 22 Gasparini, 22 Geminiani, 23 German Music, 32 Gibbons, Orlando, 86 Glee, The, 3 , 92 Gluck, Christoph von , 43 Goetz, Hermann, 76 Gossec, 31 Goudimel, 15 Graun , K. H. , 40 Greek Music, 8 Gregory, Pope, 12 Grétry, 31 MACFARREN, 97 Madrigal, The, 3, 92 Madrigal Writers, English , 86 Marcello, 22 Marenzio, Luca, 17 Martini, 23 Matheson, 40 Mediæval Music, 11 Méhul, 31 Melody, 2 Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Felix , 69 Mercadante, 81 Merulo, Claudio, 22 Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 68 Monody, 4, 20 Monsigny, 31 Monteverde, Claudio, 20 Morlacchi, 81 Morley, 86 Moscheles, Ignaz, 75 Mottet, The, Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 50 HALEVY, 78 Handel, Georg Friedrich , 34, 36 Hasse, J. A. , 25 Haydn, Franz Joseph, 46 Hebrew Music, 7 Hérold, 78 Himmel, 57 Hothby, John, 85 Humfrey, Pelham , 88 Huminel, J. N. , 60 NANNINI, 18 Netherlands, Music in the, 15 Niedermeyer, 78 Note, A, 2 INTERVAL , 2 Italian Music , 15, 79 Singers, 28 OCKENHEIM, 15 Offenbach , J. J. , 78 Offertory, The, 3 Onslow , G. , 78 Opera , The, 3, 20, 33 Oratorio , The, 3, 18 Organ , The, 14 Ouseley, 97 Overture, The, 5 , 30 JENKINS, John , 88 John of Dunstable, 85 Jommelli, 26 KREBS, 40 Kuhnau, 40 LALANDE, 30 Lasso , Orlando di, 15, 21 Lawes, Henry, 88 PAGANINI, 81 Paisiello, 27 Palestrina, Giov. Pierluigi da, 16, 21 Part- Song, The, 3 Pepusch , 40 Pergolesi, Giambattista, 25 INDEX. 101 Peri, 20 Perrin , The Abbé, 30 Perti, 23 Petrella, 82 Philidor, 30 Pianoforte, The, 58 Piccinni , 26 Pistocchi, 22 Pitch , 2 Pleyel, Ignaz, 58 Pollini, 81 Polyphony, 3 Potter, Cipriani, 97 Purcell, Henry, 88 Schobert, 30 Schubert, Franz, 61 Schumann, Robert, 74 Schütz, Heinrich, 33 Solfeggio, 13 Sonata, The, 4 Song and Glee Writers, English , 92 Spohr, Ludwig, 62 Spontini, 81 Stainer, 97 Steibelt, 58 Stradella, Alessandro, 19 Sullivan, 97 Symphony, The, 5 Tallis, 85 Tartini, 27 Thalberg, Sigismund, 76 Tye, Christopher, 85 RAMEAU, 30 Recitative, 3 Redford , John, 85 Requiem , 3 Ricei, Luigi, 82 Rinucci, 20 Roman Music, 9 Romberg, A. , 58 Rondo, The, 5 Rossini, Gioacchino, 79 Violin , The, 28 Viotti, 27 Vittoria, Tommaso Ludovico da, 18 Vogler, Abbé, 57 SACCHINI, 26 Salaman, 97 S. Ainbrose, 11 S. Filippo Neri, 18 Scarlatti, Alessandro, 23 Domenico, 24 Scherzo, The, 5 WALLACE, Vincent, 95 Weber, Karl Maria von , 63 Willaert, Adrian , 15, 21 Winter, 57 Woelf, J. L. , 60 ZARLINO, 21 © Bungay : CLAY AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS. ILLUSTRATED BIOGRAPHIES OF THE GREAT ARTISTS. The folloving volumes, each illustrated with from 14 to 20 Engravings, are now ready, price 35. 6d. : ITALIAN, & c . GIOTTO. By HARRY QUILTER, M.A., Trinity Coll. , Cambridge. FRA ANGELICO. By CATHERINE MARY PHILLIMORE FRA BARTOLOMMEO. By LEADER Scott. LEONARDO DA VINCI. By Dr. J. PAUL RICHTER. MICHELANGELO. By CHARLES CLEMENT. RAPHAEL . From J. D. PASSAVANT. By N. D'ANVERS. TITIAN. By RICHARD FORD HEATH , M.A. Oxford . TINTORETTO. By W. Roscoe Oster. From researches at Venice. VELAZQUEZ. By Edwin STOWE, M.A. Oxford . VERNET and DELAROCHE. By J. RUUTZ Rees. TEUTONIC . ALBRECHT DÜRER. By R. F. Heath, M.A. [ Nearly ready. HOLBEIN. From Dr. A. WOLTMANN . By JOSEPH CUNDALL. THE LITTLE MASTERS OF GERMANY, By W. B. Scott. 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