Isaac Newton
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| - | {{Template}}Sir '''Isaac Newton''', ([[January 4]], [[1642]] - [[March 31]], [[1727]]), was an English [[Scientist]], [[philosopher]], [[mathematician]], and [[alchemist]] who published the ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', more commonly referred to as the [[Principia Mathematica|Principia]], where he described the laws of [[gravity]] (see [[Law of nature]]) and, via his [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]], laid the ground work for the field of [[Classical Mechanics]]. He is often ranked as the greatest scientist of all time. | + | {| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5" |
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| + | "[[Sandra Harding]] referred to [[Isaac Newton|Newton's]] [[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|''Principia Mathematica'']] as a "rape manual" in her 1986 book ''[[The Science Question in Feminism]]'', a characterization that she later said she regretted." --Sholem Stein | ||
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| + | [[Image:Drawing by Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728 - 1799) .jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Cenotaph for Newton]]'' (1784) by French architect Étienne-Louis Boullée]] | ||
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| + | Sir '''Isaac Newton''', ([[January 4]], [[1642]] - [[March 31]], [[1727]]), was an [[English people|English]] [[physicist]], [[mathematician]], [[astronomy|astronomer]], [[natural philosophy|natural philosopher]], [[alchemy|alchemist]], and [[theology|theologian]] who is considered by many scholars and members of the general public to be one of the most influential men in [[human history]]. His 1687 publication of the ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' (usually called the ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'') is considered to be among the most influential books in the [[history of science]], laying the groundwork for most of [[classical mechanics]]. In this work, Newton described [[law of universal gravitation|universal gravitation]] and the three [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] which dominated the scientific view of the [[physical universe]] for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on [[Earth]] and of [[celestial mechanics|celestial]] bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about [[heliocentrism]] and advancing the [[scientific revolution]]. | ||
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| + | Newton also built the first practical [[reflecting telescope]] and developed a theory of [[colour]] based on the observation that a [[triangular prism (optics)|prism]] decomposes [[white#light|white light]] into the many colours that form the [[visible spectrum]]. He also formulated an empirical [[Newton's law of cooling|law of cooling]] and studied the [[speed of sound]]. | ||
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| + | In mathematics, Newton [[Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy|shares]] the credit with [[Gottfried Leibniz]] for the [[history of calculus|development]] of the differential and integral [[infinitesimal calculus|calculus]]. He also demonstrated the [[binomial theorem|generalised binomial theorem]], developed the so-called "[[Newton's method]]" for approximating the zeroes of a [[function (mathematics)|function]], and contributed to the study of [[power series]]. | ||
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| + | Newton remains influential to scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain's [[Royal Society]] asking who had the greater effect on the history of science and had the greater contribution to humankind, Newton or [[Albert Einstein]]. [[Royal Society]] scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution on both. | ||
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| + | Newton was also highly religious, though [[Isaac Newton's religious views|an unorthodox Christian]], writing more on [[Biblical hermeneutics]] and [[Isaac Newton's occult studies|occult studies]] than the natural science for which he is remembered today. | ||
| + | ==Enlightenment philosophers== | ||
| + | [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors — Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally — as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of [[Nature]] and [[Natural law|Natural Law]] to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded. | ||
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| + | It was Newton's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment [[ideology]]. Locke and [[Voltaire]] applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the [[physiocrat]]s and [[Adam Smith]] applied Natural conceptions of [[psychology]] and self-interest to economic systems and the [[sociology|sociologists]] criticised the current [[social order]] for trying to fit history into Natural models of [[progress (history)|progress]]. [[Monboddo]] and [[Samuel Clarke]] resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature. | ||
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| + | ==Writings== | ||
| + | * ''[[Method of Fluxions]]'' (1671) | ||
| + | *''Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation'' (unpublished, c. 1671–75) | ||
| + | * ''[[De motu corporum in gyrum]]'' (1684) | ||
| + | * ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' (1687) | ||
| + | * ''[[Opticks]]'' (1704) | ||
| + | * ''[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1701-25-mint-reports.html Reports as Master of the Mint]'' (1701–25) | ||
| + | * ''[[Arithmetica Universalis]]'' (1707) | ||
| + | * ''The System of the World'', ''Optical Lectures'', ''[[The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms|The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended)]]'' and ''De mundi systemate'' (published posthumously in 1728) | ||
| + | * ''Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John'' (1733) | ||
| + | * ''[[An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]]'' (1754) | ||
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"Sandra Harding referred to Newton's Principia Mathematica as a "rape manual" in her 1986 book The Science Question in Feminism, a characterization that she later said she regretted." --Sholem Stein |
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Sir Isaac Newton, (January 4, 1642 - March 31, 1727), was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian who is considered by many scholars and members of the general public to be one of the most influential men in human history. His 1687 publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (usually called the Principia) is considered to be among the most influential books in the history of science, laying the groundwork for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific revolution.
Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours that form the visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound.
In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.
Newton remains influential to scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society asking who had the greater effect on the history of science and had the greater contribution to humankind, Newton or Albert Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution on both.
Newton was also highly religious, though an unorthodox Christian, writing more on Biblical hermeneutics and occult studies than the natural science for which he is remembered today.
Enlightenment philosophers
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors — Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally — as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural Law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.
It was Newton's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology. Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems and the sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.
Writings
- Method of Fluxions (1671)
- Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)
- De motu corporum in gyrum (1684)
- Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
- Opticks (1704)
- Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–25)
- Arithmetica Universalis (1707)
- The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended) and De mundi systemate (published posthumously in 1728)
- Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)
- An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)
