Byzantine philosophy
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| - | The '''Byzantine Empire''', also referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire''', was the continuation of the [[Roman Empire]] in the East during [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]], when its capital city was [[Constantinople]] (modern-day [[Istanbul]], which had been founded as [[Byzantium]]). It survived the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire|fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in [[Europe]]. Both "Byzantine Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the ''Roman Empire''. | + | '''Byzantine philosophy''' refers to the distinctive philosophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the [[Byzantine Empire]], especially between the 8th and 15th centuries. It was characterised by a [[Christianity|Christian]] world-view, but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek texts of [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], and the [[Neoplatonists]]. |
| - | Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire's [[Greek East and Latin West]] divided. [[Constantine I]] (r. 324–337) reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, and legalised [[Christianity]]. Under [[Theodosius I]] (r. 379–395), Christianity became the Empire's official [[state religion]] and [[Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I|other religious practices were proscribed]]. Finally, under the reign of [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–641), the Empire's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin. Thus, although the Roman state continued and Roman state traditions were maintained, modern historians distinguish Byzantium from [[ancient Rome]] insofar as it was centred on Constantinople, oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture, and characterised by [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]]. | + | ==History== |
| + | Greek science and literature remained alive in the Byzantine world, and Byzantine philosophy drew heavily on [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], and the [[Neoplatonists]], even if it was now [[Christianity|Christian]] in tone. In the 7th century, [[John of Damascus]] produced a three-part encyclopedia containing in its third part a systematic exposition of Christian [[theology]]. In the 9th century [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photios]], the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], collected many works by ancient writers, and studied [[Organon|Aristotelian logic]], and his pupil [[Arethas of Caesarea|Arethas]] commentated on works by Plato and Aristotle. By the 11th and 12th centuries there was a growing interest in the teaching of philosophy, and figures such as [[Michael Psellos]], [[Eustratius of Nicaea]], and [[Michael of Ephesus]] wrote commentaries on Aristotle. In the 13th and 14th centuries we have important philosophers such as [[Nicephorus Blemmydes]] and [[Theodore Metochites]]. An important figure was [[Gregory Palamas]] who developed a mystical movement known as [[Hesychasm]], which involved the use of the [[noesis|noetic]] [[Jesus prayer]] to achieve a vision of the [[Tabor light|uncreated Light]] also called the Illumination or [[theoria|Vision of God]]. It was the Hesychast movement that caused a rift in the Christian East which led many philosophically minded individuals to go West. This migration played a critical role in the manifestation of the [[Renaissance]] in the West. Especially the role [[Barlaam of Calabria]], who opposed Hesychasm, played in the formation of Roman Catholic theology in the West. The last great philosopher of Byzantium was [[Gemistus Pletho]] who felt that a restored Platonism could reverse the decline of the Empire. He was an important figure in the transmission of ancient philosophy to the West. | ||
| - | The borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of [[Justinian I]] (r. 527–565), the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean coast]], including North Africa, Italy, and Rome itself, which it held for two more centuries. During the reign of [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (r. 582–602), the Empire's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised. However, his assassination caused the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]], which exhausted the Empire's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the [[Muslim conquests]] of the seventh century. In a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. | + | ==University of Constantinople== |
| + | Byzantine society was well educated by the standards of its time, with high levels of literacy compared to the rest of the world. Significantly it possessed a secular education system that was a continuation of the academies of classical antiquity. Primary education was widely available, even at the village level. Uniquely in that society education was available for both sexes. It was in this context that the secular [[University of Constantinople]] can be understood. Further still secular education was common, to a degree, in the empire. As for many centuries, before the Muslim conquest, similar institutions operated in such major [[provincial capitals]] as Antioch and Alexandria. | ||
| - | During the [[Macedonian dynasty]] (10th–11th centuries), the Empire again expanded and experienced the two-century long [[Macedonian Renaissance]], which came to an end with the loss of much of [[Asia Minor]] to the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk Turks]] after the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in [[Anatolia]]. | + | The original school was founded in 425 by Emperor [[Theodosius II]] with 31 chairs for [[Law]], [[Philosophy]], [[Medicine]], [[Arithmetic]], [[Geometry]], [[Astronomy]], [[Music]], [[Rhetoric]] and other subjects, 15 to [[Latin]] and 16 to [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]. The university existed until the 15th century. |
| - | The Empire recovered again during the [[Komnenian restoration]], such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. However, it was delivered a mortal blow during the [[Fourth Crusade]], when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the Empire formerly governed [[Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae|were divided]] into competing Byzantine Greek and [[Frankokratia|Latin realms]]. Despite the eventual [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|recovery of Constantinople]] in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were [[Byzantine–Ottoman Wars|progressively annexed by the Ottomans]] over the 15th century. The [[Fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire. | + | The main content of higher education for most students was rhetoric, philosophy and law. With the aim of producing competent, and learned personnel to staff the bureaucratic postings of state and church. In this sense the University was the secular equivalent of the Theological Schools. The university maintained an active philosophical tradition based on [[Platonism]] and [[Aristotelianism]], with the former being the longest unbroken Platonic school, running for close to two millennia until the 15th century. |
| + | |||
| + | The School of Magnaura was founded in the 9th century and in the 11th new schools of philosophy and law were established at the Capitol School. The period of decline begun with the [[Fourth Crusade|Latin conquest]] of 1204 although the University survived as a non-secular institution under Church management until the [[Fall of Constantinople]]. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Issues and ideas== | ||
| + | The principal characteristics of Byzantine philosophy are: | ||
| + | #The personal [[hypostasis (philosophy)|hypostases]] of God as the principle not only of substance but also of being ([[Ontology]], [[Metaphysics]]). Person as ontological rather than substance or essence. | ||
| + | #The creation of the world by God and the limited timescale of the universe | ||
| + | #The continuous process of creation and the purpose behind it | ||
| + | #The perceptible world as the realization in time of that which is preceptible to the mind, having its eternal hypostasis in the divine intellect (''[[nous]]'') | ||
| + | |||
| + | The world and humanity are subject to [[divine providence]], but the Byzantine philosophers asserted the need for [[free-will]] and [[self-determination]]. The [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] as immortal is uncreated in its energies but created in itself. Soul is body plus spirit, and directly connects with the intellect to enable the achievement of happiness by means of the freedom of decision. The relationship between God and human beings is based on [[love]], which explains the central place of humans in creation. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===Neoplatonism=== | ||
| + | The relationship between the mystic, religious understanding of God and a philosophical one has various stages of development in the history of the Roman East. The [[nous]] as mind in Byzantine philosophy is given the central role of understanding only when it is placed or reconciled with the heart or soul of the person. The soul being the whole unit of man the mind as rational and [[noesis|noetic]] being an [[Integral movement|integral]] part of man's soul. Earlier versions of Christian and Greek philosophical [[syncretism]] are in modern times referred to as Neoplatonic. An example of this can be seen in the works of [[Origen]] and his teaching on the nous as to Origen, all souls pre-existed with their Creator in a perfect, spiritual (non-material) state as "minds" or nous, but later fell away in order to pursue an existence independent of God. Since all souls were created absolutely free, God could not simply force them to return to Him (this was, according to Origen, due to God's boundless love and respect for His creatures). Instead, God created the material cosmos, and initiated history, for the purpose of guiding the wayward souls back to contemplation of His infinite mind, which is, according to Origen, the perfect state. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==See also== | ||
| + | * [[Byzantine literature]] | ||
| + | *[[Byzantine science]] | ||
| + | *[[Halki seminary]] | ||
| + | *[[Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae]] | ||
| + | *[[Greek scholars in the Renaissance]] | ||
| + | *[[Medieval Greek]] | ||
| - | == See also == | ||
| - | * [[Byzantine Army]] | ||
| - | * [[Byzantine philosophy]] | ||
| - | * [[Byzantine Rite]] | ||
| - | * [[Index of Byzantine Empire-related articles]] | ||
| - | * [[Legacy of the Roman Empire]] | ||
| - | * [[Family trees of the Byzantine imperial dynasties]] | ||
| - | * [[List of Byzantine emperors]] | ||
| - | * [[List of Byzantine inventions]] | ||
| - | * [[List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars]] | ||
| - | * [[List of Byzantine wars]] | ||
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Byzantine philosophy refers to the distinctive philosophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the Byzantine Empire, especially between the 8th and 15th centuries. It was characterised by a Christian world-view, but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek texts of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists.
Contents |
History
Greek science and literature remained alive in the Byzantine world, and Byzantine philosophy drew heavily on Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists, even if it was now Christian in tone. In the 7th century, John of Damascus produced a three-part encyclopedia containing in its third part a systematic exposition of Christian theology. In the 9th century Photios, the Patriarch of Constantinople, collected many works by ancient writers, and studied Aristotelian logic, and his pupil Arethas commentated on works by Plato and Aristotle. By the 11th and 12th centuries there was a growing interest in the teaching of philosophy, and figures such as Michael Psellos, Eustratius of Nicaea, and Michael of Ephesus wrote commentaries on Aristotle. In the 13th and 14th centuries we have important philosophers such as Nicephorus Blemmydes and Theodore Metochites. An important figure was Gregory Palamas who developed a mystical movement known as Hesychasm, which involved the use of the noetic Jesus prayer to achieve a vision of the uncreated Light also called the Illumination or Vision of God. It was the Hesychast movement that caused a rift in the Christian East which led many philosophically minded individuals to go West. This migration played a critical role in the manifestation of the Renaissance in the West. Especially the role Barlaam of Calabria, who opposed Hesychasm, played in the formation of Roman Catholic theology in the West. The last great philosopher of Byzantium was Gemistus Pletho who felt that a restored Platonism could reverse the decline of the Empire. He was an important figure in the transmission of ancient philosophy to the West.
University of Constantinople
Byzantine society was well educated by the standards of its time, with high levels of literacy compared to the rest of the world. Significantly it possessed a secular education system that was a continuation of the academies of classical antiquity. Primary education was widely available, even at the village level. Uniquely in that society education was available for both sexes. It was in this context that the secular University of Constantinople can be understood. Further still secular education was common, to a degree, in the empire. As for many centuries, before the Muslim conquest, similar institutions operated in such major provincial capitals as Antioch and Alexandria.
The original school was founded in 425 by Emperor Theodosius II with 31 chairs for Law, Philosophy, Medicine, Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Music, Rhetoric and other subjects, 15 to Latin and 16 to Greek. The university existed until the 15th century.
The main content of higher education for most students was rhetoric, philosophy and law. With the aim of producing competent, and learned personnel to staff the bureaucratic postings of state and church. In this sense the University was the secular equivalent of the Theological Schools. The university maintained an active philosophical tradition based on Platonism and Aristotelianism, with the former being the longest unbroken Platonic school, running for close to two millennia until the 15th century.
The School of Magnaura was founded in the 9th century and in the 11th new schools of philosophy and law were established at the Capitol School. The period of decline begun with the Latin conquest of 1204 although the University survived as a non-secular institution under Church management until the Fall of Constantinople.
Issues and ideas
The principal characteristics of Byzantine philosophy are:
- The personal hypostases of God as the principle not only of substance but also of being (Ontology, Metaphysics). Person as ontological rather than substance or essence.
- The creation of the world by God and the limited timescale of the universe
- The continuous process of creation and the purpose behind it
- The perceptible world as the realization in time of that which is preceptible to the mind, having its eternal hypostasis in the divine intellect (nous)
The world and humanity are subject to divine providence, but the Byzantine philosophers asserted the need for free-will and self-determination. The soul as immortal is uncreated in its energies but created in itself. Soul is body plus spirit, and directly connects with the intellect to enable the achievement of happiness by means of the freedom of decision. The relationship between God and human beings is based on love, which explains the central place of humans in creation.
Neoplatonism
The relationship between the mystic, religious understanding of God and a philosophical one has various stages of development in the history of the Roman East. The nous as mind in Byzantine philosophy is given the central role of understanding only when it is placed or reconciled with the heart or soul of the person. The soul being the whole unit of man the mind as rational and noetic being an integral part of man's soul. Earlier versions of Christian and Greek philosophical syncretism are in modern times referred to as Neoplatonic. An example of this can be seen in the works of Origen and his teaching on the nous as to Origen, all souls pre-existed with their Creator in a perfect, spiritual (non-material) state as "minds" or nous, but later fell away in order to pursue an existence independent of God. Since all souls were created absolutely free, God could not simply force them to return to Him (this was, according to Origen, due to God's boundless love and respect for His creatures). Instead, God created the material cosmos, and initiated history, for the purpose of guiding the wayward souls back to contemplation of His infinite mind, which is, according to Origen, the perfect state.
See also
- Byzantine literature
- Byzantine science
- Halki seminary
- Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae
- Greek scholars in the Renaissance
- Medieval Greek
