Particular
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| - | '''''The School of Athens''''' is one of the most [[famous painting]]s by the [[Italian Renaissance]] artist [[Raphael]]. It was painted between [[1510 in art|1510]] and [[1511 in art|1511]] as a part of Raphael's commission to decorate with [[fresco]]es the rooms now known as the [[Raphael Rooms|Stanze di Raffaello]], in the [[Apostolic Palace]] in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]. The ''[[Stanza della Segnatura]]'' was the first of the rooms to be decorated, and ''The School of Athens'' the second painting to be finished there, after ''[[Disputation of the Holy Sacrament|La Disputà]]'', on the opposite wall. The picture has long been seen as Raphael's [[masterpiece]] and an embodiment of the [[High Renaissance]]. | + | In [[philosophy]], '''particulars''' are concrete entities existing in space and time as opposed to [[abstraction]]s. There are, however, theories of ''[[abstract particulars]]'' or ''[[Trope (philosophy)|tropes]]''. For example, [[Socrates]] is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars). Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because it is abstract and multiply-instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that woman's hair are all red). |
| - | ===Central figures (14 and 15)=== | + | |
| - | :''[[Plato and Aristotle]]'' | + | |
| - | In the center of the fresco, at its architecture's central [[vanishing point]], are the two undisputed main subjects: [[Plato]] on the left and [[Aristotle]], his student, on the right. Both figures hold modern (of the time), bound copies of their books in their left hands, while gesturing with their right. Plato holds ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'', Aristotle his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''. Plato is depicted as old, grey, wise-looking, bare-foot. By contrast Aristotle, slightly ahead of him, is in mature manhood, handsome, well-shod and dressed, with gold, and the youth about them seem to look his way. In addition, these two central figures gesture along different dimensions: Plato vertically, upward along the picture-plane, into the beautiful vault above; Aristotle on the horizontal plane at right-angles to the picture-plane (hence in strong [[foreshortening]]), initiating a powerful flow of space toward viewers. It is popularly thought that their gestures indicate central aspects of their philosophies, [[Plato|Plato's]] his [[Theory of Forms]], Aristotle's his [[Empiricism|empiricist]] views, with an emphasis on concrete [[particular]]s. However Plato's ''Timaeus'' was, even in the Renaissance, a very influential treatise on the cosmos, whereas Aristotle insisted that the purpose of ethics is "practical" rather than "theoretical" or "speculative": not knowledge for its own sake, as he considered cosmology to be. | + | |
| + | Sybil Wolfram writes <blockquote> | ||
| + | Particulars include only individuals of a certain kind: as a first approximation individuals with a definite place in space and time, such as persons and material objects or events, or which must be identified through such individuals, like smiles or thoughts. | ||
| + | </blockquote> | ||
| + | Some terms are used by philosophers with a rough-and-ready idea of their meaning. This can occur if there is lack of agreement about the best definition of the term. In formulating a solution to the [[problem of universals]], the term 'particular' can be used to describe the ''particular'' instance of redness of a certain apple as opposed to the 'universal' 'redness' (being [[Abstraction|abstract]]). See also [[type-token distinction]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Related articles== | ||
| + | * [[Epistemological particularism]] | ||
| + | * [[Moral particularism]] | ||
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In philosophy, particulars are concrete entities existing in space and time as opposed to abstractions. There are, however, theories of abstract particulars or tropes. For example, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars). Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because it is abstract and multiply-instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that woman's hair are all red).
Sybil Wolfram writesParticulars include only individuals of a certain kind: as a first approximation individuals with a definite place in space and time, such as persons and material objects or events, or which must be identified through such individuals, like smiles or thoughts.
Some terms are used by philosophers with a rough-and-ready idea of their meaning. This can occur if there is lack of agreement about the best definition of the term. In formulating a solution to the problem of universals, the term 'particular' can be used to describe the particular instance of redness of a certain apple as opposed to the 'universal' 'redness' (being abstract). See also type-token distinction
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