Apology (Xenophon)
From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
| Revision as of 21:03, 20 March 2011 Jahsonic (Talk | contribs) ← Previous diff |
Revision as of 21:05, 20 March 2011 Jahsonic (Talk | contribs) Next diff → |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{Template}} | {{Template}} | ||
| - | The '''trial of Socrates''' refers to the [[trial]] and the subsequent [[execution]] of the Athenian [[philosopher]] [[Socrates]] in [[399 BC]]. Socrates was tried and convicted by the courts of democratic [[Athens]] on a charge of [[corrupting]] the youth and [[heresy|disbelieving]] in the ancestral gods. | + | [[Xenophon]]'s '''''Apology''''' (in full '''''Apology of Socrates to the jury''''' (''Ἀπολογία Σωκράτους πρὸς τοὺς Δικαστάς'') describes [[Socrates]]' state of mind at his trial and execution, and especially his view that it was better to die before senility set in than to escape execution by humbling himself before an unjust persecution. Specialists believe that Xenophon's interpretation of the trial was written in response to a widespread literary reaction following the trial, where Athenian public figures and authors used the theme of Socrates's trial to state their views on his guilt. The main part of the text is a direct blow for blow rejection of a particular attack on Socrates' character by an opponent of Socrates. The text gives clear indication on the charges brought against Socrates by [[Anytus]], and is often used on this point in comparison with [[Plato]]'s version. Xenophon was away at the time, involved in the events of the [[Anabasis (Xenophon)|march of the Ten Thousand]]. He cites [[Hermogenes (philosopher)|Hermogenes]] as his source for the factual elements of the trial. It is probable that Hermogenes had indeed witnessed the trial; for, though Plato's ''Apology'' does not mention his presence, Plato's ''[[Phaedo]]'' lists Hermogenes among those who were present at Socrates' death. |
| - | The trial was described by two of Socrates' contemporaries, and is one of the most famous trials of ancient times. | + | Evidently, Xenophon had written his ''Apology'' after a number of other accounts of the trial had been published; for he presents his as being the only one of them that made Socrates' "boastful manner of speaking (''megalēgoria'')" at the trial understandable (''Apology'' 1-2). Other than Plato's ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology of Socrates]]'', Xenophon's second-hand account is the only other surviving "eye-witness" account of the trial of Socrates. Even granting some bias in the work, it is of historical value on that point alone. |
| - | ==Background to the trial== | + | One thing that distinguishes Xenophon's account from Plato's is that in the former, the Oracle at Delphi claimed no one was "more free, more just, or more sound of mind" than Socrates (''Apology'' 14), while in Plato's text the claim was only that no one was "wiser" (''Apology'' 21a). Some scholars have suggested that what accounts for the difference is that Xenophon wished to avoid the explicit attribution of "wisdom", a term which, to the average Athenian, would suggest that Socrates indeed was properly characterized as an atheistic natural philosopher as Aristophanes had done. However, Xenophon's Socrates does claim to be "wise" in the sense that "from the time when I began to understand spoken words [I] have never left off seeking after and learning every good thing that I could" (''Apology'' 16). |
| - | Socrates had been a well-known figure in [[Athens]] for some years by the time of his trial. [[Aristophanes]]'s [[comedy]] ''[[The Clouds|Clouds]]'' (''Nephelai''), produced in [[420 BC]], has Socrates as a main character, portraying him as a [[pompous]], bombastic [[con artist]]. | + | |
| - | No works by Socrates himself survive, but his pupil [[Plato]] recorded numerous 'Socratic dialogues', with his teacher as the main character. Socrates's ''elenctic examination'' was resented by influential figures of his day, whose reputations for wisdom and virtue were debunked by his questions. The annoying nature of ''[[elenchos]]'' earned Socrates the epithet "[[gadfly]] of Athens." Elenctic method was often imitated by the young men of Athens, which greatly upset the established moral values and order. Indeed, even though Socrates himself fought for Athens and argued for obedience to law, at the same time he criticised democracy, especially, the Athenian practice of election by lot, ridiculing that in no other craft, the craftsman would be elected in such a fashion. Such a criticism gave rise to suspicion by the democrats, especially when his close associates were found to be enemies of democracy. [[Alcibiades]] betrayed Athens in favour of Sparta (although this was likely more a matter of necessity than a matter of ideology), and [[Critias]], his sometime disciple, was a leader of the [[Thirty Tyrants]] (the pro-[[Spartan]] [[oligarchy]] that ruled Athens for a few years after its defeat during the [[Peloponnesian War]]), though there is also a record of their falling out. | + | Another difference is that in Xenophon's ''Apology'' Socrates' "divine sign" (''daimonion'') is described as giving positive indications as to what should be done (12), while Plato's Socrates consistently and explicitly describes the sign as "turn[ing] me away from something I am about to do" but "never encourag[ing] me to do anything" (''Apology'' 31d). |
| - | In addition, Socrates held unusual views on religion. He made several references to his personal spirit, or ''[[daimonion]]'', although he explicitly claimed that it never urged him on, but only warned him against various prospective events. Many of his contemporaries were suspicious of Socrates's ''daimonion'' as a rejection of the state religion. It is generally understood that Socrates's ''daimonion'' is akin to intuition. Moreover, Socrates claimed that the concept of goodness, instead of being determined by what the gods wanted, actually precedes it. | + | A further difference between Plato and Xenophon is that whereas Plato has Socrates finally suggest a thirty-[[Mina (unit)|mina]] penalty for himself (''Apology'' 38b), the Xenophon/Hermogenes version says that he refused to suggest any and refused to allow his friends to do so, claiming that to do otherwise would imply guilt (''Apology'' 23). |
| - | ==Socrates's trial described by his contemporaries== | + | Finally, whereas Socrates' willingness to face the death penalty is in Plato's ''Apology'' explained by Socrates' unwavering commitment to his divinely appointed mission to keep philosophizing at all costs (29c-30c), it is explained in the Xenophon/Hermogenes version by the claim that it is better for him to die now than to face the pains and limitations of advanced old age (''Apology'' 6-8, 27, and 32). |
| - | The first [[Tetralogy]] of dialogues by [[Plato]], Socrates' student has the trial and execution of Socrates as central theme: ''[[Euthyphro]]'', ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', ''[[Crito]]'' and ''[[Phaedo (Plato)|Phaedo]]''. Also [[Xenophon]] wrote an ''[[Apology (Xenophon)|Apology of Socrates]]''. | + | |
| - | ==The process of the trial== | + | The final "chapter" of Xenophon's [[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|''Memorabilia'']] (4.8.1-4.8.8) contains some of the same material - some of it almost word for word - as the beginning sections of his ''Apology'' (1-8). This has led some scholars to suspect that Xenophon's ''Apology'' was the original conclusion to the ''Memorabilia''; given our limited evidence, however, this cannot be known with certainty. |
| - | The first element of the trial was a formal accusation, which the accuser [[Meletus]] swore before the King [[Archon]], a state office-holder with primarily religious duties. Having decided that there was a case to answer, the King Archon summoned Socrates to appear before a jury of Athenian citizens, to answer charges of corrupting the youth of Athens and disbelieving in the ancestral gods. | + | |
| - | Athenian juries were drawn by lottery from a group of all male citizen volunteers (citizenship was not open to women, [[slave]]s or resident aliens), but from every social class. Unlike trials in many modern societies, majority verdicts were the rule rather than the exception. (For a satirical account of juries and the sort of people found on them, read [[Aristophanes]]' comedy ''[[The Wasps]]''.) | ||
| - | |||
| - | Socrates faced a jury of 501 citizens - the large size of the jury showing that the trial was seen as important - and after he and his accuser had made speeches, the jury voted to convict him by 280 to 221, a majority of sixty. | ||
| - | |||
| - | Next, Socrates and his prosecutor suggested alternative sentences. Socrates, after expressing his surprise of the little amount he needed to be found guilty, jokingly suggested free meals at the [[Prytaneum]], a particular honor held for city [[benefactor]]s and winners at the Olympic Games, then offered to pay a fine of 100 drachmae, which was a fifth of his property and a testiment to Socrates' poverty. Finally he settled on the sum of 3000 drachmae, put forward by Plato, Crito, Critobulus, and Apollodorus, who guaranteed the payment. His prosecutor proposed the death penalty. | ||
| - | |||
| - | The jury voted for death as the penalty - the larger majority (360 to 140) showing, Plato said, that Socrates had lost support by his slighting and unapologetic tone. | ||
| - | |||
| - | Socrates's followers encouraged him to flee (see: ''[[Crito]]''), and citizens expected this and were probably not averse to it; but he refused on principle and took the poison ([[Conium|hemlock]]) himself. Apparently in accordance with his philosophy of obedience to law, he carried out his own execution, by [[Conium#Socrates|drinking the hemlock]] poison provided to him. He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyr]]s". Socrates died at the age of 70. (See: ''[[Phaedo]]''). | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==Interpretations of the trial in the ancient world== | ||
| - | |||
| - | The Athenians of the time did not give Socrates's trial the iconic status it enjoys today. Athens had just come through a difficult period, where a [[Sparta|Spartan]]-supported group, called the [[Thirty Tyrants]] had overturned the city's participatory democracy and sought to impose oligarchic rule. That Kritias, the leader of the Tyrants, was one of Socrates's pupils was not seen as a coincidence. His friends tried to make excuses, but the view of the Athenians was probably that expressed by the orator Aeschines some years later, when, in a prosecution speech, he wrote: "Did you not put to death Socrates the sophist, fellow citizens, because he was shown to have been the teacher of Critias, one of the Thirty who overthrew the democracy?" | ||
| - | |||
| - | ==Interpretations of the trial in the modern world== | ||
| - | |||
| - | The death of Socrates, as presented by Plato, has inspired writers, artists and philosophers in the modern world, in a variety of ways. For some, the execution of the man Plato called 'the wisest and most just of all men' has shown the unreliability or undesirability of democratic rule. For others, notably [[I.F. Stone]] in his book ''The Trial of Socrates'', the Athenians' action was a justifiable defense of their recently re-established democracy. In general, Socrates is seen as a wise and benevolent father figure, martyred for his intellectual beliefs. That is exactly how Plato and Xenophon portrayed him, it is hardly surprising - but the myth of Socrates and his execution has taken on a distinct existence, apart from the historical man, whose true views and politics we are never likely to know. | ||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| - | *[[Euthyphro]] | + | *[[Trial of Socrates]] |
| - | *[[Crito]] | + | *[[Apology (Plato)|''The Apology of Socrates'' by Plato]] |
| - | *[[Meno]] | + | *[[Socrates]] |
| - | *[[Apology (Plato)]] | + | *[[Xenophon]] |
| - | *[[Apology (Xenophon)]] | + | |
| - | *[[Phaedo]] | + | |
| - | *''[[The Death of Socrates]]'' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| {{GFDL}} | {{GFDL}} | ||
Revision as of 21:05, 20 March 2011
|
Related e |
|
Featured: |
Xenophon's Apology (in full Apology of Socrates to the jury (Ἀπολογία Σωκράτους πρὸς τοὺς Δικαστάς) describes Socrates' state of mind at his trial and execution, and especially his view that it was better to die before senility set in than to escape execution by humbling himself before an unjust persecution. Specialists believe that Xenophon's interpretation of the trial was written in response to a widespread literary reaction following the trial, where Athenian public figures and authors used the theme of Socrates's trial to state their views on his guilt. The main part of the text is a direct blow for blow rejection of a particular attack on Socrates' character by an opponent of Socrates. The text gives clear indication on the charges brought against Socrates by Anytus, and is often used on this point in comparison with Plato's version. Xenophon was away at the time, involved in the events of the march of the Ten Thousand. He cites Hermogenes as his source for the factual elements of the trial. It is probable that Hermogenes had indeed witnessed the trial; for, though Plato's Apology does not mention his presence, Plato's Phaedo lists Hermogenes among those who were present at Socrates' death.
Evidently, Xenophon had written his Apology after a number of other accounts of the trial had been published; for he presents his as being the only one of them that made Socrates' "boastful manner of speaking (megalēgoria)" at the trial understandable (Apology 1-2). Other than Plato's Apology of Socrates, Xenophon's second-hand account is the only other surviving "eye-witness" account of the trial of Socrates. Even granting some bias in the work, it is of historical value on that point alone.
One thing that distinguishes Xenophon's account from Plato's is that in the former, the Oracle at Delphi claimed no one was "more free, more just, or more sound of mind" than Socrates (Apology 14), while in Plato's text the claim was only that no one was "wiser" (Apology 21a). Some scholars have suggested that what accounts for the difference is that Xenophon wished to avoid the explicit attribution of "wisdom", a term which, to the average Athenian, would suggest that Socrates indeed was properly characterized as an atheistic natural philosopher as Aristophanes had done. However, Xenophon's Socrates does claim to be "wise" in the sense that "from the time when I began to understand spoken words [I] have never left off seeking after and learning every good thing that I could" (Apology 16).
Another difference is that in Xenophon's Apology Socrates' "divine sign" (daimonion) is described as giving positive indications as to what should be done (12), while Plato's Socrates consistently and explicitly describes the sign as "turn[ing] me away from something I am about to do" but "never encourag[ing] me to do anything" (Apology 31d).
A further difference between Plato and Xenophon is that whereas Plato has Socrates finally suggest a thirty-mina penalty for himself (Apology 38b), the Xenophon/Hermogenes version says that he refused to suggest any and refused to allow his friends to do so, claiming that to do otherwise would imply guilt (Apology 23).
Finally, whereas Socrates' willingness to face the death penalty is in Plato's Apology explained by Socrates' unwavering commitment to his divinely appointed mission to keep philosophizing at all costs (29c-30c), it is explained in the Xenophon/Hermogenes version by the claim that it is better for him to die now than to face the pains and limitations of advanced old age (Apology 6-8, 27, and 32).
The final "chapter" of Xenophon's Memorabilia (4.8.1-4.8.8) contains some of the same material - some of it almost word for word - as the beginning sections of his Apology (1-8). This has led some scholars to suspect that Xenophon's Apology was the original conclusion to the Memorabilia; given our limited evidence, however, this cannot be known with certainty.
See also
