Archaeological site
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| + | [[Image:The Sphinx by Maxime Du Camp, 1849.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[The Great Sphinx of Giza (photo by Maxime Du Camp)]], [[1849]]]] | ||
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| - | '''Archaeology''', '''archeology''', or '''archæology''' (from Greek: αρχαίος, ''archaios'', combining form in Latin ''archae-'', "ancient"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the science that studies [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[artifact]]s, [[biofact]]s, human remains, and [[landscape]]s. | + | An '''archaeological site''' is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either [[prehistoric]] or [[recorded history|historic]] or contemporary), and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of [[archaeology]] and represents a part of the [[archaeological record]]. |
| - | == History of archaeology == | + | |
| - | :''[[History of archaeology]]'' | + | Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely, depending on the period studied and the theoretical approach of the archaeologist. |
| - | Modern archaeology has its origins in Europe in the mid 19th century, where it developed soon after the scientific advancement of [[geology]], which had shown that the Earth was billions rather than thousands of years old, as was then commonly believed. Soon after this, in 1859, [[Charles Darwin|Charles Darwin's]] ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' was published, outlining his theory of [[evolution]], eventually leading scientists to believe that humanity was in fact millions of years old, thereby providing a time limit within which the burgeoning archaeological movement could study. Meanwhile, in 1836 the Danish historian [[Christian Jürgensen Thomsen]] published ''A Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed'' (Guideline to Scandinavian Antiquity) translated into English in 1848, in which he proposed the idea that the European prehistoric could be divided up into a three age system; the [[Stone Age]], [[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]], based upon the materials used by humankind. It was these three concepts of human antiquity, evolution and the Three-Age system that are often thought of as the building blocks for modern archaeology. | + | |
| - | Soon the early archaeologists began to investigate various areas around the world, with the study of ancient [[Aegean civilization]] being stimulated by the excavations of [[Heinrich Schliemann]] at [[Troy]], and of [[Arthur Evans]] at [[Crete]], whilst [[John Lloyd Stephens]] was a pivotal figure in the rediscovery of [[Maya civilization]] throughout [[Central America]]. However, the methodologies employed by these archaeologists were highly flawed by today's standards, often having a [[eurocentric]] bias, and many early European archaeologists often relied on [[anthropology|anthropological]] and [[ethnography|ethnographic]] accounts provided by the likes of [[Edward Tylor]] and [[Lewis Henry Morgan]], thereby comparing contemporary "savage" peoples like the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] with the historical peoples of Europe who lived in similar societies. Soon the new discipline of archaeology spread to [[North America]], where it was taken up by figures like [[Samuel Haven]] and [[William Henry Holmes]], whom excavated ancient Native American monuments. | + | It is almost invariably difficult to delimit a site. It is sometimes taken to indicate a settlement of some sort although the archaeologist must also define the limits of human activity around the settlement. Any episode of deposition such as a [[hoard]] or [[burial]] can form a site as well. Development-led archaeology undertaken as [[cultural resources management]] has the disadvantage (or the benefit) of having its sites defined by the limits of the intended development. Even in this case however, in describing and interpreting the site, the archaeologist will have to look outside the boundaries of the building site. |
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| + | Traditionally, sites are distinguished by the presence of both [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s and [[Feature (archaeology)|feature]]s. Common features include the remains of hearths and houses. [[Ecofact]]s, biological materials (such as bones, scales, and even feces) that are the result of human activity but are not deliberately modified, are also common at many archaeological sites. In the cases of the [[Palaeolithic]] and [[Mesolithic]] eras, a mere scatter of flint [[Lithic flake|flake]]s will also constitute a site worthy of study. Different archaeologists may see an ancient town, and its nearby cemetery as being two different sites, or as being part of the same wider site. The precepts of [[landscape archaeology]] attempt to see each discrete unit of human activity in the context of the wider environment, further distorting the concept of the site as a demarcated area. Furthermore, [[geoarchaeology|geoarchaeologists]] or [[environmental archaeology|environmental archaeologists]] would also consider a sequence of natural geological or organic deposition, in the absence of human activity, to constitute a site worthy of study. | ||
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| + | Archaeological sites usually form through human-related processes but can be subject to natural, post-depositional factors. Cultural remnants which have been buried by sediments are in many environments more likely to be preserved than exposed cultural remnants. Natural actions resulting in sediment being deposited include [[alluvial]] (water-related) or [[eolian|aeolian]] (wind-related) natural processes. In [[Jungle (terrain)|jungle]]s and other areas of lush plant growth, decomposed vegetative sediment can result in layers of soil deposited over remains. [[Colluviation]], the burial of a site by sediments moved by gravity (called [[hillwash]]) can also happen at sites on slopes. Human activities (both deliberate and incidental) also often bury sites. It is common in many cultures for newer structures to be built atop the remains of older ones. [[Urban archaeology]] has developed especially to deal with these sorts of site. | ||
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| + | Many sites are the subject of ongoing excavation or investigation. Note the difference between archaeological sites and [[List of famous archaeological discoveries|archaeological discoveries]]. | ||
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| + | ==See also== | ||
| + | *[[Archaeological ethics]] | ||
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| + | ===Lists of sites=== | ||
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| + | Lists of archeological sites around the world can be found at: | ||
| + | |||
| + | * [[List of archaeological sites sorted by country]] | ||
| + | * [[List of archaeological sites sorted by continent and age]] | ||
| - | Further advancements in archaeological field methodology arose in the late [[19th century]]. One of the pioneering figures in this was [[Augustus Pitt Rivers]], who meticulously excavated on [[Cranborne Chase]] in southern England, emphasising that it was not only items of beauty or value that should be recorded, but mundane items as well; he therefore helped to differentiate archaeology from [[antiquarianism]]. Other important archaeologists who further refined the discipline in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were [[Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie|Flinders Petrie]] (who excavated in [[Egypt]] and [[Palestine]]), [[Mortimer Wheeler|Sir Mortimer Wheeler]] ([[India]]), [[Dorothy Garrod]] (the [[Middle East]]), [[Max Uhle]] ([[Peru]]) and [[Alfred Kidder]] ([[Mexico]]). Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued throughout the 20th century, particularly in the 1960s, when [[maritime archaeology]] was popularised by [[George Bass]], [[urban archaeology]] became more prevalent with redevelopement in many European cities, and [[rescue archaeology]] was developed as a result of increasing commercial development. | ||
| - | == See also == | ||
| - | *[[Bunker Archeology]] | ||
| - | *[[architecture]] | ||
| - | *[[Domus Aurea]] | ||
| - | *[[history]] | ||
| - | *[[Rediscovery of Pompeii]] | ||
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An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or historic or contemporary), and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record.
Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely, depending on the period studied and the theoretical approach of the archaeologist.
It is almost invariably difficult to delimit a site. It is sometimes taken to indicate a settlement of some sort although the archaeologist must also define the limits of human activity around the settlement. Any episode of deposition such as a hoard or burial can form a site as well. Development-led archaeology undertaken as cultural resources management has the disadvantage (or the benefit) of having its sites defined by the limits of the intended development. Even in this case however, in describing and interpreting the site, the archaeologist will have to look outside the boundaries of the building site.
Traditionally, sites are distinguished by the presence of both artifacts and features. Common features include the remains of hearths and houses. Ecofacts, biological materials (such as bones, scales, and even feces) that are the result of human activity but are not deliberately modified, are also common at many archaeological sites. In the cases of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras, a mere scatter of flint flakes will also constitute a site worthy of study. Different archaeologists may see an ancient town, and its nearby cemetery as being two different sites, or as being part of the same wider site. The precepts of landscape archaeology attempt to see each discrete unit of human activity in the context of the wider environment, further distorting the concept of the site as a demarcated area. Furthermore, geoarchaeologists or environmental archaeologists would also consider a sequence of natural geological or organic deposition, in the absence of human activity, to constitute a site worthy of study.
Archaeological sites usually form through human-related processes but can be subject to natural, post-depositional factors. Cultural remnants which have been buried by sediments are in many environments more likely to be preserved than exposed cultural remnants. Natural actions resulting in sediment being deposited include alluvial (water-related) or aeolian (wind-related) natural processes. In jungles and other areas of lush plant growth, decomposed vegetative sediment can result in layers of soil deposited over remains. Colluviation, the burial of a site by sediments moved by gravity (called hillwash) can also happen at sites on slopes. Human activities (both deliberate and incidental) also often bury sites. It is common in many cultures for newer structures to be built atop the remains of older ones. Urban archaeology has developed especially to deal with these sorts of site.
Many sites are the subject of ongoing excavation or investigation. Note the difference between archaeological sites and archaeological discoveries.
See also
Lists of sites
Lists of archeological sites around the world can be found at:
- List of archaeological sites sorted by country
- List of archaeological sites sorted by continent and age
