From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia

"There are, indeed, many who doubt whether happiness is increased by civilization, and who talk of the free and noble savage. But the true savage is neither free nor noble ; he is the cold by night and the heat of the sun by day ; ignorant of agriculture, living by the chase, and improvident in success, hunger always stares him in the face, and often drives him to the dreadful alternative of cannibalism or death." Prehistoric Times (1865) by John Lubbock "Note.—In his celebrated work on the Antiquity of Man, Sir Charles Lyell has made much use of my earlier articles in the Natural History Review, frequently, indeed, extracting whole sentences verbatim, or nearly so. But as he has in these cases omitted to mention the source from which his quotations were derived, my readers might naturally think that I had taken very unjustifiable liberties with the work of the eminent geologist. A reference to the respective dates will, however, protect me from any such inference. The statement made by Sir Charles Lyell, in a note to page 11 of his work, that my article on the Danish Shell-mounds was published after Ms sheets were written, is an inadvertence, regretted, I have reason to believe, as much by its author as it is by me." --preface to Prehistoric Times (1865) by John Lubbock.

{{Template}} Prehistoric Times (1865) is a book by John Lubbock.

In 1865, Lubbock published what was possibly the most influential archaeological text book of the nineteenth century, Pre-historic times, as illustrated by ancient remains, and the manners and customs of modern savages. He invented the terms "Palaeolithic" and "Neolithic" to denote the Old and New Stone Ages, respectively.

Full text from the fifth edition

PRE-HISTORIC TIMES AS ILLUSTRATED BY ANCIENT REMAINS, AND THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF MODERN SAVAGES BY THE Rr. Hon. SIR JOHN LUBBOCK , BART. , M.P. D. C. L. , LL, D. , F. R. S. PRINCIPAL OF THE LONDON WORKING MEN'S COLLEGE ; PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE ; AND CHAIRMAN OF THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL FIFTH EDITION NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1892 H.D. ARCO tv 3 telo i AUG 2 2 1991 toTO TRANSFER HILLES ALH7889 45064 577 2 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. INN this Work I present to the public some essays on Pre- historic Archæology, part of which have appeared in the Natural History Review , viz. that on The Danish Shell-mounds, in October, 1861 . The Swiss Lake-dwellings, in January, 1862 . The Flint Implements of the Drift, in July, 1862. North American Archæology, in January, 1863. Cave -men, in July, 1864 . Messrs. Williams and Norgate suggested to me to republish these articles in a separate form ; and I was further encouraged to do so by the fact that most of them had re-appeared, either in France or America . The conductors of the Annales des Sciences Naturelles did me the honour to translate those on the Danish Shell -mounds and the Swiss Lake- dwellings. The latter also appeared in Silliman's Journal; and the article on American Archæology, with the exception of vi PREFACE. the last paragraph, was reprinted in the Smithsonian Report for 1862.* At first I only contemplated reprinting the papers as they stood ; but having, at the request of the managers, delivered at the Royal Institution a short course of lectures on the Antiquity of Man, it was thought desirable to introduce the substance of these, so as to give the work a more complete character. My object has been to elucidate, as far as possible, the principles of pre- historic archæology, laying spe cial stress upon the indications which it affords of the condition of man in primeval times. The tumuli, or burial-mounds, the peat-bogs of this and other coun tries, the Kjökkenmöddings or shell -mounds of Den mark, the Lake - habitations of Switzerland, the bone caves and the river -drift gravels, are here our principal sources of information . In order to qualify myself, as far as possible, for the task which I have undertaken, I have visited, not only our three great museums in London, Dublin, and Edinburgh, but also many on the Continent, as, for instance, those at Copenhagen, Stockholm , Lund, Flensburg, Aarhuus, Lausanne, Basle, Berne, Zurich,

• The article on Cave-men was also translated in the Annales des

Sciences Naturelles, Fifth Ser. vol. ii., and that on North American Archæology in the Revue Archéologique for 1865. PREFACE. vii Yverdon, Paris, Abbeville, etc., besides many private collections of great interest, of which I may particu larly specify those of M. Boucher de Perthes, Messrs. Christy, Evans, Bateman, Forel, Schwab, Troyon, Gilliéron, Uhlmann, Desor, and, lastly, the one recently made by MM. Christy and Lartet in the bone-caves of the Dordogne. Sometimes alone, and sometimes in company with Messrs. Prestwich and Evans, I have made numerous visits to the Valley of the Somme, and have examined almost every gravel-pit and section from Amiens down to the sea . In 1861 , with Mr. Busk, and again in 1863, I went to Denmark , in order to have the advantage of seeing the Kjökkenmöddings themselves. Under the guidance of Professor Steenstrup, I visited several of the most celebrated shell-mounds, particu larly those at Havelse, Bilidt, Meilgaard, and Fanne rup. I also made myself familiar with so much of the Danish language as was necessary to enable me to read the various reports drawn up by the Kjökkenmödding Committee, consisting of Professors Steenstrup, Wor saae, and Forchhammer. Last year I went to the north of Scotland, to examine some similar shell mounds discovered by Dr. Gordon, of Birnie, on the shores of the Moray Firth, which appear, however, viii PREFACE . to belong to a much later period than those of Denmark. In 1862, M. Morlot very kindly devoted himself to me for nearly a month, during which time we not only visited the principal museums of Switzerland, but also several of the Lake- habitations themselves, and par ticularly those at Morges, Thonon, Wauwyl, Moossee dorf, and the Pont de Thiele. In addition to many minor excursions, I had, finally, last spring, the advantage of spending some time with Mr. Christy among the celebrated bone - caves of the Dordogne. Thus, by carefully examining the objects themselves and the localities in which they have been found, I have endeavoured to obtain a more vivid and correct impression of the facts than books, or even museums, alone could have given . To the more strictly archæological part of the work I have added some chapters on the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages, confining myself to those tribes which are still, or were, when first visited by travellers, ignorant of the use of metal, and which have been described by competent and trustworthy observers. This account, incomplete as it is, will be found, I think, to throw some light on the remains of savage life in ages long gone by. PREFACE. ix Fully satisfied that Religion and Science cannot in reality be at variance, I have striven in the present publication to follow out the rule laid down by the Bishop of London, in his excellent lecture delivered last year at Edinburgh. The man of science, says Dr. Tait, ought to go on, “ honestly, patiently, diffidently, observing and storing up his observations, and carry ing his reasonings unflinchingly to their legitimate conclusions, convinced that it would be treason to the majesty at once of science and of religion if he sought to help either by swerving ever so little from the straight rule of truth . " * Ethnology, in fact, is passing at present through a phase from which other sciences have safely emerged ; and the new views with reference to the Antiquity of Man, though still looked upon with distrust and apprehension, will, I doubt not, in a few years be regarded with as little disquietude as are now those discoveries in astronomy and geology which at one time excited even greater opposition. I have great pleasure in expressing my gratitude to many archæological friends for the liberal manner in which their museums have been thrown open to me,

• Lecture on Science and Revelation, delivered at Edinburgh. See the Times, November 7th, 1864.

X PREFACE. and for much valuable assistance in other ways. My thanks are due to Professor Steenstrup for many of the figures by which the Work is illustrated. Others, through the kindness of Sir W. R. Wilde, Mr. Franks, and Dr. Thurnam , have been placed at my disposal by the Society of Antiquaries and the Royal Irish Academy. To Professor Steenstrup, Dr. Keller, M. Morlot, and Professor Rütimeyer, I am indebted for much information on the subject of their respective investigations. Finally, Mr. Busk, Mr. Evans, and Professor Tyndall, have had the great kindness to read many of my proofs, and to them I am indebted for various valuable suggestions. CAISELHURST, February, 1865. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. I preparing a New Edition of PRE-HISTORIC Times, I have endeavoured, as far as possible, to avoid unduly increasing the size of the book ; and although the present Work will be found to contain a great number of new facts, some of the chapters being indeed almost re- written, still it is only increased in size to the extent of one hundred pages. Nearly half of these are occupied by the addition of more than seventy new figures, which will tend to diminish, rather than increase, the time occupied by its perusal. This course has compelled me to omit all reference to many researches of much merit and interest, while in other cases I have been obliged to treat the labour of years in a few short sentences. The true force of the evidence in support of archeological conclusions is thus materially weakened, by being deprived of its cumulative character; but I have endeavoured in many cases to meet this objection by the introduction of statistical tables. xii PREFACE. Since the First Edition was published, I have visited the principal German and Italian museums, and have been in correspondence with the most active archæo logists both in Europe and also across the Atlantic. I cannot attempt here to express in any suitable manner my gratitude for the assistance which I have received . Every museum which I have visited has been thrown open to me with the greatest liberality, and every archæologist whom I have consulted has given me the readiest and fullest information. No one can be more sensible than I am of the many shortcomings of this Work . Those, however, who perceive them most clearly, will, I am sure, be disposed to judge them leniently, because they will best be able to appreciate the difficulty of keeping pace with a science which has so many and such enthusiastic votaries ; the results of whose earnest labour are to be found scattered through a number of periodicals, published in many different countries and in various tongues. High Elms, Down, KENT, March, 1869. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE ✓ INTRODUCTION. Division of Pre- historic archæology into four periods—First disco veryofmetal - Allusions to bronze in ancient writers - Lucretius Tiefenau - Find of iron objects at Nydam, in Slesvick - Owner's marks-Inscriptions at Nydam-Nature of archæological evi dence-Statistics— Pottery of the different ages-Bronze weapons not of Roman origin-Geographical distribution of bronze wea pons - Summary of argument- Bronze weapons not Sax Hallstadt I V CHAPTER II . ON THE USE OF BRONZE IN ANCIENT TIMES . Bronze celts-Bronze swords-Bronze spears-Bronze fish -hooks and sickles— Bronze knives — Bronze ornaments -The metal lurgy of the Bronze Age-Gold ornaments - List of Bronze objects— Dress—Burial during the Bronze Age - Hut-urns Pen- pits—Picts' houses-Beehive houses – The Burgh of Moussa -Staigue fort, Kerry . 27 V CHAPTER III. THE BRONZE AGE. Similarity of bronze implements in different countries — The Bronze Age and the Phænicians-Ancient voyages-Himilco— Pytheas - Phænician colonies and commerce-Copper-Tin-Traces of Baal worship in Northern Europe - Objections to the Phænician theory 60 xiv CONTENTS. " CHAPTER IV. 1 THE USE OF STONE IN ANCIENT TIMES. PAGE The great abundance of stone implements—Stone implements used after the discovery of metal— Materials preferred— Jade - Flint -Grimes' Graves -Pressigny—The fracture of flint - Modern flakes - Manufacture of flakes in Mexico, and among the Esqui maux Ancientmanufactories - Stone axes — Pierced hatchets Scrapers-Shell - mound axes - Chisels - Awls - Spears - Daggers -- Sling -stones - Arrow -heads -- Saws- Bone implements-Awls -Harpoons-Flint finds . 79 CHAPTER V. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS AND TUMULI. Tumuli-Menhirs-Stone circles-Mention of stone circles and tumuli in ancient history — Megalithic monuments not Druidical -Abury - Silbury Hill more ancient than the Roman road Stonehenge-Carnac-Megalithic monuments in India , Modern Indian dolmens - Modes of burial in tumuli-Use of tumuli as dwellings —Yurts and gammes —Hut - burial among modern savages-Picts' houses—The mound- builders-Long barrows Objects buried with the dead not always intended for actual use -List ofinterments — Tabulated interments—Statistics— Models of implements sometimes buried-Barrows belong to very dif ferent periods- Difficulty of determining the period to which a tumulus belongs-Danish tumulus in the Island of MöenDescription of a barrow at West Kennet —Pottery from the West Kennet tumulus —Breton tumuli -Sepulchral pottery Rock sculptures-Bones of animals in tumuli -Sepulchral feasts -Sacrifices — Pre- historic races of men— Desirability of pre serving megalithic monuments 113 CHAPTER VI. THE ANCIENT LAKE- HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND, Lake- dwellings mentioned by Herodotus — Modern Lake -dwellings –Irish crannoges-Pile- dwellings in other parts of Europe Lake- dwellings found in most of the Swiss lakes-Attempt to make a census-- Construction of the platforms— Comparison of Lake-dwellings of different periods - Condition of the objects CONTENTS. XV PAGE found - Preparation of the piles -- Number of the piles used — Description of the remains at Wauwyl-Weapons and imple ments of the Lake-men-Implements of bone and wood - Pot tery - Dress— The fauna of the Lake- dwellings- Comparison of bones belonging to wild and domesticated races - Oxen Absence of extinct species - Aurochs— Elk - Ibex - General character ofthe fauna - Comparison of the different Lake villages - The flora - Grain - fruits - Alax - Ancient agriculture -- Scarcity of human remains — Objects of bronze-The worship of Lakes Pottery of the Bronze Age -- Inhabitants of the Lake villages Character of the objects found in different Lake villages - Anti quity of Lake villages . 181 CHAPTER VII. THE DANISH KJÖKKENMÖDDINGS, OR SHELL- MOUNDS. Danish tumuli — Kjökkenmöddings, or shell- mounds—Description of the shell -mounds - Distribution of the shell-mounds - Shell mounds in Scotland-Shell-mounds in other countries-- Flora of the Danish shell- mounds-Fauna of the shell-mounds- Con dition of the bones_Prevalence of certain bones-Habits of the mound -builders -- Flint implements-Absence of polished flint implements—Food of the shell - mound builders—The Fuegians –The relation of the shell - mounds to the tumuli— The opinions of Messrs. Steenstrup and Worsaae --Antiquity of the shell mounds 227 CHAPTER VIII. NORTH AMERICAN ARCHÆOLOGY. Bibliography - Classification of antiquities — Implements - The use ofcopper-Ancient copper-mines — Pottery - Ornaments - Forti fications - Earthworks — Enclosures - Sacredenclosures- Earth works of the Scioto Valley - Aztalan - Vitrified walls—Modern earthworks — Chunk yards - Sepulchral mounds — So - called sacrificial mounds - Grave Creek mound_Temple mounds Animal mounds— Rock carvings -- Wampum— The mound builders—Evidence of ancient population—Traces of ancient agriculture — Antiquity of the remains—Condition of the bones --American forests — Indications of four periods-Man and the mastodon-Antiquity ofman in America . • 253 xvi CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX . QUATERNARY MAMMALIA. PAGE Succession of species —The cave- bear—The cave-hyæna—The cave-lion- The mammoth-Existence of the African elephant in Europe - The quaternary species of rhinoceros— Rhinoceros Tichorhinus—The musk-ox—The hippopotamus — The Irish elk -Wild horses—The reindeer — The aurochs—The urus - Elk Lemming - Snowy owl – Mollusca-Links between existing species - Climate of the quaternary period --Probable fluctua tions of climate 288 CHAPTER X. CAVE- MEN. Caves in the South of France -Belgian caves -Kent's Hole Brixham cave- Sicilian caves— Gibraltar caves - Aurignac Wokey Hole-Caves in the Dordogne-Fauna of the Dordogne caves-Absence of domestic animals—Flint implements - Rela tive antiquity of the remains-Absence of polished implements -Bone implements—Representations of animals—Drawing of reindeer and mammoth-Sculpture-Habits of the cave- dwellers -Human remains—The Engis skull—The Neanderthal skull Cave- men . 311 CHAPTER XI. RIVER- DRIFT GRAVEL· BEDS. M. Boucher de Perthes-Mr. Prestwich and Mr. Evans-Mr. Frere's discovery in 1800 — Similar discoveries elsewhere -- Similar dis coveries in other countries —Antiquity as shown by physical geography - The questions at issue-Evidence derivable from the flints themselves -- The forgeries - Character of the true drift implements — Drift implements never ground-Scarcity ofhuman bones -- Scarcity of men in ancient times - Proportion of men to other animals in the Hudson's Bay Territory — The mammoth and rhinoceros-Characteristics of the drift-beds — Physical geogra phy of the Somme Valley -St. Acheul -- Organic remains Mineralogical constituents of the river - drift gravels – Objections to the proposed theory - Ice action -Fresh- water origin of the gravels — Inapplicability of cataclysms—Alteration of the river level-Gradual excavation of the valley — The lower level gravel beds—Their fauna — The peat - Objects found in the peat Relation of the löess to the gravel–Continual changes of river courses-Elevation of the land-Recapitulation · 341 CONTENTS. xvii CHAPTER XII. ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN . PAGE Historical evidence-Ethnological evidence - Evidence derivable from physical geography -The vegetation of Denmark — The cone of the Tinière— The Valley of the Thièle-- The formation of Egypt—The gradual elevation of the country , owing to the annual deposit of Nile mud-Mr. Horner's Egyptian researches -Age of the Mississippi delta - Lapse of time, as indicated by the change of climate—Sir J. W. Lubbock on the earth's axis Effect of a change in the Gulf - Stream - Astronomical causes Precession of the Equinoxes – M. Adhémar's argument -- The cupola of ice at the South Pole -Objections to M. Adhémar's theory - Probable effect of precession - The excentricity of the earth's orbit - Date suggested for the glacial epoch - Effect of rivers on the level of continents—The obliquity of the ecliptic M. Adhémar on changes in the sea- level-Geological changes in the Quaternary period—Geological time - Reported evidence of man in the Pliocene period— Miocene man · 383 CHAPTER XIII. MODERN SAVAGES. The untrustworthiness of tradition —Tendency to the marvellous - No evidence of degradation - Progress among savages — Hottentots : dress ; food ; weapons ; metallurgy ; customs; cha racter ; Bushmen- Veddahs -- Andaman Islanders - Australians: houses ; food ; rock -engravings; canoes ; implements ; clubs ; spears ; throwing- sticks ; the boomerang ; fire; clothes; orna ments ; tattooing ; initiation ceremonies ; games ; superstition ; modes of burial ; language ; marriage - Tasmanians- Fiji Is landers : food ; weapons ; houses ; temples ; religion ; canoes ; pottery ; games ; agriculture ; women ; dress ; tattooing ; burial ; customs ; parricide; horrible rites ; cannibalism ; character of the Fijians — Maories : food ; dress ; ornaments ; tattooing ; houses ; fortifications; weapons ; canoes ; burial; music ; cha racter ; religion ; cannibalism— Tahiti : implements; fish -hooks; nets ; baskets ; mats ; bark - cloth ; dress ; canoes ; music ; furni ture ; weapons ; food ; fire ; cookery ; ava ; a chief's dinner ; solitary meals ; surgery ; modes of burial ; Oberea's morai ; government ; ideas of right and wrong ; the Arreoy society ; general character-- The Tongans 426 6 1 xviii CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. PAGE MODERN SAVAGES — continued . Esquimaux : tents ; houses ; lamps ; absence of cleanliness ; stores of food ; cookery ; difficulty of obtaining water ; fire ; implements and weapons ; modes of hunting and fishing ; sledges ; boats ; scrapers ; clothes, ornaments, cheek - studs; music ; drawings ; religion ; modes of burial ; things buried with the dead ; charac ter-North American Indians : dress ; ornaments ; labrets ; the practice of head-moulding ; religion ; social position of women ; character ; cruelty ; infanticide ; implements; weapons ; boats ; fire ; dwellings ; agriculture ; maize ; rice ; animal food ; burial ; art -Paraguay Indians - Patagonians: stature ; huts ; dress ; weapons ; food ; burial ; religion - Fuegians: huts ; implements ; weapons ; food ; stature ; habits ; mode of fishing ; cannibalism ; absence of religion ; canoes ; dress ; fire · 492 CHAPTER XV. " MODERN SAVAGES -- concluded . V Skilfulness of savages—Varieties of implements - Neatness in sew ing - Art of drilling - Important works erected by savages Differences in the Stone Age - Different lines of civilization Differences of weapons- Isolation of savages -Geographical distribution of weapons, etc. –Differences between savages Different uses for the dog - Different modes of obtaining fire- Different modes of burial-Descent of property - Differences in prevalent sounds-- Differences in signs- Ideas of decency Ideas of virtue - Deification of white men- -Curious customs Social position of women – Savages and children -Moral and intellectual inferiority of savages - Poverty of savage languages Deficiencies in numeration - Absence of religion - Rudiments of religion-Lowideas of the deity - Witchcraft - General wretched ness of savages · 543 CHAPTER XVI. CONCLUDING REMARKS. The higher animals — The primitive condition of man-Diffusion of man-Early races of man - Natural selection applied to man - The influence of mind-Increase of happiness - Sufferings of savages -Superstitious terrors - Self-inflicted sufferings - The blessings of civilization — The diminution of suffering —The diminution of sin - The advantages of science—The future · 583 APPENDIX INDEX · 603 . 613 1 DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 1. Ancient Danish arrow -head, with owner's mark. Engelhardt, Denmark in the Early Iron Age, p. xiii , fig. 35 . 2. Modern Esquimaux arrow -head, with owner's mark . In my collection, one- half natural size. 3. Owner's marks from vario ancient Danish arrows. Denmark in the Early Iron Age, pp. i -xiii . 4. Copper (?) celt from Waterford -6 inches long, 334 wide at the broader end, and 17% at the smaller , which is about 1-16th thick. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 363. -5 . Winged celt, or Paalstave, from Ireland. Ibid . p. 373. 6. Socketed celt from Ireland, one- third of the actual size. Ibid . p. 385 . 7-9. The three principal types of celts, and the manner in which they are supposed to have been handled. Ibid . p. 367. 10. Kalmuck Axe. Iron. In the collection of the late Dr. Klemm. 11. Copper (?) celt from Ireland, one- half of the actual size. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 363. 12. Half of a celt- mould from Ireland. It is of mica slate, 634 inches long, 4 wide, and presents upon the surface the apertures by means of which it was adjusted by the other half. Ibid . p. 91 . 13. Decorated celt from Ireland-872 inches long, 4 wide at the blade end, and half- an - inch thick . Ibid. p. 365 . 14. Simple celt from Denmark, one- third of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjöbenhavn, No. 178. 15. Ornamental celt from Denmark, one- third of the actual size. Ibid . No. 179. 16. Socketed celt from Denmark, one- third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 195. Le Puy. 17. Bronze celt, Naples. In my collection, one- half nat. size. 18. two- thirds nat. size. 19. Stone Axe, Denmark. 20. Modern African Axe. one- sixth nat. size. 21. Iron sword from a cemetery at Brighthampton in Oxfordshire, one eighth of the actual size. Archæologia , vol . xxxviii . pl . 2 , fig. 1 . 22. Sword from Ireland - 23 /2 inches long, 156 wide in the centre of the blade, which is margined by a grooved feather edge. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 444. XX DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 23. Sword from Sweden, one- fourth of the actual size. Nilsson's Skandinaviska Nordens Ur- invanare, pl. 1 , fig. 7. 24. Sword from Switzerland, one- fifth of the actual size. In the museum of Col. Schwab, Mitt. Ant. Ges. in Zurich , Bd. xii. H. 3. 25. Sword from Concise on the Lake of Neufchatel, one - fourth of the actual size. In the Museum of Col. Schwab, Mitt. Ant. Ges. in Zurich, Bd. xiii . H. 3. 26. Sword from Scandinavia. Atlas for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, pl. 4, fig. 42. 27. Sword from Denmark, found in the Treenhoi tumulus. Afb. af. Danske Oldsager og Mindesmæker, H. 5. 28. Sword from Denmark, one-sixth of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjöbenhavn, No. 121 . 29. Sword from Denmark , one- sixth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 123. 30. Hilt of sword from Denmark, one- fourth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 128. 31. Hilt of sword from Denmark, one - fourth of the actual size. Ibid. No. 127. 32. Bronze dagger- blade from Ireland — 1024 inches long, by 2/4 wide. The four rivets by which it was fastened to the handle are still in situ . Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 448. 33. Bronze dagger from Ireland, two- thirds of the actual size. Ibid. p. 458. 34. Bronze dagger-blade from Ireland, one- third of the actual size. Ibid. p. 463. 35. Bronze spear-head from Ireland—114 inches long, by 1 % broad. Ibid. p. 499. 36. Bronze spear- head from Ireland - 1378 inches long, by 24 broad. Ibid. p. 496 . 37. Bronze knife from Denmark , one-half of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjöbenhavn, No. 167. 38. Bronze knife from Denmark , one- third of the actual size. Ibid . No. 169. 39. Bronze knife from Denmark, one- third of the actual size. Ibid. No. 166 . 40, 41. Bronze knives from the lake-village of Estavayer, on the lake of Neufchatel, one- half of the actual size. Keller, Mitth. der Antiq. Ges. in Zurich, Bd. xiii . Abth. 2, H. 3, pl. 5 , figs. 19, 20 . 42-45 . Razor- knives from Denmark , one-half of the actual size. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjöbenhavn, Nos. 173, 172, 171 , 175 , DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. xxi 46. Small bronze knife in a leather case, from Denmark , two- thirds of the actual size. Ibid. No. 164. 47. Bronze knife, actual size, Denmark. Ibid. No. 170. 48. Bronze knife, found by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, at Thebes. Lee's Keller, p. 276. 49. Bronze bracelet from Cortaillod, on the Lake of Neufchatel, one third of the actual size. Troyon's Habitations Lacustres, pl. 11 , fig. 28. 50. Bronze bracelet from Cortaillod, on the Lake of Neufchatel, one third of the actual size. Ibid. pl. 11 , fig. 18. 51-54. Bronze hair- pins from the Swiss lakes, one-half ofthe actual size. Keller, 1.c. Zweiter Bericht, pl. 3. 55. Bronze awl from the Swiss lakes, actual size. Ibid. pl. 3. 56-60. Various small objects of bronze from the Swiss lakes. Ibid. pl. 3. 61. Bronze celt, one-half nat. size. Showing the line of junction of the two halves of the mould in which it was cast. Found at Aylesford, Kent ; and presented to me by Sir G. W. Dasent. 62. Bronze brooch, Mecklenburg, three- tenths nat. size. Showing the manner in which it has been mended. Lisch. Alterthümer, H. vii . pl. 4, fig . 2. 63. Bronze celt. Showing the air-vents bent over. 64. Gold torque, consisting of a simple flat strip or band of gold, loosely twisted, and having expanded extremities which loop into one another. It measures 572 inches across, and was found near Clonmacnoise, in Ireland. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 74. 65. Gold fibula, one-half of the actual size. The hoop is very slender ; the cups deep and conical. Ibid. p. 56. 66. Smooth, massive, cylindrical gold ring, with ornamented ends, one half of the actual size. Ibid. p. 52. 67. Gold fibula, one- third of the actual size. The external surfaces of the cups are decorated with circular indentations surrounding a central indented spost. There is also an elegant pattern where the handle joins the cups. It is 848 inches long, and weighs 33 ounces, being the heaviest now known to exist. Ibid. p. 60. 67*. Iron ornament, Africa. 68. Inscribed celt, Museum Kircherianum, Rome, one-half of the actual size. Rossi Rap. Sugli. Stud. e Sulle Scop. Paleo. nel bacino delle, Campagna Romana. 69. Woollen cap, one- third of the actual size. Found with the bronze sword ( fig. 27) in a Danish tumulus. Afb. af. Danske Oldsager og Mindesmaerker. Madsen, H. 5 . xxii DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 70. Another woollen cap, one- third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 71. A small comb, one-third of theactual size. Found with the preceding. 72. A woollen cape, one-third of the actual size. Found with the pre ceding. 73. A woollen shirt, one- third of the actual size. Found with the pre ceding. 74. A woollen shawl, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 75. A pair of leggings, one-third of the actual size. Found with the preceding. 76. Hut urn. Albano. 77. Urn apparently representing a lake - dwelling. In the Munich collection. Lisch. Die Alterthümer Unserer Heid. Vorzeit, H. x. T. 3. 78. Group of beehive houses, Scotland. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. vol. i . part xii. 79. The Burgh of Moussa. Shetlands. 80. Staigue Fort, in the county of Kerry. From a model in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy. 81. Flint core or nucleus, from which flakes have been struck, Jutland. One- half of the actual size. In my own collection. 82-84. Three views of a flint flake from the Kjökkenmödding at Fanne rup, in Jutland, one-half of the actual size. a represents the bulb of percussion, which is also shown by the shading in fig . 84. In my own collection . 85. Arrow - shaped flake from Ireland. It is worked up at the butt end, as if intended for a handle. Catalogue of Royal Irish Academy, p. 72. 86-88. Flakes from a Danish shell-mound, actual size. In my own collection. 89. Minute flint flake from Denmark, actual size. In my own collection . 90. Sections of flakes. a is that of a simple triangular flake; b is that of a large flat flake split off the angle from which the smaller flake a had been previously taken. Consequently the section is four sided. 91. North American two-bladed knife, made of two flakes. Reliquiae Aquitanicæ , p. 43, fig. 16. 92. Australians making flakes. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Repertory. May, 1866 . 93. Australian flake, one- half actual size. In my own collection. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. xxiii 94. Flake from the Cape of Good Hope, actual size. In my own collection. 95. Head of New Caledonian javelin , one- half of actual size. In my own collection. 96. New Caledonian javelin , one-sixth actual size. In my own collection . 97. Stone celtor hatchet. Formed offelstone, 574 incheslong and abroad. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, P, 41 . 98. Stone celt or hatchet, actual size. Found in the river Shannon. One of the smallest yet found in Ireland. Ibid. p. 45. 99. Stone celt with a wooden handle, Monaghan, Ireland. Ibid. p. 46. 100. Stone celt with wooden handle, one-third actual size. Found at Concise. From Desor. 101 , 102. Danish axe, re-ground. One -half actual size. From my own collection. 103. Skin- scraper from Bourdeilles in the south of France, actual size. Found by me. 104. Ditto, under side. 105-107. Skin- scraper used by the modern Esquimaux of the Polar basin, within Behring's Straits, actual size. It was fastened into a handle of fossil ivory. In the Christy Museum. 108. Flint axe from the shell-mound at Meilgaard, in Jutland, actual size. Upper surface. In my own collection. 109. Ditto, under surface. 110. Ditto, side view. u . Modern New Zealand adze, actual size. Upper surface. In the British Museum. 112. Ditto, under surface. 113. Ditto, side view. The New Zealand adze is partially polished ; this is not the case with the Danish adze, because flint naturally breaks with a smooth surface. The projection in fig. 110 is acci dental, and owing to some flaw in the flint. They generally have the under side flat, as in fig. 113. 114. Hollow chisel from Denmark . In my own collection . 115. Danish dagger. In my own collection. 116. Flint dagger, one- half of the actual size. This beautiful specimen was found in a large tumulus with a second imperfect dagger, a rude flint core, an imperfect crescent- shaped knife, one or two flakes, two amber beads, and some bits of pottery. Denmark. In my own collection. xxiv DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 117. Another form of fint dagger. Also from Denmark. In my own collection. 118. Oval tool-stone. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 94. 119. Triangular flint arrow-head, actual size. Ibid. p. 19. 120. Indented flint arrow- head, actual size. Ibid. p. 20. 121. Barbed flint arrow-head, actual size. . Ibid. p. 22. 122. Leaf-shaped flint arrow- head, actual size. Showing the gradual passage into the spear-head. Ibid. p. 22. 123. French arrow -head, actual size. In my own collection. 124. North American arrow- head, actual size. In my own collection. 125. Fuegian arrow- head, actual size. From Nilsson's Stone Age. 126. Stone saw in wooden handle, Switzerland, one- half actual size. After Keller. 127. Bone pin or awl from Scotland, actual size. 128. Bone chisel, actual size. From Wangen, on the Lake of Constance. In my own collection. 129. Bone harpoon, actual size. Afb . af. Danske Olds. og. Mindesmaerker, 5 Heft. 130. Ancient bone harpoon, actual size. Dordogne. After Christy and Lartet. 131. Bone scraper, North America. Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ , part v. p. 43, fig. 26. 132. A tumulus of the Stone Age, at Röddinge in Denmark . It con tains two chambers. Nordiske Oldsager i det Kong. Mus. i Kjöbenhavn, pl. 4. 133. Ground plan of ditto. 134. Stone circle, Denmark. Ibid. pl. 1 . 135. Dolmen, Denmark. 136. Stone circle. Ibid. pl. 2. 137. Kit's Coty House, near Maidstone. After Cof. Forbes Leslie : Early Races of Scotland. 138. Carnac, Brittany. From a drawing by Sir J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. 139, 140. Indian Dolmens. After Captain Meadows Taylor. 141. Summer and winter dwellings in Kamschatka. Atlas to Cook's Voyage, pl. 77. 141 *. Laplander's gamme or hut. 142. Kumbecephalic skull from Derbyshire. After Bateman : Ten Years' Diggings, p. 146. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. XXV 143. Ground plan of a sepulchral chamber in a large tumulus on the Island of Möen. Ann. for Nordiske Oldkyndighed, 1858, p. 204. 144. Brachycephalic skull from the same tumulus, one- quarter of the natural size. 145. Ditto, side view. I am indebted for these two drawings to the kindness of my friend Mr. Busk . 146. Interior of the sepulchral chamber in the long barrow near West Kennet. Archæologia, vol. xxxviii. p. 405. 147, 148. Flint scrapers from the above tumulus, two - thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 149. Flint flake from the same, two- thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 150. Flint implement from the same, two- thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 151. Fragment of pottery from the same, two- thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 152. Fragment of pottery from the same, actual size. Ibid. 153-155. Fragments of pottery from the same, two- thirds of the actual size. Ibid. 156. Fragment of pottery, actual size. Ibid. 157. Urn from Flaxdale barrow. The original is 14 inches in height. Bateman's Ten Years' Diggings in Celtic and Saxon Grave hills , p. 280. 158, 159. Two vases from Arbor Low, in Derbyshire. Ibid. p. 283. 160. Drinking cup from Green Low. Ibid. p. 286. 161. Sculptures on the Lower Rock at Auchnabreach, Argyllshire. After Sir J. Y. Simpson : Proc. Soc. Ant. Sc. vol. vi. p. 23. 162. Crannoge in Ardakillin Lough, near Stokestown, county of Ros It is constructed of stones and oak piling. The top line shows the former highest water level ; the second, that of the ordinary winter flood ; the third, the summer level. 163. Section of the lake- dwelling at Niederwyl. From Lee's Keller, pl. 16, fig . 2. 164. Swiss axe of serpentine, actual size. From Wangen, on the Lake of Constance. In my own collection . 165. Spindle whorl, actual size. From Wangen, on the Lake ofConstance. In my own collection . 166. Piece of pottery, showing the impressions of the finger-tip, and the marks of the nail, actual size. Lake of Zurich. 168. Piece of tissue, actual size. From Robenhausen. In my own collection. 169. Portion of the vertebra of a cow. common. с xxvi DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 170. Corresponding portion of the vertebra of a bison. 171. Bronze pin, actual size. Found in a shell -mound near Elgin, and now in the museum at that place. 172. Flint awl from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 173-175. Lance- heads ( ?) from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 176. Rude flint axe from Denmark, actual size. After Worsaae. 177. Copper arrow or spear- head, Cincinnati, one- third actual size. Whittlesey : Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. vol. i. pl. 16, fig. 6. 178. Copper lance- head, Ontarragon, one- third actual size. Ibid. fig. 4. 179. Molar tooth of E. antiquus, one-third actual size. After Lyell. 180. Molar tooth of the mammoth, one- third actual size. After Lyell. 181. Flat stone implement of uncertain use, actual size. La Madeleine. 182. Stone implement, resembling in some respects those characteristic of the drift gravels, actual size. From Moustier. In my own collection. 183. Ditto, seen from the side. 184. Ditto, seen from the other side. 185. A cylindrical piece of reindeer horn , on which are engraved two outlines of fishes, one on each side. La Madeleine, Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 186. Piece of the palm of a reindeer's antler, on which is engraved the head and neck of an ibex. Laugerie Basse, Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 187. Group of figures. Dordogne. After Lartet and Christy. 188. Group of reindeer. Froma photograph presented to me bythe Marquis de Vibraye. 189. Poniard of reindeer horn. From the cave at Laugerie Basse. 190. The Engis skull seen from above. Huxley's Man's Place in Nature, p. 126. 191. Ditto, seen from the front. 192. The Neanderthal skull, seen from the side, one -half natural size. 193. Ditto, seen from the front, one- half natural size. 194. Ditto, seen from above, one- half natural size. Ibid. p. 139. The outlines from camera lucida drawings by Mr. Busk ; the details from a cast and from Dr. Fühlrott's photographs. a, glabella ; b , occipital protuberance ; d , lambdoidal suture. 195. Rude flint implement from the drift gravel at Hoxne, one- half actual size. After Frere : Archäologia, 1800, pl. 15 . 196. Ditto, side view. 197. Another specimen. After Frere. Ibid. 198. The same, side view. 199 , 200. Stone implements, Madras. From specimens found and presented to me by Mr. Bruce Foot. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. xxvii > 201. Section across the Valley of the Somme at Abbeville, after Prest wich ; the proportion of the length is reduced to one-third. 202. Section of St. Acheul, near Amiens. 203. Section taken in a pit close to the Joinville station. b. Red angular gravel, containing a very large sandstone block. d . Grey subangular gravel. 204. Diagram to illustrate deposit of loëss and gravel. a' Loëss corresponding to and contemporaneous with the gravel a. 6 Loëss b. Ć Loëss 1. Level of valley at period a. 2. Level of valley at period b. 3. Level of valley at present. 205. Australian knife. Presented to me by A. W. Franks, Esq. 206. Australian club, one- fifth of the actual size. 207. Australian spear and spear-caster. After Eyre. 208. Australian boomerang, one-sixth of the actual size. 209. Tasmanian fire - sticks, one- third actual size. From specimens presented to me by Mr. Robinson. 210. New Zealand patoo-patoo, one- fourth of the actual size. In my own own collection. 211. Stone axe with wooden handle, one- fourth of the actual size. In my own collection. 212. South Sea axe of ceremony. In my own collection. 213. South Sea fish -hook , one - half of the actual size. In my own collection. 214. Esquimaux knife. From a specimen presented to me by Mr. Flower. 215 , 216. Esquimaux knife. In my own collection . 217. Esquimaux arrow -head, actual size. Ibid. 218. Esquimaux spear-head, actual size. Ibid. 219. Esquimaux bone -harpoon, one- third of the actual size. Ibid. 220. Esquimaux cheek-stud of stone. Presented to me by Dr. Rae. 221-223. Drawings on Esquimaux bone implements. Presented to the Ashmolean Museum, by Captain Beechy, 1832 . 224. Dacotah fire- drill -bow . From Schoolcraft's Indian tribes. 225. Iroquois fire-pump-drill. From the same. 226. Fuegian harpoon, one-half of the actual size. In my own collection. 227, 228. Ogham stones. Found in Kerry. Cat. of Royal Irish Academy, p. 135 . DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. The three great tumuli at Upsala, popularly supposed to be those of Odin, Thoa, and Freya. ( Frontispiece.) Diagram of Abury. ( To face page 124.) PLATE I. ( To face page 80.) Fig. 1. A flint axe from a tumulus, one-third of the actual size. 2. Another form of stone axe, with a hole for a handle, one-third of the actual size. 3. A fint saw, one- half of the actual size. 4. A flint dagger, one- sixth of the actual size. 5. A fint chisel, one- half of the actual size. 6. One of the “ cores” from which the flint flakes are splintered, one- half of the actual size. 7. One of the flakes, one-half of the actual size. 8, 9. Rude axes from the Kjökkenmödding at Havelse, one- half of the actual size. 10. Flint axe from drift at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville, one half of the actual size. 11. Flint axe from Abbeville, showing that the part stained white is parallel to the present surfaces, and that the weathering has taken place since the Aint was worked into its present shape ; one-half of the actual size.. 12. Sling- stone from the Kjökkenmödding at Havelse, one- half of the actual size. PLATE II . ( To facepage 333. ) Sketch of mammoth, on a piece of ivory found at La Madeleine in the Dordogne. PLATE III . ( To face page 341. ) A flint implement found near Abbeville, slightly reduced. In my own collection. The artist has been so careful to present a faithful image of this specimen, that he has even copied exactly my rough memorandum as to the place and date of its discovery. PRE-HISTORIC TIMES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. THI . THE first appearance of man in Europe dates from a period so remote, that neither history, nor even tra dition, can throw any light on his origin, or mode of life. Under these circumstances, some have supposed that the past is hidden from the present by a veil, which time will probably thicken, but never can remove. Thus our pre historic antiquities have been valued as monuments of ancient skill and perseverance , not regarded as pages of ancient his tory ; recognized as interesting vignettes, not as historical pictures. Some writers have assured us that, in the words of Palgrave, “ We must give it up, that speechless past ; whether fact or chronology, doctrine or mythology ; whether in Europe, Asia , Africa, or America ; at Thebes or Palenque, on Lycian shore or Salisbury Plain : lost is lost ; gone is gone for ever.” Others have taken a more hopeful view, but in attempting to reconstruct the story of the past, they have too often allowed imagination to usurp the place of research , and have written in the spirit of the novelist, rather than in that of the philosopher. Of late years, however, a new branch of knowledge has arisen ; a new Science has, so to say, been born among us , which deals with times and events far more ancient than any which have yet fallen within the province of the archæologist The geologist reckons not by days or by years ; the whole six B 2 DIVISION OF PRE- HISTORIC thousand years, which were until lately looked on as the sum of the world's existence, are to him but one unit of measure ment in the long succession of past ages. Our knowledge of geology is, of course, very incomplete ; on some questions we shall no doubt see reason to change our opinion, but on the whole, the conclusions to which it points are as definite as those of zoology, chemistry, or any of the kindred sciences. Nor does there appear to be any reason why those methods of examination which have proved so successful in geology, should not also be used to throw light on the history of man in pre- historic times. Archæology forms, in fact, the link between geology and history. It is true that in the case of other animals we can, from their bones and teeth, form a definite idea of their habits and mode of life, while in the present state of our knowledge the skeleton of a savage could not always be distinguished from that of a philosopher. But on the other hand, while other animals leave only teeth and bones behind them , the men of past ages are to be studied principally by their works ; houses for the living, tombs for the dead, fortifications for defence, temples for worship, imple ments for use, and ornaments for decoration. From the careful study of the remains which have come down to us, it would appear that Pre -historic Archæology may be divided into four great epochs. I. That of the Drift ; when man shared the possession of Europe with the Mammoth, the Cave bear, the Woolly -haired rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. This we may call the “ Palæolithic” period. II. The later or polished Stone Age ; a period character ized by beautiful weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of stone ; in which, however, we find no trace of the knowledge of any metal, excepting gold, which seems to have been sometimes used for ornaments. This we may call the “ Neolithic " period. ARCHÆOLOGY INTO FOUR PERIODS. 3 III. The Bronze Age, in which Bronze was used for arms and cutting instruments of all kinds. IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc.; bronze, however, still being in common use for ornaments, and frequently also for the handles of swords and other arms, though never for the blades. Stone weapons, however, of many kinds were still in use during the Age of Bronze, and even during that of Iron, so that the mere presence of a few stone implements is not in itself sufficient evidence that any given “ find ” belongs to the Stone Age. In order to prevent misapprehension, it may also be well to state, at once, that, for the present, I only apply this classification to Europe, though, in all probability, it might be extended also to the neighbouring regions of Asia and Africa. As regards other civilized countries, China and Japan for instance, we, as yet, know but little of their pre historic archæology, though recent researches have gone far to prove that the use of iron was there also preceded by bronze, and bronze by stone. It is evident, also, that some nations, such as the Fuegians, Andamaners, etc. , are even now, or were very lately, in an Age of Stone. It is probable that gold was the metal which first attracted the attention of man ; it is found in many rivers, and by its bright colour would certainly attract even the rudest savages, who are known to be very fond of personal deco ration. Silver does not appear to have been discovered until long after gold, and was apparently preceded by both copper and tin ; for it rarely, if ever, * occurs in tumuli of the Bronze Age ; but, however this may be, copper seems to have been the metal which first became of real importance to Man ; no doubt owing to the fact that its ores are abundant in many countries, and can be smelted without difficulty ; and that, while iron is hardly ever found except in the form

• Horæ ferales, p. 60.

B2 4 FIRST DISCOVERY OF METAL. of ore, copper often occurs in a native condition, and can be beaten at once into shape. Thus, for instance, the North American Indians obtained pure copper from the mines near Lake Superior and elsewhere, and hammered it at once into axes, bracelets, and other objects. Tin also early attracted notice, probably on account of the great heaviness of its ores. When metals were very scarce, it would naturally sometimes happen that, in order to make up the necessary quantity, some tin would be added to copper, or vice versa . It would then be found that the properties of the alloy were quite different from those of either metal, and a very few experiments would determine the most advan tageous proportion, which for axes and other cutting instru ments is about nine parts of copper to one of tin. No implements or weapons of tin have yet been found, and those of copper are extremely rare, whence it has been in ferred that the art of making bronze was known elsewhere before the use of either copper or tin was introduced into Europe. Many of the so-called “ copper ” axes, etc. , contain a small proportion of tin ; and the few exceptions indicate probably a mere temporary want, rather than a total ignorance, of this metal. The ores of iron, though more abundant, are much less striking in appearance than those of copper. Moreover, though they are perhaps more easily reduced, the metal, when obtained , is much less tractable than bronze. This valuable alloy can very easily be cast, and, in fact, all the weapons and implements made of it in olden times were cast in moulds of sand or stone. The art of casting iron, on the other hand, was unknown until a comparatively late period. In the writings of the early poets, iron is frequently charac terized by the epithet πολύκμητος, and its adjective, σιδήρεος, is used metaphorically to imply the greatest stubbornness. While, however, these facts tend very much to remove the ALLUSIONS TO BRONZE IN ANCIENT WRITERS. 5 as those à priori improbability that a compound and comparatively expensive material like bronze should have been in general use before such a common metal as iron, we must, of course, seek elsewhere for evidence that it was so. Hesiod, who is supposed to have written about 900 B.C. , and who is the earliest European author whose works have come down to us, appears to have lived during the transition between the Bronze and Iron Ages. He distinctly states that iron was discovered later than copper and tin . Speaking of those who were ancient, even in his day, he says that they used bronze, and not iron. τοϊς δ' ήν χάλκεα μεν τεύχεα. χάλκεοι δέ τε οίκοι , χαλκό δ' ειργάζοντο μέλας δ' ουκ έσκε σίδηρος .. It is also significant that the word χαλκευειν, from χαλκος, bronze, means to work in metal. Moreover, the forms of early weapons indicate that those in iron were copied from bronze, not those in bronze from iron. Hesiod's poems, as well of Homer, show that nearly three thousand years ago the value of iron was known and appreciated. It is true that, as we read in Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiqui ties, bronze “ is represented in the Iliad and Odyssey as the common material of arms, instruments, and vessels of various sorts ; the latter ( iron) is mentioned much more rarely.” While, however, the above statement is strictly correct, we must remember that among the Greeks the word iron (oiônpos) was used, even in the time of Homer, as synonymous with a sword, and that steel also appears to have been known to them under the name of adápas, and perhaps also of kúavos, as early as the time of Hesiod. We may, therefore, consider that the Trojan war took place during the period of transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age. In the Pentateuch, excluding Deuteronomy, bronze, or, as it is unfortunately translated, brass, is mentioned thirty- eight times, and iron only four times. 6 EARLY HISTORY OF METALS.

Lucretius distinctly mentions the three ages. He says, - Arma antiqua, manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt Et lapides, et item sylvarum fragmina rami, Posterius ferri vis est, ærisque reperta, Sed prior æris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus. Coming down to more modern times, Eccardt in 1750, and Goguet in 1758, 1 mention the three latter ages in plain terms; the same idea runs through Borlase's History of Cornwall, and Sir Richard Colt Hoare also alludes to “ instru ments of stone before the use of metals was known,” and expresses the opinion that instruments of iron “ denote a much later period ” than those of bronze. To the Northern archæologists, however, -especially to Mr. Thomsen, the founder of the Museum at Copenhagen, and to Professor Nilsson, -must be ascribed the merit of having raised these suggestions to the rank of a scientific classification . Copper is said to have been used in China as far back as the reign of Ki, 2000 B.C.; and iron in that of Kung Kiu, about 1900 B.C. , but this can scarcely perhaps be regarded as proved. Copper axes of very simple type have also been dis covered in India, but we have no means of determining their date. It is probable, indeed, that iron was known in Egypt and Assyria before its introduction into Europe. The earliest evidence of iron in Assyria is an inscription of Tiglath - Pileser ( 1120 B.C.) , who says : “ In the desert of Mitani near Araziki, which is in front of the land of Hatti, I slew four mighty buffaloes with my great bow and iron arrows, and with my lance . ” As regards Egypt, there is a prayer in the Harris papyrus, written during the reign of Rameses III. ( 1300 B.C. ), that the words of the King may be “ firm as iron. ” In the

• V. 1282. des Arts et des Sciences. See Ch. iv .

+ Eccard. De Origine et Moribus and the preface Germanorum. § See Rhind in Arch. Ins. Jour. V. I Goguet. De l'Origine des Lois, xiii. EARLY HISTORY OF METALS. 7 same papyrus vessels of iron are mentioned, and the king is said to have made the wall of the temple of Horus like a “ hill of iron. " Objects of iron are also mentioned in the Karnac tribute. In the lists of Thothmes III. ( 1600 B.c. ) iron comes third in the series of metals paid as tribute. These refer ences, however, imply that the use of iron was already well known. * This renders less improbable the authenticity of the piece of iron said to have been found wedged in between two of the stones of the Great Pyramid.t Maspero, moreover, in 1882 found some pieces of iron in the Black Pyramid of Abousir (VIth Dynasty) ; # but no iron has been found in any of the tombs belonging to the earlier Egyptian dynasties, and the oldest weapon of iron of which the date can be certainly deter mined is an Egyptian blade, found by Belzoni under one of the Sphinxes at Karnac, and supposed to date about 600 B.C. The date of the introduction of iron into the North of Europe cannot at present be satisfactorily ascertained ; nevertheless it is most likely that the use of this metal spread rapidly. Not only does it seem à priori probable that such an impor tant discovery would have done so, but it is evident that the same commercial organization which had already carried the tin of Cornwall all over our continent, would equally facilitate the transmission of iron, as soon as that even more useful metal was discovered and rendered available. However this may be, the soldiers of Brennus were provided with iron swords, and when the armies of Rome brought the civilization of the South into contact with that of the North, they found the value of iron already well known to, and in general use among, their new enemies. Nor is there any reason to suppose that arms of bronze were also at that time still in use in the North, for, had this been so , they would certainly have been mentioned by the .

• I am indebted for these par- I Maspero. Guide du Musee de

ticulars to Mr. Budge. Boulaq, p. 296 . + Vyse. Pyramids of Gizeh, vi. p. 275. 8 IRON IN ANCIENT EUROPE. Roman writers ; whereas the description given by Tacitus of the Caledonian weapons shows that in his time the swords used in Scotland were made of iron. Moreover there are several cases in which large quantities of arms belonging to the Roman period have been found together, and in which the arms and implements are all of iron . This argument is in its very nature cumulative, and cannot therefore be fully developed here, but out of many, I will mention a few cases in illustration . Some years ago, an old battle - field was discovered at Tiefenau, near Berne, and described by M. Jahn. On it were found a great number of objects made of iron ; such as fragments of chariots, bits for horses, wheels, pieces of coats of mail, and arms of various sorts, including no less than a hundred two - handed swords. All of these were made of iron, but with them were several fibulæ of bronze, and some coins, of which about thirty were of bronze, struck at Marseilles, and presenting a head of Apollo on one side and a bull on the other ; both good specimens of Greek art. The rest were silver pieces, also struck at Marseilles. These coins, and the absence of any trace of Roman influence, suffi ciently indicate the antiquity of these interesting remains. A very similar collection of antiquities has been obtained from the ancient lake-village near La Tene, on the Lake of Neufchatel. This interesting locality will be referred to again in the chapter on Swiss lake - villages, and I will here only observe that 50 swords, 5 axes, 4 knives, and 23 lances have been discovered, but not a single weapon of bronze. Nine coins have been also found here, while not a single one has been met with in any of the Stone Age or Bronze Age villages. Yet the Gauls had a coinage of their own 300 years before Christ, and in our own country, as Mr. Evans * has well shown, about 150 years later.

• The Coins of the Ancient Britons, 1864, by John Evans, Esq. , F.R.S.

> IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE. 9 Some very interesting “ finds” of articles belonging to the Iron Age have been made in the peat bogs of Slesvick, and described by M. Engelhardt, Curator of the Museum at Flensborg. One of these, in the Moss of Nydam , comprises clothes, sandals, brooches, tweezers, beads, helmets, shields, shield bosses, breastplates, coats of mail, buckles, swordbelts, sword sheaths, 100 swords, 500 spears, 30 axes, 40 awls, 160 arrows, 80 knives, various articles of horse gear, wooden rakes, mallets, vessels, wheels, pottery, coins, etc. Without a single exception, all the weapons and cutting implements are made of iron, though bronze was freely used for brooches and other similar articles.* In the summer of 1862, M. Engelhardt found in the same field a ship, or rather a large flat - bottomed boat, seventy feet in length, three feet deep in the middle, and eight or nine feet wide. The sides are of vak boards, overlapping one another, and fastened together by iron bolts. On the inner side of each board are several projections, which are not made from separate pieces, but were left when the boards were cut out of the solid timber. Each of these projections has two small holes, through which ropes, made of the inner bark of trees, were passed, in order to fasten the sides of the boat to the ribs. The rowlocks are formed by a projecting horn of wood, under which is an orifice, so that a rope, fastened to the horn and passing through the orifice, leaves a space through which the oar played. There appear to have been about fifty pairs of oars, of which sixteen have already been discovered. The bottom of the boat was covered by matting. I visited the spot about a week after the boat had been discovered, but was unable to see much

• See Lubbock in Nat. Hist. Rev. interesting spot with M. Engel Oct. 1863, and Stephens in Gent. hardt in 1862. See also “ Denmark Mag. Dec. 1863. On one of the in the Early Iron Age," by C. En

arrows were some Runic characters. gelhardt. 1 had the pleasure of visiting this 10 IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE. 1 1 of it, as it had been taken to pieces, and the boards, etc. , were covered over with straw and peat, that they might dry slowly. In this manner, M. Engelhardt hoped that they would perhaps, at least in part, retain their original shape. The freight of the boat consisted of iron axes, including a socketed celt with its handle, swords, lances, knives, brooches, whetstones, wooden vessels, and, oddly enough, two birch brooms, with many smaller articles. Only those, however, have yet been found which remained actually in the boat ; and, as in sinking it turned partly over on its side, no doubt many more articles will reward further explorations. It is evident that this ancient boat was sunk on purpose, because there is a square hole about six inches in diameter hewn out of the bottom ; and it is possible that these objects were sunk as offerings to the Lake, but, on the whole, it seems more probable that in some time of panic or danger the objects contained in it were thus hidden by their owner, who was never able to recover them. Even in recent times of disturbance, as, for instance, in the beginning of this century , and in 1848, many arms, ornaments, household utensils, etc., were so effectually hidden in the lakes and peat mosses, that they could never be found again . Much interest is added to this vessel and its contents , by the fact that we can fix almost their exact date. The boat lies, as I have already mentioned, within a few yards of the spot where the previous discoveries at Nydam were made, and as all the arms and ornaments exactly correspond, there can be little doubt that they belong to the same period. Now the previous collection included nearly fifty Roman coins, ranging in date from A.D. 67 to A.D. 217, and we cannot therefore be far wrong in referring these remains to the third century . A very similar discovery has been made at Thorsbjerg in the same neighbourhood, but in this case, owing to some chemical difference in the peat, the iron has been almost 1 IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE. 11 entirely removed . It may naturally be asked why then this should be quoted as an instance of the Iron Age ? And the FIG. 1 . FIG . 2. FIG. 3. x xfxx kㅅ x answer seems quite satisfactory. All the swords, lance heads and axe- blades have disappeared, while the handles of bronze or wood are perfectly preserved, and as the orna ments and other objects of bronze are well preserved, it is evident that the swords, etc. , were not of that metal ; and it is therefore reasonable to conclude that they were of iron , more especially as the whole character of the objects resem bles that of those found at Nydam, and the coins, which are about as numerous as those from the latter place, range from 60 A.D. to A.D. 197 ; so that these two great “ finds” may be regarded as almost contemporaneous. Not only are the weapons in these finds all of iron, but their forms and the character of the ornamentation are very 12 IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE. different from those of the Bronze Age ; resembling in some respects Roman arms, in others they are quite peculiar, and evidently representative of northern art. Many of the arrows had owner's marks on them ( figs. 1 and 3) resembling those on the modern Esquimaux arrows ( fig. 2) . The Nydam swords also bear seven inscriptions ; three of them are illegible, the others are “ ricus, riccim , cocillus, and umored. ” On the umbo of one of the shields is inscribed, in dotted Roman letters, AEL. AELIANUS ; while another one has a short Runic* inscription, which Mr. Haigh reads as Aisc Ah (Aisc owns) ; + two figures resembling Runic letters are also inlaid with golden wire on one of the sword blades. One of the Thorsbjerg scabbards also has a Runic inscription of two lines, each containing ten letters. I particularly dwell on these cases, because no inscriptions or coins have yet been found which can be referred to the Bronze Age. For the same reason the abundance of silver is very signifi cant ; out of two hundred buckles and square silver girdle orna ments, the greater number are of bronze plated with silver, and silver was also used to ornament shield rims, sandals, brooches, breast -plates, sword -hilts, sword- sheaths, girdles, harness, etc., as well as for clasps, pendants, boxes, and tweezers, while one helmet was formed entirely of this comparatively rare metal. The ornamentation also of the shields, etc., is of a character altogether unlike any that occurs in the Bronze Age. An assemblage of objects very similar to those of Nydam and Thorsbjerg has also been found in the “ Vimose," or “ Moss of the Temple.” It comprises no less than 1500 lance-heads, 40 axes, and 30 swords, all of iron ; abundance of silver ; one Roman and three Runic inscriptions; and a coin of Faustina Junior. Here, again , bronze weapons are entirely absent, though bronze was used for ornaments, etc.

• See Appendix No. 1 . + Archæological Journal, 1863.

EARLY USE OF BRONZE. 13 From these and similar discoveries, it appears evident that the use of bronze weapons had been discontinued in the North before, probably long before, the commencement of our era. From the ease with which bronze could be worked, this metal was still used for brooches and ornaments ; but in the manu facture of swords, axes, and similar implements, it had been entirely superseded by iron. There are many cases on record of iron swords with bronze handles or scabbards, but scarcely an instance of the reverse. Conversely, as bronze weapons are entirely absent from the great “ finds” of the Iron Age, so are iron weapons altogether wanting in those instances where, as for instance at Nidau, on the Lake of Bienne, and Estavayer, on that of Neufchatel, large quantities of bronze tools and weapons have been found together. To sum up this argument, though the discoveries of bronze and of iron weapons have been very numerous, yet there is hardly a single case in which swords, axes, daggers, or other weapons of these two different metals have been found together ; nor are bronze weapons found associated with in scriptions, or with coins, pottery, or other relics of Roman origin. So, also, though no doubt stone weapons were used during the Bronze Age, there are many cases in which large numbers of stone implements and weapons have been found without any of metal. In illustration of this argument, I must call attention to the following table. Objects found singly teach us compara tively little, but when numbers occur together they become much more instructive. The first ten localities are some of the Swiss lake- villages, which will be described in Chapter VI.; to which I have added the Nydam find just alluded to, and two of the great French bronze finds. Now from the ancient lake- village in the peat moss of 14 WEIGHT OF THE ARCHÆOLOGICAL EVIDENCE. Moosseedorf we have a list comprising 75 flint nuclei, 25 arrow-heads, 12 spear-heads, 90 scrapers, 30 saws, 96 axes, 310 long flakes, and about 2000 small ones, 25 hammers, 45 grindstones, etc. , 71 awls of bone, 12 pointed ribs, 160 bone chisels, 18 sharpened boar's teeth, 8 perforated boar's teeth , 2 perforated bear's teeth, 5 harpoons of horn, 8 chisels and 4 awls of horn, besides 30 axe-handles or sockets, with out a trace of metal. The result, so far as six stations are concerned, is shown in the following table (p. 15) . If, for instance, we commence with the remains discovered at Wangen, on the Lake of Constance, we have an even more remarkable case. M. Löhle has found there more than 1500 axes, 100 whetstones, 150 corn - crushers, and 2500 arrow heads, flint flakes, chips, etc.; altogether more than 4450 instruments of stone, besides about 350 of bone, making, with 100 earthenware spinning - weights, a grand total of nearly 5000 objects, and yet not a trace of metal. The number of corn -crushers and spindle-whorls is interesting, when we remember that Wangen alone, among these four localities, has supplied us with specimens of carbonized grain, and flax fabrics. Now let me ask the reader to compare with the four cases given in the table on p. 15 the list of remains from the Bronze Age settlements of Morges, Nidau, Estavayer, Cor taillod, and Corcelettes, and the two Bronze Age finds of Larnaud and Réallon. The manner in which the collections were made accounts, probably, for the absence of whetstones, and, perhaps, to a great extent, for that of the flint flakes, etc. On these points, therefore, I lay little stress; but the total absence of stone axes at Morges, and their rarity at Nidau and Estavayer, is very remarkable. At the former M. Forel, after the most careful search, has found but one object of iron . The large number of corn-crushers and the presence of spinning -weights are also significant. STONE . BRONZE . IRON . Arrows . Objects Other . Flakes . Axes . COINS . Total . Hooks - Fish . Knives . Ornaments . Lances . Sickles . Axes . Sundries . Total . Ornaments . Swords . Knives . Axes . Lances . Sundries . Total 2500 450 . .. 0 1500 100 1000 4450 2702 25 2300 SWITZERLAND . Wangen Moosseedorf Nussdorf . Wauwyl Nidau 277 100 100 30 1230 43 36 200 147 426 .. 33 ? 7 368 23 102 27 1809 1420 305 2004 335 Corn crushers STATISTICS. ? ? ? 13 22 4 2 71 515 208 835 ? ? ? ? 6 14 1 43 403 150 617 Cortaillod Estavayer Corcelettes Morges ? ? ? ? 1 19 2 7 465 16 510 0 ? ? 50 20 11 11 10 108 ? 210 1 0 Many Corncrushers More than 100 Marin Some . 1 13 15 50 5 23 12 Balls 61 250 9 1 Pierced Larnaud 87 76 54 51 6 758 1800 0

768 447 Reallon 1 2 1 453 DENMARK Nydam .. 100 30 86 ? 34 Afew Whet stones Ornaments very numerous 500 atleast 1000 3 at least 15 16 OBJECTS BELONGING TO Col. Schwab's splendid collection from Nidau tells the same tale. He has only 33 stone axes, and yet as many as 335 corn -crushers. The other articles of stone he has not appa rently collected. He has nearly 200 spindle-whorls, and many earthenware rings, specimens of which have also been found at Morges, but which are entirely wanting at the Pont de Thiele, at Wauwyl, at Moosseedorf, and at Wangen. It is, of course, possible that very different states of civi lization may co-exist in different parts of the same country ; but in this case we must remember that the settlement at Nidau is only about fifteen miles from Moosseedorf. Nor can we suppose that the differences were merely a question of wealth ; the bronze fish -hooks, axes, small rings, pins, etc. , which are found in such large numbers, show that bronze was used not for the articles of luxury only, but also for the ordinary implements of daily life. Nor is it only in the presence or absence of bronze that the Pfahlbauten differ from one another ; there are many other indications of progress. We cannot expect to find much evidence of this in the implements of bone or stone ; but, as has already been mentioned , the better forms of stone axe, and those which are perforated, are very rare, if not altogether absent, in the Stone Age, none having been found at the Pont de Thiele, at Moosseedorf, or at Wauwyl, and only two at Wangen. Again, it is not only by the mere presence of bronze, but by the beauty and variety of the articles made out of it, that we are so much struck. In a collection of objects made at any of the Stone Age settlements, no one can fail to remark the uniformity which prevails. The wants of the artificers seem to have been few and simple. In the Bronze Age all this is altered . We find not only axes, arrows, and knives, but, in addition, swords, lances, sickles, ear-rings, bracelets, pins, rings, and a variety of other articles. On page 46 is a THE BRONZE AGE. 17 list of the objects found in some of the Swiss Lake Settlements, while, as regards France, M. Chantre gives the following numbers : — Celts, 9153 ; swords and daggers, 727 ; lances, 513 ; kpives, 342 ; sickles, 225 ; pins, 1220 ; needles, 204; bracelets, 1086 ; rings and chains, 1572 ; arrow - heads, 213 ; hammers, 23 ; anvils, 5 ; chisels, 58 ; gouges, 31 ; razors, 62; saws, 8 ; hooks, 172 ; moulds, 74 ; and a variety of other articles , making altogether no less than 20,000 objects. The pottery also shows a considerable advance. The potter's wheel indeed seems to have been unknown during both the Bronze and Stone Ages, but the material of which the Stone Age pottery is composed is rough, * containing large grains of quartz, while that used during the Bronze Age is more carefully prepared. The ornaments of the two periods show also a great contrast. In the Stone Age they consist of impressions made by the nail or the finger, and sometimes by a cord twisted round the soft clay. The lines are all straight, or if curved are very irregular and badly drawn. In the Bronze Age all the patterns present in the Stone Age are continued, but in addition we find circles and spirals ; while imitations of animals and plants are charac teristic of the Iron Age. So again the distinction between the Bronze and Iron Ages does by no means rest merely on the presence of iron. The pottery is different, the forms of the implements and weapons are different, the ornamentation is different, the knowledge of metallurgy was more advanced, silver and lead were in use, letters had been invented, coins had been struck . The entire absence of silver, of coins, and of inscriptions, in the bronze finds, is very remarkable.

• The extreme coarseness of the the vessels found in tunuli of the

Swiss Lake pottery is, perhaps, Stone Age, the material was often partly owing to its having been more carefully prepared. intended for kitchen purposes ; for С 18 BRONZE WEAPONS NOT OF ROMAN ORIGIN. This class of evidence is by no means confined to the Swiss lake discoveries. In various parts of Europe more or less extensive deposits of bronze implements have been found. They may be divided into two principal classestreasures, which were hidden away by their owners and never recovered, and founders' stocks. The former consist of im plements, weapons, and ornaments, entire, and often almost new ; the latter principally of worn and broken objects, often with lumps of rude metal. In the table given on the preceding page I have given two of these finds, one (Reallon ) a treasure, the other (Larnaud) a founder's stock. These finds are particularly instructive, because the objects found in them are evidently contemporaneous. It will be seen from the tables on pp. 15 and 46 that the numbers of bronze ob jects are very considerable, indeed for France and Switzerland alone they amount to between 30,000 and 40,000, and the number is continually increasing * The value of this evidence will be better appreciated after reading the following extract from Mr. Wright's Essays on Archæology : t “ All the sites of ruined Roman towns with which I am acquainted present to the excavator a numerous collection of objects, ranging through a period which ends abruptly with what we call the close of the Roman period, and attended with circumstances which cannot leave any doubt that this was the period of destruction. Otherwise, surely we should find some objects which would remind us of the subsequent periods. I will only mention one class of articles which are generally found in considerable numbers, the coins. We in variably find these presenting a more or less complete series of Roman coins, ending at latest with the emperors who reigned in the first half of the fifth century. This is not

• Chantre, Age du Bronze, vol. ii. † Essays on Archæology, p. 105.

p. 275. BRONZE WEAPONS NOT OF ROMAN ORIGIN . 19 the case with Roman towns which have continued to exist after that period, for then, on the contrary, we find relics which speak of the subsequent inhabitants, early Saxon and Medieval. I will only, for want of space, give one example, that of Richborough , in Kent. The town of Rutupiæ seems to have capitulated with the Saxon invaders, and to have continued until its inhabitants, in consequence of the retreat of the sea, gradually abandoned it to establish themselves at Sandwich. Now the coins found at Richborough do not end with those of the Roman emperors, but we find, first, a great quantity of those singular little coins which are generally known by the name minimi, and which, presenting very bad imitations of the Roman coinage, are considered as belonging to the age immediately following the Roman period, and pre ceding that of the Saxon coinage. ” We may assume, then, on the authority of Mr. Wright him self, that if all the bronze arms which are so abundant in our museums were really of Roman origin, many of them would have been found from time to time in conjunction with other Roman remains ; whereas bronze weapons are never found in association with coins, pottery, or other relics of Roman origin. Mr. Wright, indeed, has called this fact in question, but in spite of his profound acquaintance with archæological litera ture , he has only been able to bring forward three cases in support of his argument, not one of which appears to me to be satisfactory. For a full statement of his views I must refer to his Memoir on Bronze Weapons, in the Transactions of the Ethnological Society, " which, in conjunction with my brother Frederic, I have endeavoured to answer before the same learned body.t I will, however, refer to the only three cases which Mr. Wright has been able to discover.

• Transactions of the Ethnologi + Ditto, N.S. vol. v. p. 105 .

cal Soc. , N.S. vol. iv. p. 176. C2 20 BRONZE WEAPONS NOT OF ROMAN ORIGIN. The first is that of the bronze sword figured in Stuart's Caledonia Romana, Pl. v. This sword ,” says Mr. Wright, “ is stated to have been found at the Roman station of Ardoch , in Scotland, on the wall of Antoninus, and there appears no reason to doubt the statement. " In truth, however, there is no such statement ; Mr. Wright has been misled by the fact that the sword is figured on the same plate with some Roman remains from Ardoch . The second case quoted by Mr. Wright is that of a sword described by Mongez before the French Institute, on the “ 16th Prairial, An. 9 , " i.e. 5th June, 1801. It is stated to have been found in a peat-moss at Heilly, near Abbeville, with the skeletons of a man and a horse, and four coins of the Emperor Caracalla. “ This sword, therefore,” says Mr. Wright, " was that of a Roman cavalry soldier, not older, and perhaps a little later, than this reign, who had sunk in the bog to which this turbary had succeeded. ” Mongez, on the contrary, concluded that the skeleton could not have been that of a cavalry soldier at all, because a cavalry soldier would not have been armed with a short sword ; and so far from regarding the sword as Roman, “ On ne pourroit,” he says, “ également pas l'attribuer aux Romains,, si l'on ne raisonnoit que d'après la matière dont elle est faite. ” * And in the next page he adds, “ We are therefore certain , that after the second Punic war the Roman swords were made of iron." + It is true that five months later he altered his opinion, and came to the conclusion that, after all, the bronze swords were Roman, but I cannot consider that much weight should be attached to this opinion, which was in direct opposition to that which he entertained a few months previously.

• Loc. cit. , p. 193.

+ “ Nous voilà donc certains que ' épée des Romains, depuis la se conde guerre Punique, fut fabriquée en fer, ” p. 194. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BRONZE WEAPONS. 21 Finally, Mr. Wright cites an instance of a bronze sword found with some Roman coins of Maxentius, who reigned from 306 to 312 A.D. This sword was discovered in a turbary at Piquigny, near Abbeville, in a large boat, which it would seem had been sunk, and in which were several skeletons. The reason for referring this bronze sword to the Roman epoch was the presence in this case, as in the last, of Roman coins. But it is somewhat remarkable, that the antiquaries who recorded the discovery attributed so little importance to the presence of these coins that they did not in either case take the trouble to specify the exact position which these occupied with reference to the bronze weapons ; in fact they only mention the coins casually, and as it were by an after-thought, in a foot- note. I may be pardoned, then, if I do not myself look upon them as being certainly of the same date as the weapons near which they are said to have been discovered. But even if it be admitted that in these two cases bronze weapons were actually discovered in associa tion with Roman coins, and in such a position that the weapons and the coins must certainly have been embedded together, still, when we consider the great abundance of Roman coins on the one hand, and of bronze weapons on the other, we cannot be surprised that there should be one or two cases in which they have been found associated together. Again, the geographical distribution of bronze weapons and implements does not favour such a theory. The Romans never entered Denmark ; it is doubtful whether they ever landed in Ireland ; no Roman road, masonry, or earthwork has ever been found there. Yet while more than 350 bronze swords have been found in Denmark , * more than 400 in France, and a very large number in Ireland,t the Italian

• If daggers re included the + The Museum at Dublin con

number would reach nearly 1200, tains 282 swords and daggers : the and 480 for Sweden . — Chantre, Age number of swords is not stated du Bronze, vol. i. p. 134. separately. 22 SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT. museums only contain about 50. Indeed, the rich museums at Florence, Rome, and Naples do not appear to possess a single specimen of those typical, leaf-shaped bronze swords, which are, comparatively speaking, so common in the North . That the bronze swords should have been introduced into Denmark by a people who never occupied that country, and from a part of Europe in which they are very rare, is, I think, a most untenable hypothesis. I may add that no swords or celts of bronze have been found in the excavations at Pompeii. Moreover, the use of the word “ ferrum ” (iron) as synony mous with a sword , clearly proves that the Roman swords were made of that metal. I have already mentioned that silver and lead do not occur in Bronze Age finds, that coins and letters are equally absent, and that the ornamentation of the Bronze Age, though some times very beautiful, is not of a Roman character. Lastly, the bronze which was so largely used by the Romans for ornaments, etc., was composed partly of lead, whereas that of the Bronze Age consists of copper and tin only. Other metals, indeed, such as iron, silver, nickel, and lead itself, are present ; but in small quantities, never having been purposely introduced, but only occurring as impurities. The reasons, then, which satisfy me that our bronze weapons cannot be referred to Roman times, may be summed up as follows: Firstly. They have never been found in company with Roman pottery, or other remains of the Roman period. Secondly. They are very abundant in some countries, as for instance in Denmark and Ireland, which were never invaded by Roman armies.

• This statement has been ques- from Pompeii. During a visit to

tioned by Mr. Wright , who pointed Naples, I looked out these celts , out that two bronze celts in the and found that they did not come museum at Naples have been from Pompeii, but from an ancient figured and described as coming tomb in Magna Græcia. BRONZE WEAPONS NOT SAXON. 23 Thirdly. The bronze swords do not resemble in form those used by Roman soldiers. Fourthly. The Latin word “ ferrum ” was used as synony mous with a sword, showing that the Romans always used iron. Fifthly. The ornamentation is not Roman in its character. Sixthly. The bronze used by the Romans contained, gene rally, a large proportion of lead, which is never the case in that of the Bronze Age. In Plutarch's Essay on the Pythian Responses, Philinus describes certain ancient bronze statues which were of a peculiar colour, and says : Was “ there then some mode of alloying and preparing the bronze used by the ancient artificers, like the traditional tempering of swords, which process being lost, bronze obtained exemption from warlike employment” ? * The evidence, therefore, seems conclusive. Nor is there any subsequent period to which we can refer the weapons and implements of bronze. Great numbers of Saxon interments have been examined both in this country and on the Continent, and we know that the swords, lances, knives, and other weapons of that time were all of iron. Besides this, if the bronze implements and weapons had belonged to post-Roman times, we should certainly, I think, have found some of them in the ruined towns, and with the pottery and coins of that period. Moreover, the similarity to each other of the weapons found in very distant parts of Europe, implies more extended intercourse between different countries than any which existed in those centuries. On the whole, then, the evidence appears to show that the use of bronze weapons is characteristic of a particular phase in the history of European civilization, and one which was anterior to the discovery of iron, or, at any rate, to the general use of that metal for cutting purposes.

• Plutarch. On the Pythian Responses.

TABLE C. 24 GRAVES WITH BODIESURIED INTHE ORDINARY MANNER . .ANTIQUITIES . Graves the of No. OrGold naments . Bronze . Iron . Amber . Glass . Pottery . Stone . Orna ments . Vessels . Sundries Weapons . Other Objects . Ornaments . 527 6 1471 35 18 161 33 165 38 334 57 . HALLSTADT GRAVES WITH BUP.NT CORPSES . HALLSTADT . ANTIQUITIES . . Graves the of No. Gold Ornaments . Bronze . Iron . Amber . Glass . Pottery . Different Objects . Orna .ments Vessels Sundries .Weapons Other Objects . Ornaments . 453 58 1744 179 54 91 349 41 105 35 908 100 Totals . 980 64 3215 182 89 109 510 74 270 73 1242 157 5985 HALLSTADT. 25 It is, moreover, I think, clearly established that the use of iron was general throughout Northern Europe for a con siderable time before the invasion of Cæsar. Evidently, however, the transition from the use of bronze weapons to those of iron must have been gradual, and there must have been a time when the two were in use together. M. Ramsauer, for many years director of the salt-mines at Hallstadt, near Salzburg, in Austria, has discovered an exten sive cemetery belonging to this transitional period. He has opened no less than 980 graves, evidently of those who even at that early period worked the salt-mines which are still so celebrated. The objects discovered are described and figured in an album, which has unfortunately never been published, but of which Mr. Evans and I secured a copy. The following table will sufficiently prove the importance of the discovery. That the period to which these graves belonged was that of the transition between the Bronze and Iron Ages, is evident ; both because we find cutting instruments of iron as well as of bronze, and also because both are of somewhat unusual, and we may almost say of intermediate types. The same remark applies to the ornamentation. Animals are frequently represented, but are very poorly executed, while the geometrical patterns are well drawn. Coins are entirely absent. That the transition was from bronze to iron , and not from iron to bronze, is clear; because here, as elsewhere, while iron instruments with bronze handles are common, there is not a single case of a bronze blade with an iron handle. This shows that, when both metals were in use, the iron was preferred for blades. Another interesting point in the Hallstadt bronze, as in that of the true Bronze Age, is the absence of silver, lead, and zinc ( excepting, of course, as mere impurities in the bronze). This is the more significant, inasmuch as the presence, not only of the tin itself, but also 26 HALLSTADT. of glass, amber, and ivory, indicates the existence of an ex tensive commerce. Moreover, as Morlot well pointed out, the absence of silver cannot be accidental, because the bronze of Hallstadt contains no lead, and the absence of lead entails that of silver, since the latter could not, at least in Europe, be obtained without the former *

• For further information on the

subject of this chapter, I may refer to Mr. Evans' admirable “ Ancient Bronze Implements of Gt. Britain and Ireland , ” which has appeared since the last edition of this work . 1 1 ( 27 ) CHAPTER II. ON THE USE OF BRONZE IN ANCIENT TIMES. THEHE commonest and, perhaps, most characteristic objects belonging to the Bronze Age are the so - called " celts ” ( figs. 416) , which were probably used for chisels, hoes, war Copper Celt from Waterford. Winged Celt from Ireland. Socketed Celt from Ireland. FIG . 4. FIG . 5 . FIG. 6. FIG . 7. FIG. 8. FIG . 9. The three different types of Celts, and the manner in which they are supposed to have been handled . 28 BRONZE CELTS. axes, and a variety of other purposes. Implements similar, FIG . 10. FIG. 11. FIG . 12. tu uta Copper (? ) Celt from Ireland. Celt- mould from Ireland . Kalmuck Axe. Fig. 14. FIG. 15. FIG . 16. FIG. 13. AT Decorated Celt from Ireland. Danish Celts. BRONZE CELTS. 29 though not identical, and made of iron instead of bronze, are even now employed in Siberia ( fig. 10) and some parts of Africa. * More than two thousand are known to exist in the different Irish collections, of which the great Museum belonging to the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin contained in the year 1860 no less than six hundred and eighty-eight, + no two of which were cast in the same mould. They vary in size from an inch to a foot in length, and may be divided into three principal classes ( figs. 7—9) according to the manner in which they were handled ; though we must re Fig. 17. FIG. 19. FIG. 18. Bronze Axe. Le Puy. WW Stone Axe. WW Bronze Axe. Naples.

• Klemm's Culturgeschichte der Menschen, vol. iii. p. 160. Horæ

ferales, p. 77. + In the Museum at Edinburgh are more than 100, at Copenhagen 350. 30 BRONZE CELTS. member that there were many intermediate forms. The first class ( figs. 4, 7, 11, 13, 14, and 15) is the simplest in form , and is considered by some antiquaries (as, for instance, by Sir W. R. Wilde *) to be the oldest, partly because they are “ evidently formed on the type of the old stone celts ” ( conf. figs. 11 and 18 with figs. 19 and 160) , partly because some of them ( nearly thirty for instance in the Dublin Museum) are of red, almost unalloyed, copper, and are “ almost the only antique implements of any kind formed out of ” this metal, and partly because the copper ones at least are always unornamented. On the other hand, the simplicity of form exhibited by the copper axes, which may be observed in those from other countries as well as from Ireland, is perhaps to be accounted for by the great difficulty of casting copper, so that the founders, when dealing with that metal, would naturally confine themselves to the simpler forms. There can be little doubt that these simple celts were handled in the manner indicated ( fig. 7) . Fig. 20 represents a modern African axe in my collection . Here, however, the blade is of iron . FIG . 20. Modern African Axe. Evidently, however, in such an axe the blade would tend to split the handle in which it was placed. To remedy this defect, a stop, or ridge, was raised across the celt, and the

• Cat. Irish Acad ., p. 361 .

BRONZE SWORDS. 31 metal and wood were made to fit into one another ( figs. 5 and 8) . This second form of celt is known as a Paalstab, or Paalstave, and has often a small loop on one side ( the sup posed use of which is indicated in the figure), as well as a wing on each side. A still further improvement consisted ( figs. 6, 9, 16) in reversing the position of the metal and the handle, making the axe hollow at one end, and so passing the handle into it. Bronze celts are generally plain , but sometimes ornamented with ridges, dots, or lines, as in figs. 6, 9, 13, 15, and 16. That they were made in the countries where they are found is proved by the presence of moulds ( fig. 12) . It is difficult to understand why the celt-makers never cast their axes as we do ours, with a transverse hole, through which the handle might pass. No bronze implement of this description has, however, so far as I know, been yet found in Great Britain, though a few have occurred in Denmark, where they are of great beauty and highly decorated. The swords of the Bronze Age ( figs. 22—29 *) are always more or less leaf- like in shape, double- edged, sharp -pointed, and intended for stabbing and thrusting rather than for cutting. This is evident, not only from the general shape, but also from the condition of the edges. They never have any hand -guards: the handles are sometimes solid ( figs. 25—31) ; this is generally the case with those found in Denmark : sometimes ( figs. 22—24) flat, thin, and evidently intended to be plated with wood or bone : while sometimes the sword expands at its base, and is fastened to a handle by from two to four rivets. Swords of this class are generally shorter than the others, and indeed we find every intermediate form between the true sword and the dagger ( figs. 32, 33, 34) : of the two classes together, the Dublin Museum contains

• In Fig. 21 an ancient iron sword is represented, in order to show the difference in form .

32 BRONZE SWORDS. FIG. 23 . FIG 25, FIG . 21 . FIG. 24 . FIG. 26. FIG . 22. Ireland . Scandinavia . Ancient Iron Sword from a Saxon tomb, England. Switzerland . Lake of Neufchatel Sweden . BRONZE SWORDS. BRONZE SPEARS. 33 nearly 300. The handles of the bronze swords are very short, and could not have been held comfortably by hands as large as ours, a characteristic much relied on by those who FIG . 27 . FIG . 28 . FIG. 29. FIG. 30. FIG. 31 . Sword -handles from Denmark . attribute the introduction of bronze into Europe to a people of Asiatic origin . The Danish Museum con tains more than 350 bronze swords . The next classes of bronze objects are the heads of spears ( figs . 35, 36), jave lins, and arrows; two hun dred and seventy - six of which are in the Dublin Museum ; in length they vary from two feet and a half to an inch, and their shapes are also very various ; but it is unnecessary to describe them in detail, because they are repeated in similar weapons of all ages, countries, and materials. Bronze arrows, however, are not very common in Northern Europe, probably because flint was so much cheaper, and almost as effective. D Swords from Denmark . 34 BRONZE FISH - HOOKS AND SICKLES. More than a hundred bronze fish -hooks have been found at Nidau in the Lake of Bienne, but elsewhere they appear to be rare ; the Museum at Dublin contains only one. Sickles are more numerous ; at Copenhagen there are twenty - five, at Dublin eleven ; in the lake - village at Morges eleven have FIG . 33. FIG . 32 . FIG . 34. Irish Bronze Daggers. been found, at Nidau eighteen ; they are generally about six inches in length, flat on one side, and raised on the other ; they were always intended to be held in the right hand. BRONZE KNIVES. 35 FIG . 36 . Bronze knives ( figs. 37–41) are frequently found in the Danish tumuli, and among the remains of the Swiss lake habitations; twenty , for instance, at Morges, twenty-six at Estavayer, and about a hundred at Nidau ; in Ireland they appear to be very rare ; the Dublin Museum FIG .35. does not contain one. They were generally fitted into handles of bone, horn, or wood, and the blade was almost always more or less curved ; those of iron knives, on the contrary , being generally straight. Fig. 48 represents a bronze knife found at Thebes by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, and figured in Lee's translation of Keller, page 276.* The small bronze razor-knives ( figs. 42— 45) , indeed, have straight edges, but they are quite of a different character from the iron knives : from the ornaments engraved Spear -heads from on them , I am disposed to regard them as belonging to a late period in the Age of Bronze, if not in some cases to the beginning of that of Iron. Indeed , the Flensborg Museum contains a razor -knife, said to have been found together with objects of the latter metal. Ornaments of bronze do not, like the weapons of that metal, characterize a definite period, but may belong to any age. Therefore, before we refer any particular ornament to this period, we must know the circumstances under which it was found. The following illustrations are principally from the Swiss lake-villages. The personal ornaments which may, I think, safely be referred to the Bronze Age, consist principally of bracelets Ireland .

• See also for Egyptian Bronze à l'Hist. Prim . de l'Homme, 1869,

implements and weapons, Mr. A. Arcelin's paper in the Mater. p. Ser. p. 376. D 2 36 BRONZE KNIVES. ( figs. 49, 50), pins ( figs. 51–53) , and rings. The bracelets are either simple spirals, or rings open at one side, and decorated by those combinations of straight and curved lines so characteristic of the Bronze Age. Like the weapons, they generally indicate small hands, but, like the bronze ornaments of various existing savages — for instance, of many Negro tribes, of the Khonds in Orissa, &c. —they are often extremely heavy. FIG. 40. FIG . 41. FIG . 37 . FIG. 38 . FIG . 39 . GB Bronze Knives from Denmark. Bronze Knives from Switzerland . Bronze pins are very abundant : for instance, 239 from Estavayer, 600 from Nidau, and more than 6000 from the two BRONZE KNIVES. 37 lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel. * They are also very frequently found in graves, where they were used, as pointed out by Sir FIG . 42 . FIG . 43. FIG . 44 . FIG. 45 . cccccc Eccocco Razor- knives from Denmark. FIG. 46 . FIG . 47 . Small Knives from Denmark . R.C. Hoare, to secure the linen cloth which enveloped the bones. Although brooches of bronze are very common, they have

• See Appendix.

38 BRONZE ORNAMENTS . generally been found in conjunction with iron, and during the Bronze Age their place seems to have been generally filled by mere pins. Many of the latter articles found in the Swiss FIG . 48 . Egyptian Knife. FIG . 49. FIG . 50 . Bracelets.-- Switzerland. FIG. 51. FIG. 52 . FIG. 53 . FIG . 54 .. 9111 Bronze Hair-pins . - Switzerland. lakes appear, however,to have been hair-pins. Some of them are nearly a foot in length, and two found near Berne even BRONZE ORNAMENTS. 39 as much as 2 ft. 9in. Many of the pins have large hollow spherical heads, as in figs. 51, 52 ; the others vary so much that it is impossible to give any general description of them. There can be little doubt that these Fig.55. FIG.56 . FIG.57. FIG.58. pins really belong to the Bronze Age ; but the fact that similar ones con tinued in use long after the introduc tion of iron is equally well established. One of these later bronze pins is repre sented in fig. 171. Some other small objects of bronze, including two needles, from the Lake of Neufchatel, are repre sented in figs. 55—60. Bronze ham mers are very rare ; it is probable that stones were used for this purpose. Gouges are more common. Small saws have been discovered in Germany and Denmark, but not, as yet, in Great FIG. 59. FIG. 60 . Small objects in Bronze. - Switzerland . Britain. Studs or buttons, though not very abundant, are found both in Switzerland and Scandinavia . * Silver, lead , and zinc appear to have been unknown during the Bronze Age. Glass beads were in use, but no vessels of glass have yet been discovered ; in the same manner there are barbarous tribes now which are well supplied with European beads, but which possess no glass vessels.

• Further information as to the + Lead, however, is mentioned

objects of bronze from Switzerland in the inscriptions of Karnak. See will be found in the chapter on the Lepsius, Les métaux dans les Ins. Swiss lake habitations. Egypt, p. 58. 10 THE METALLURGY FIG. 61 . The weapons and ornaments of the Bronze Age are all cast, and show considerable skill in metallurgy. * Three modes of casting were employed. One was that in a mould, either of stone or metal. Of course in this case the mould was necessarily in two halves, and the line of junction was generally visible, as in fig. 61 , representing a celt, which has evidently been cast in this manner. This specimen was found in Kent, and presented to me by Sir George Dasent. It is clear, however, that such an object as the knife in fig. 40 could not have been cast in this manner. Neither were the pins, figs. 51–54, for if they had been, the line of junction between the two halves of the mould must have been traceable. Indeed this mode of cast ing was evidently unusual. This is proved by the con dition of the objects, by the scarcity of moulds, and also by the fact that we seldom find any two bronze objects exactly similar to one ano ther. Thus, out of the six hundred and eighty - eight Kentish Celt. specimens in the Dublin Museum, no two were cast in the same mould, clearly showing that the moulds were not permanent. The second mode of casting was by making a model of WW

• See Morlot's interesting me moir : “ Sur le passage de l'âge de la pierre à l'âge du Bronze et sur

les métaux employés dans l'âge du Bronze. ” Copenhague, 1866. OF THE BRONZE AGE. 41 the object in wood or some other hard substance, and press ing it on fine sand, so as to obtain a corresponding hollow . The sand must of course have been contained in two boxes or frames, fitting like the solid moulds one on the other. Objects cast in this manner would therefore also show the line of junction. The advantage of this method is that sand can easily be worked into the required form , and wooden models were much more easily made than hollow moulds, either of stone or metal. Like the former, however, this method was applicable to very simple castings only. Speci mens in which the line of junction is not exactly central, or symmetrical, were probably cast in this manner, the model having been pressed into the one mould rather more deeply than into the other. The third method of casting was with wax or wood. In this case, as in the former, a model was made and enclosed in prepared earth, made of some clayey soil mixed probably with cow - dung, or some other inflammable substance, in order that when subjected to heat, it might become porous. The frame was then heated until the wax or wood dis appeared. This mode of casting required fewer instruments, and did not, like the other two methods, involve a line of junction, which was a great advantage, because in the absence of steel the projecting ridge thus produced was very difficult to remove, especially when the objects were ornamented. In one case M. Morlot observed on an object of bronze the mark of a finger, evidently resulting from an impression on the soft wax. Occasionally, again, when the wax was heated carelessly, it burned and left a carbonized film , which of course produced a corresponding mark on the object cast. The use of wax in this manner, though presenting many advantages, does not appear to have been frequent in Great Britain. In some few cases the interiors of bronze vessels show the marks of the spatula with which the wax was worked. 42 THE METALLURGY The evidences of imperfect metallurgical knowledge and appliances are also very interesting. M. Morlot has called attention to a striking instance of this presented by one of the large Schwerin brooches ( fig. 62). This was evidently FIG . 62 Mended Brooch . - Mecklenburgh . FIG . 63. a chef d'ouvre, but the intermediate bow connecting the two great discs had been accidentally broken. In order to mend it again, the two pieces were put into their proper relative position, and the broken bow was covered with a layer of wax. The whole was then surrounded with the usual preparation of clay, etc. , the wax was melted out and replaced with bronze. Again, besides the orifice through which the bronze was poured into the mould, it was neces sary to leave one or more holes through which the air might escape. The first, being funnel-shaped , was easily removed, but the latter were frequently beaten over, as is seen at the top of fig. 63, for without steel it was almost impossible to cut them off. Indeed, the smiths of the Bronze Age seem to have been unable to pierce bronze, and the holes for rivets, as in the swords, etc., are cast, and not pierced OF THE BRONZE AGE. 43 Even the ornamentation in circles, spirals, etc., on the bronze objects is mostly cast, and though beautifully drawn, was evidently done with the free hand ; compasses seem there fore to have been unknown. In some cases, however, the ornamentation appears to have been engraved on the objects themselves. For this purpose short instruments were used, in which there was a much larger proportion of tin than usual. Such implements are very hard, but at the same time very brittle, and therefore not suited for ordinary purposes. Instruments of this character, though rare, have been met with in the great bronze find at Larnaud and elsewhere. On some of the bronze vessels the ornamentation has been produced by hammering. This, however, indicates a consider able progress in metallurgy. FIG 64 . Gold Torque. - Ireland. Found near Clonmacnoise. 44 GOLD ORNAMENTS. FIG . 66 . FIG. 65. 00 FIG. 67 . Gold Ornaments.- Ireland. FIG . 67 * . SP Section WW Iron Ornament. - Africa. GOLD ORNAMENTS. 45 Soldering seems to have been entirely unknown during the Bronze Age, and even during the earlier times of the Iron Age. Thus the Hallstadt bronze vessels, when broken, were always riveted together. I have also figured a group ( figs. 64–67) of Irish gold ornaments. The earlier ones probably belong to the Bronze Age ; a torque much like fig. 64 formed part of the great Larnaud find, but they appear to have come down to a much later period. The fact is interesting that very similar ornaments, made however not of gold, but of iron, are now worn by the natives of Africa. One of these is represented in fig. 67.* The ornamentation on the objects of bronze is of a pecu liar, and at the same time uniform , character; it consists of simple geometrical patterns, and is formed by combinations of spirals, circles and zigzag lines ; representations of animals and plants being very rarely attempted. Even the few ex ceptions to this rule are perhaps more apparent than real. Thus, two such only are figured in the Catalogue of the Copenhagen Museum ; one is a rude figure of a swan ( fig. 37) , the other of a man (fig. 39) . The second of these forms the handle of a knife, which appears to be straight in the blade, a type characteristic of the Iron Age, but rarely found in that of Bronze. As regards one of them , therefore, there is an independent reason for referring it to the period of transition, or at least to the close of the Bronze Age. There is, indeed, one type of pattern, usually found on the razor-knives, but sometimes also on others, intended probably for a rude representation of a ship ( figs. 42—45). Even, however, if we admit this to be the case, and if we accept these objects as belonging to the Bronze Age, this will only show how little advance had yet been made in the art of representing natural objects.

• Archæologia, vol. xliii. p. 442.

46 LIST OF BRONZE OBJECTS . Morigen . Nidau . Estavayer .Cortaillod . Corcelettes . Auvernier . Total. Other places . Celts and Fragments ..... 23 7 6 13 1 6 11 67 Swords ... 4 4 Hammers 44 1 ... ... 5 Knives and Fragments .... 102 19 14 22 19 8 9 193 Pins 611 53 239 183 237 22 22 1367 Small Rings 496 28 115 | 195 202 14 3 1053 238 42 36 116 3 5 440 55 14 16 21 26 11 2 145 189 12 43 71 9 2 1 1 248 Earrings.... Bracelets and Fragments ... Fish- hooks .... Awls .... Spiral Wires Lance-heads 95 3 49 98 17 ... 262 ... ... ... 46 50 5 101 27 7 ... 4 2. 2 47 Arrow -heads ... 5 1 1 ... 6 Buttons 1 28 10 10 49 ... ... Needles 20 2 3 4 1 ... 30 Various Ornaments 15 7 18 3 11 49 ... ... Saws .... ... 3

... ... ... 3 Daggers ... ... ... 2 2 Sickles 18 12 1 2 7 11 4 45 Double-pointed Pins ......... 75 ... ... ... ... 75 Small Bracelets .... 20 ... ... 11 ... 31 Sundries 96 3 5 16 ... 4 124 Total 2004 | 208 618 835 539 73 69 4346 ORNAMENTATION. 47 The foregoing table, which I owe to the kindness of Dr. Keller, and the list given on p. 17, will give an idea of the relative numbers of the different objects. Since it was drawn up the numbers have considerably increased, and the total number of bronze objects recovered from the two lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel alone now exceeds 20,000. Dr. Thurnam gives the following list of the bronze objects found by Sir R. C. Hoare in the Wiltshire tumuli. OBJECTS OF BRONZE. Total. . With Unburnt With Burnt Bodies. Bodies. Celts 4 1 Blades of knives, daggers, etc. 16 44 Awls and drills 5 29 Crutch-headed screws 1 2 Large pin with rings 1 Prong with rings 1 Rivets and pieces of bronze mounted shield ? 1 Bracelet 1 Buckle 1 Bead 1 5 60 34 3 1 1 . . 1 1 1 . 1 Total 29 79 108 There is , I believe, only one case in which any bronze weapon or implement bears an inscription ; a fact which is the more significant when we remember how often letters are met with on those of iron. Fig. 68 represents this inte resting specimen, which is a winged celt, and is in the Museum Kircherianum of the Collegio Romano, at Rome. No explanation of the inscription has yet been given, nor do we even know to what alphabet the letters belong. It was 48 DRESS DURING FIG . 68 . B found in the Campagna, but there is unfortunately no record of the circumstances under which it was discovered. The skill displayed in the manufac ture of the objects described in this chapter, as well as the beauty of their form and ornamentation, shows a con siderable development of art. The dis covery of a bar of tin at Estavayer, and of a mould for casting celts at Morges, has proved that some at least of these objects were made in Switzerland, just as evidence of a similar nature shows that other countries in Europe, as, for instance, Denmark, England, Scotland, and Ireland, had also their own foundries. The similarity of form and ornamentation appears also to indicate some com munication between different parts of Europe; but as Corn wall, Saxony, and Spain * are the only known European sources from which tin can be obtained in any quantity, the mere presence of bronze is in itself a sufficient evidence not only of metallurgical skill, but also of commercial inter Inscribed Celt. course. We should hardly, perhaps, have hoped to ascertain much of the manner in which the people of the Bronze Age were dressed. Considering how perishable are the materials out of which clothes are necessarily formed, it is wonderful that any fragments of them should have remained to the present day. There can be little doubt that the skins of animals were extensively used for this purpose, as indeed they have been in all ages of man's history ; many traces of linen tissue also have been found in English tumuli of the Bronze Age,

• Tin is said to have anciently

been obtained in Pannonia, near the modern Temesvar, but I do not know whether the mines were ex tensive. See Howorth, Stockholm Pre- hist. Congress, p. 533. THE BRONZE AGE. 49 and in the Swiss Lakes. Fig. 168 represents a piece of fabric from Robenhausen in Switzerland ; it belongs, however, in all probability, to the Stone Age. Even a single fragment such as this throws much light on the manufactures, if we may call them so, of the period to which it belongs; but for tunately we need not content ourselves with any such partial knowledge as this, as we possess the whole dress of a chief belonging to the Bronze Age. On a farm near Ribe, in Jutland, is a tumulus known as Treenhoi, which was examined in 1861 by MM . Worsaae and Herbst. It is about fifty ells in diameter and six in height, being composed of a loose sandy earth . In it, near the centre, were found three wooden coffins, two of full size FIG . 70. FIG . 69. FIG 71 . Comb. Woollen Caps. and one evidently intended for a child. The coffin with which we are now particularly concerned was about 9ft. 8in. long and 2 ft. 2 in. broad on the outside ; its internal measure ments were 74 ft. long and 1 ft. 8in. broad. It was covered by a movable lid of corresponding size. The contents were peculiar and very interesting. While, as might naturally be expected, we find, in most ancient graves, only the bones and teeth, all the soft parts having long ago decayed away , in some cases — and this was one of them - almost exactly the reverse has happened. Through the action of water, owing perhaps to the fact that it was strongly impregnated with iron, the soft parts of the body had been turned into E 50 DRESS DURING THE BRONZE AGE. FIG. 72. Woollen Cloak . FIG . 73. FIG . 74 . Woollen Shirt . Woollen Shawl. BURIAL DURING THE BRONZE AGE. 51 a dark, greasy substance ; and the bones, with the excep tion of a few fragments, were changed into a kind of blue powder. Singularly enough, the brain seems to have been the part which had undergone least change. On opening the coffin , it was found lying at one end, where no doubt the head had originally been placed, covered by a thick hemispherical woollen cap, about six inches in height (fig. 69) . The outer side of the cap was thickly covered by short loose threads, every one of them ending in a small knot, which gave the cap a very singular appearance. The body of the corpse had been wrapped in a coarse woollen cloak ( fig. 72) , which was almost semicircular, and hollowed out round the neck . It was about 3ft. 8in. long, and broad in proportion. On its inner side were left hanging a great number of short woollen threads, which gave it somewhat the appearance of plush. On the right side of the body was a box, closed by a lid of the same diameter. It was 74 in. in diameter, 64in. high, and was fastened together by pieces of osier or bark. In this box was a similar smaller one, without a lid, and in this, again, were three articles, namely, a cap 7in. high, of simply woven woollen stuff ( fig. 70) ; a small comb 3in. long, 2ļin. high ( fig. 71 ) ; and a small simple razor knife. After the cloak and the bark- box had been taken away, two woollen shawls came to view, one of them covering the feet, the other lying nearer to the head. They were of a square shape, rather less than 5ft. long, 3ft. 9 in. broad, and with a long fringe ( fig. 74) . At the place where the body had lain was a shirt ( fig. 73) , also of woollen material, cut out a little for the neck, and with a long projecting tongue at one of the upper angles. It was fastened at the waist by a long woollen band, which went twice round the body, and E 2 52 BURIAL DURING THE BRONZE AGE. Y hung down in front. On the left side of the corpse was a bronze sword ( fig. 27), in a wooden sheath . It is 2 ft. 3 in . in length, and has a solid simple handle. At the feet were two pieces of woollen FIG . 75. stuff, about 141 in. long and 3} in. wide ( fig. 75), the use of which does not seem quite clear, though they may be sup posed to have been leggings. At the end of the coffin were found traces of leather , doubtless the remains of boots. In the cap, where the head had been, was some black hair, and the form of the brain was still recognizable. Finally, this ancient warrior had been wrapped round in an ox's hide, and so Leggings. committed to the grave. The other two coffins were not examined by competent persons, and the valuable information which they might have afforded was thus lost to us. The more indestructible things were, however, preserved ; consisting of a sword, a brooch, a knife, a double-pointed awl, a pair of tweezers, a large double button or stud, all of bronze ; a small double button of tin , and a javelin-head of flint. The baby's coffin produced only an amber bead, and a small bronze bracelet, consisting of a simple ring of metal. Another tumulus on the same farm contained four wooden coffins, in which were bodies clothed in woollen garments, a bronze sword in a wooden sheath ornamented with cary ings, two bronze daggers, a wooden bowl ornamented by a large number of tin nails, a vase of wood, and a small box of bark . In another instance, near Aarhuus, the dress of a woman was discovered under similar circumstances. Over her head were two shawls, one rather fine, the other coarser. She wore HUT-URNS. 53 a cloak with sleeves, and a long shirt tied round the waist by woollen cords. She also had been buried with a bronze dagger. There can , therefore, be no doubt that these very interest ing tumuli date from the Bronze Age, and I am inclined to place them somewhat late in that period, partly on account of the knife and razor-knife, both of which belong to forms which there are, as already mentioned, other reasons for referring to the close of the Bronze Age, and to the begin ning of that of Iron. Bronze brooches are also very rarely found in the Bronze Age, and are common in that of Iron. The sword, again , belongs to a form which is regarded by Professor Nilsson as being of late introduction. Finally, the mode of sepulture, though other similar cases are on record, is, to say the least, very unusual; in the age of Iron, indeed, the corpse was generally extended, but in that of Bronze the dead were , with few exceptions, burned, or buried in a contracted attitude. In Denmark, cremation appears to have been almost universal ; in England, I have taken out the statistics of 100 cases of tombs containing objects of bronze, 37 recorded by Mr. Bateman and 63 by Sir R. C. Hoare ; and the following table shows the manner in which the corpse had been treated . Contracted , Bateman 15 Hoare Burnt. 10 49 Extended . 5 2 Uncertain . 7 4 8 19 59 7 15 In 100 cases recorded by Mr. Greenwell, all were contracted or burnt. We may consider, therefore, that during this period the corpse was sometimes, though very rarely, extended on its back, and more frequently it was buried in a sitting or 54 HUT - URNS. crouching position, and in a small chamber formed by large stones, but that the most usual practice was to burn the dead , and collect the ashes and fragments of bones in or under an urn. The ancient funeral customs, however, will be more fully considered in a subsequent chapter. We know as yet very little about the architecture of the Bronze Age. Rougemont* considers that the Round towers belong to that period, but I know no sufficient reason for this opinion. In the next chapter I shall give my reasons for referring some at least of our so-called Druidical remains to that period, and many of the Swiss lake - villages cer tainly belong to it. These remains, indeed, give us little information as to the kind of houses then in use. Certain “ hut-urns, however, or urns in the form of huts, which have been discovered in Italy and Germany, appear to be long to the close of the Bronze Age. The Italian “ hut urns " were discovered in 1817+ at Albano, near Rome, under an undisturbed layer of peperino or consolidated volcanic ash, and belong, therefore, to a time when the volcanoes near Rome were still in a state of activity. The volume of the Archäologia for 1869 contains a full account by Prof. Pigorini and myself of the numerous vases and other objects found with these hut - urns. The pottery is peculiarly dark and compact, and with it were found several bronze knives. The presence of some fragments of iron, however, appears to show that the huts belong quite to the close of the Bronze Age, or rather to the commencement of that of Iron. The following figure will give an idea of the urns themselves, as well as of the houses they were intended to represent.

• L'Age du Bronze, pp. 12, 380.

+ See Lettera del Signor D. A. Visconti sopra alcuni vasi sepol chrali rinvenuti nelle vincinanze della antica Alba- Longa. Roma, 1867. PEN - PITS . 55 FIG . 77. These cases are not isolated . FIG . 76 . In the year 1837 Dr. Beyer found near Parchim a somewhat similar hut-urn in a tumulus, which, both from its form and as containing bronze, is considered by Dr. Lisch as certainly belonging to the Bronze Age. * In 1849 an urn, evidently in tended to represent a house with a tall straw roof, was found in Hut- urn.- Albano . a tumulus at Aschersleben. From its colour and material Dr. Lisch refers this urn also to the Bronze Age. The Museum at Munich contains a very interest ing piece of pottery ( fig. 77) , apparently intended to represent a Lake hamlet comprising seven small round huts. The huts are are arranged in three rows of three each, thus forming three sides Urn apparently representing a Lake -dwelling. of a square. The fourth side is closed by a wall, in the centre of which is an opening leading into a porch, which is represented as being thatched. The platform on which the huts stand is supported by four columns represented as consisting of logs, lying one upon the other. The roofs are unfortunately wanting. The sides are ornamented with the double spiral so characteristic of the Bronze Age. In North Germany and Denmark also urns have been discovered somewhat resembling that in fig. 76, In these

• Ueber die Hausurnen . Schwerin , 1856.

56 PICTS' HOUSES. cases the “ door" is in the roof. Dr. Lisch considers that these last urns are the earliest, and represent a form of dwelling even more ancient than those in which the door is in the side. To me, I confess, it seems more probable that these urns belong to a later period, when the repre sentation of the dwelling was more conventional, and the resemblance consequently less. Many of the dwellings in use during the Bronze Age were no doubt subterranean or serni-subterranean . On almost all large tracts of uncultivated land ancient villages of this character may still be traced. A pit was dug, generally from 6 to 16 feet in diameter, and the earth which was thrown out formed a circular wall, the whole being then probably covered over with boughs. The “ Pen- pits, ” near Gillingham , in Wiltshire, have been supposed to be of this character, but Gen. Pitt Rivers has clearly shown that they are merely ancient stone quarries. In Anglesea similar hut circles have been well described by the Honourable Owen Stanley. * On Dartmoor and elsewhere, where large blocks of stone abounded, the natives saved themselves the trouble of excavating, and simply built up circular walls of stone. In other cases, probably when concealment was an object, the dwellings were entirely subterranean . Such ancient dwell ings are in Scotland known as “ weems,” from “ Uamha," a In one of these, at Monzie, in Perthshire, a bronze sword was discovered. + Such underground chambers, how ever, appear to have been used in Scotland as dwellings, or at least as places of concealment, down to the time of the Romans ; for a weem described by Lord Rosehill I was con structed partly of stones " showing the diagonal and diamond cave.

• On Remains of the Ancient

Circular Habitations in Holyhead Island. By the Hon. W. O. Stanley, M.P. † Wilson, Pre - Historic Annals of Scotland , vol. i. p. 104. I Lord Rosehill, Proc. of the Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, 1869, p. 109. BEEHIVE HOUSES. 57 markings peculiar to Roman workmanship. ” The so - called Picts' houses, which are so common in the north of Scotland, are but slightly, and often not at all, sunk beneath the sur face, though, being covered with earth, they are scarcely distinguishable externally from the larger tumuli : but on digging into the green mound, it is found to cover a series of large chambers, built generally with stones of considerable size and converging towards the centre, where an opening appears to have been left for light and ventilation . These differ little from many of the subterranean weems, excepting that they are erected on the natural surface of the soil, and have been buried by means of an artificial mound heaped over them. It may seem improbable that a people living in such rude dwellings should possess a knowledge of metal lurgy, but the Kaffirs and other existing African tribes pre sent us with a similar case. FIG . 78 . WW Group of Beehive Houses. - Scotland . From these we pass naturally to the beehive houses, which are constructed of dry, thick walls in the form indicated by the name. * No doubt many of these are very ancient, and some probably date from the Age of Stone ; but on the other hand they also come down to the present day, and fig. 78 represents a group in Long Island, on the shore of Loch Resort, which was inhabited down to the year 1823.

• See Capt. Thomas on Beehive also Petrie, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot Houses, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, land, vol. vii. p. 201.

vol. iii. p. 133 ; vol. vii. p. 153. See 58 THE BURGH OF MOUSSA. Even now some few beehive houses are still occupied in the Island of Uig FIG . 79. The Burgh of Moussa . The celebrated “ brochs” or “ burghs" which abound in the north of Scotland, as well as in the Orkneys and Shetlands, are of a very peculiar character. They have been supposed by some to be Scandinavian, but no similar buildings occur in Norway, Sweden, or Denmark . Fig. 79 is copied from a photograph of the celebrated Bourg of Moussa, in the Shetlands, the best preserved speci men of this curious style of architecture. I visited this most interesting building in 1867. It stands close to the sea, on the little Island of Moussa, and may be taken as a typical specimen. They are all circular, about 60 feet in diameter, with walls about 15 feet thick, enclosing a court yard about 30 feet in diameter. The walls contain a stair case, which leads to the top of the building, several horizontal galleries, and some small conical chambers, all opening on the inside ; the only external orifice being the door, which is about 7 feet high. The absence of trees and abundance of stone probably led to this curious style of architecture. Although, moreover, so archaic in character, these burghs continued in use down to STAIGUE FORT, KERRY. 59 historical times, in fact until the introduction of lime, and the knowledge of the true principle of the arch , enabled the natives to construct buildings of a more modern character ; they are extremely numerous in Caithness, in the Orkneys and the Shetlands ; but this Moussa Burgh is one of the few that are mentioned in history. Torfæus tells us that about the year 1150 Erling carried off the beautiful Margaret, mother of Harold, the then Earl of Orkney, and was besieged in Moussa by Harold, who, however, being unable to take the place, at length thought it politic to consent to the marriage. By far the greater number of the burghs are mere ruins, and the so - called Dun of Dornadilla, supposed to have been erected by the ancient Scotch King of that name, is the only one which is at all as complete as that of Moussa. Whether any of the burghs are referable to the Bronze Age it is impossible to say. It is remarkable, however, that in the Island of Sardinia there are archaic buildings known as “ nurhags,” which very closely resemble the British burghs. FIG . 80 . MAVON Staigue Fort. - Kerry. In a future chapter I shall endeavour to show that Stone henge and Abury belong to the Bronze Age. Some of the ancient fortifications also probably are of this period, but a large proportion, as for instance the Staigue Fort, in the county of Kerry, fig. 80, belong in all probability to a much later period. ( 60 ) CHAPTER III. THE BRONZE AGE, THETHERE are four principal theories as to the Bronze Age. According to some archæologists, the discovery, or introduction, of bronze was unattended by any other great or sudden change in the condition of the people ; but was the result, and is the evidence, of a gradual and peaceable development. Some attribute the bronze arms and imple ments, found in Northern Europe, to the Roman armies, some to Phænician, some to Etruscan merchants ; while others, again, consider that the men of the Stone Age were replaced by a new and more civilized people of Indo-European race, coming from the East, who, bringing with them a knowledge of bronze, overran Europe, and dispossessed - in some places entirely destroying — the original or rather the earlier inha bitants. M. Wibel * is of opinion that the ancient bronze was ob tained, not by the fusion of copper and of tin , but directly from ore containing the two metals. This, I confess, seems to me extremely improbable ; f indeed, I am assured by Sir H. H. Vivian, than whom we have no higher authority in this country, that in his judgment it is almost impossible that bronze can ever have been so obtained. I cannot, therefore, but agree with those who maintain that the knowledge of bronze must necessarily have been preceded by the separate use of copper and of tin. Yet no single implement of the latter metal has been hitherto found in Europe, while those

• Die Cultur der Bronze- zeit Nord - und Mittel -Europas. Dr. F. Wibel,

Kiel. + See Appendix. SIMILARITY OF BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 61 of copper are extremely rare ; Hungary and Ireland, indeed, have been supposed to form partial exceptions to this rule. The geographical position of the former country is probably a sufficient explanation ; and as far as Ireland in concerned, it may perhaps be worth while to examine how far that country really forms an exception. In the great Museum at Dublin there are 725 celts and celt - like chisels, 282 swords and daggers, and 276 lances, javelins, and arrow - heads ; yet out of these 1283 weapons only 30 celts and one sword blade are said to be of pure copper.* I say “ are said to be, " because they have not been analyzed, but are supposed to be copper only from the “ physical properties and ostensible colour of the metal : ” indeed one of these very celts, which was actually analyzed by Mr. Mallet, was found to contain a small percentage of tin. It is possible that for some of the purposes to which celts were applied, copper may have been nearly as useful as bronze, and at any rate it might some times have happened that, from a deficiency of tin, some implements would be made of copper only. M. De Pulszky has questioned this opinion expressed in the earlier editions of this work, on the ground that if the existence of objects of copper were due to the occasional absence of tin , the types of the copper objects ought to be the same as those of bronze. To show that this is not so, he gives the follow ing interesting table of the copper and bronze objects in the Museum at Buda- Pesth : Copper. Bronze. Coins et haches à rebords 51 18 Haches à ailerons 1 79 Haches à douille 186 Ciseaux 37 Gouges 5 .

• One even of these is with good reason considered by Dr. Wilde to

be an American specimen . 62 SIMILARITY OF BRONZE IMPLEMENTS Copper. Bronze. Haches, marteaux primitifs et pics de mineurs 74 Haches ornementées Epées, poignards, têtes de lances 3 1 . 60 203 129 589 It will be observed, however, that the types made in copper are the simplest, and this is perhaps due to the fact that it is much more difficult to cast with copper than with bronze. In the absence of tin, therefore, they would be compelled to content themselves with the simpler forms, and hence per haps the difference of type. In Spain also copper was no doubt extensively used. Mr. Siret * states that in 2000 objects of the Bronze Age from the south-east of Spain, two -thirds, in round numbers, were of copper, and only one-third of bronze . Moreover, the hatchets, halberds, knives and arrow -heads were always in copper. Of the poniards the majority were of copper, but nearly half were bronze ; of the ornaments half were of copper, half of bronze ; while the swords, which indeed were not numerous, were all of bronze. The form of these copper implements, however, indicates that they belong to the Bronze Age. Taking these facts into consideration, Europe certainly does not appear to present any strong evidence of an age of copper, while no one has ever pretended to find either there, or any where else in Europe, a trace of any separate use of tin , t and on the whole the evidence seems to me to indicate that the art of making bronze was introduced into, not invented in, Europe. Another circumstance which strongly militates against the theory of a gradual and independent development of metal

• Les Premiers Ages du Métal poses of ornamentation , but that of

dans le Sud- Est de l'Espagne, 1888, course does not affect the present + It was sometimes used for pur- argument. IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 63 lurgical knowledge in different countries, is the fact which has been broadly stated by Mr. Wright, that whenever we find the bronze swords or celts, “ whether in Ireland, in the far west, in Scotland, in distant Scandinavia, in Germany, or still farther east in the Sclavonic countries, they are the same, not similar in character, but identical. ” The great resemblance to each other of stone implements found in different parts of the world may be satisfactorily accounted for by the similarity of the material, and the simplicity of the forms. But this argument cannot be applied to the bronze arms and implements. Not only are several varieties of celts found throughout Europe, but some of the swords, knives, daggers, etc., are so similar that they seem as if they must have been cast by the same maker. Compare, for instance, figs. 4, 6, and 13, which represent Irish celts, with 14, 15, and 16, which are copied from Danish specimens ; the three swords, figs. 22, 23, and 24, which come respec tively from Ireland, Sweden, and Switzerland, and the two, figs. 25 and 26, of which the first is Swiss, the second Scandinavian. It would have been easy to multiply ex amples of this similarity, and it is not going too far to say that these resemblances cannot be the result of accident. On the other hand, it must be admitted that each country has certain minor peculiarities. Neither the forms nor the ornaments are exactly similar. In Denmark and Mecklen burgh, spiral ornaments are most common ; farther south, these are replaced by ring ornaments and lines. The Danish swords generally have solid and richly - decorated handles, as in figs. 25—31, while those found in Great Britain ( fig. 22) terminate in a plate which was riveted to pieces of wood or bone. Again , the British lance -heads frequently have loops at the side of the shaft- hole, as in fig. 35 , which is never the case with Danish specimens. The impurities in the bronze indicate, as was shown in the 64 THE BRONZE AGE AND THE PHOENICIANS. 1 last chapter, that the copper ore was not all derived from one locality ; and lastly, the discovery of moulds in Ireland, Scotland, England, Switzerland, Denmark, and elsewhere, proves that the art of casting in bronze was known and prac tised in many countries. Under these circumstances, it appears most probable that the knowledge of metal is one of those great discoveries which Europe owes to the East, and that the use of copper was not introduced into our Continent until it had been observed that by the addition of a small quantity of tin it was rendered harder and more valuable. I have already, in the first chapter, given the reasons which have convinced me that the bronze weapons are not of Roman origin. M. Wiberg * has recently attempted to show that bronze was introduced into the North by Etrurian merchants ; but we have not, I think, any evidence that Etruria ever enjoyed so extensive a commerce as that indicated by the great number of bronze objects which have been found in northern and western Europe. We may, therefore, pass on to the views of those who attribute the Bronze Age civilization to the influence of Phænician commerce, a theory which has recently been main tained with great ability by Professor Nilsson.t Sir George Cornewall Lewis, on the other hand, while admitting that Cornwall was the great source of tin in ancient times, has endeavoured to prove that this metal found its way “ to the nations in the east of the Mediterranean by the overland route across Gaul, and that the Phænician ships brought it from the mouth of the Rhone, without sailing as far as Britain ." He regards, therefore, the accounts of ancient voyages as

• Arch. f . Anthrop. 1870, p. 10. the Right Hon. Sir George Corne + Skandinaviska Nordens Ur-in- wall Lewis, 1862.

vanare. Af. S. Nilsson, Stockholm , § Celts, spears, and other objects 1862. of bronze have been not unfre I An Historical Survey of the quently met with in old Cornish Astronomy of the Ancients. By minings. ANCIENT VOYAGES. HIMILCO . 65 being in many cases either mythical, or at least exaggerated, but he does not make sufficient allowance for the fact that our knowledge of them is often derived from unfriendly critics or political allusions ; nor need we go further than Sir Cornewall Lewis's own work to show how authors may suffer by this mode of treatment. * Take, for instance, the case of Himilco, who was sent during the prosperous times of Carthage to examine the north -western coasts of Europe. His writings have unfortunately perished, and our knowledge of them derived from the “ Ora maritima," a geographical poem by Avienus, is thus summed up by Sir Cornewall Lewis : “ The report of Himilco, that the voyage from Gades to the Tin Islands ( i.e. to Cornwall) occupied at least four months ; and that navigation in these remote waters was impeded by the motionless air, by the abundance of sea weed, and by the monsters of the deep -fables which the ancient mariners recounted of unexplored seas—would not be very attractive for the traders of the Carthaginian colonies . ” This argument is surely very weak, because, if Himilco really did make this voyage, then such voyages were possible ; and, on the other hand, if he did not do so, and if his statements were such mere fables, we may safely assume that the shrewd merchants of Carthage would detect the imposition, and would extract the truth, if not from Himilco himself , at any rate from some of those by whom he was accompanied. But let that pass : we will examine the four “ fables” specially referred to by Sir G. C. Lewis. It is unnecessary to say anything about the “ motionless air ; " it would be doing an injustice to Sir Cornewall Lewis to suppose that he regarded this as a serious objection. It may be an invention, but it is not an improbability. Neither is the time occupied by an exploring expedition any test of that

• In the long chapter which he logy and Hieroglyphics, the name

devoted to the Egyptian Chrono- of Dr. Young is not once mentioned . F 66 HIMILCO . which would be required for a commercial voyage. Nor can I lay any stress on the statement that Himilco's ves sels were “ impeded ” by the monsters of the deep. What Avienus really said was, as Sir Cornewall Lewis admits in another passage, that while becalmed and lying in a helpless state, the ships were “ surrounded by marine monsters. " * It might fairly be argued that whales were in all probability more numerous on our coasts in ancient times than they are now ; the great mammalia of the sea, as well as those of the land , have given way before the overwhelming power of man. But it is unnecessary to urge this hypothesis ; the great mon sters of the deep have in all ages appealed strongly to the imagination of mankind, and no poet would fail to allude to them in describing the dangers which beset those “ who go down to the sea in ships, and occupy their business in great waters. ” The third point alluded to by Sir Cornewall Lewis, so far from throwing any doubt on the veracity of Himilco, appears rather to be an argument in his favour. His ships, he says, or at least Avienus says for him, were “ surrounded by sea weed .” Where was he when this took place ? All that we can say in answer to this question is, that he sailed through the Pillars of Hercules into the Atlantic Ocean, and we know that a few days' sail in this direction would have brought him to the “ Mare di Sargasso,” a sea which has actually taken its name from the quantity of seaweed (Sargasso) growing in it. Sir C. Lewis says, “ The notion of remote seas being impassable by ships, either from their shoals, or from the obstacles to navigation produced by the semi- fluid and muddy properties of the water, frequently recurs among the ancients ;” and it is true, no doubt, that statements of this kind are made by many ancient writers, as, for instance, by Herodotus, Plato, Scylax, and even Aris

• See Appendix.

PYTHEAS . 67 totle ; but not one of these writers alludes to “ seaweed ” as an impediment to navigation, and it can hardly be accidental that the only voyager by whom this is referred to was one who sailed on a course which, if persevered in for a few days, would have brought him to that which is even now known as the Sea of Seaweed. * Pytheas is another ancient writer whose character has suffered very much in the hands of Sir C. Lewis, who, rely ing on the authority of Polybius and Strabo, does not hesi tate to stigmatize him as a mendacious impostor. Polybius doubts the journeys of Pytheas, because Pytheas was a poor man ; but the great travellers and explorers of the present day do not generally belong to our wealthy fami lies. Strabo seems to have been prejudiced against Pytheas, because he professed to have visited countries which ought, according to Strabo's theories, to have been uninhabitable. Moreover, we should remember that the first travellers in the North must have seen, and on their return would describe, many things which would appear impossible or incomprehen sible to dwellers on the sunny shores of the Mediterranean. Sir C. Lewis refers specially to four incredible assertions made by Pytheas. First, he is said to have related that " if any person placed iron in a rude state at the mouth of the volcano in the island of Lipari, together with some money, he found on the morrow a sword or any other article which he wanted, in its place.” This, however, merely shows that the myth of Valand, Wieland, Weland, or in our popular dialect, Wayland Smith, was current in the Lipari islands at the time of Pytheas.t This myth, more over, is but a very slightly modified account of what actually

• May not the belief in the causes which are usually assigned

“ Atlantis " be as probably owing for it ? to the " gulf-weed,” which would + On this interesting subject, see so naturally suggest the idea of Wright. Archæol. vol. xxxii. p. 315 . sunken land, as to any of the other F 2 68 PYTHEAS. has taken place more than once when an ignorant people, living by the side of a more civilized race, and attributing their superiority to magical arts, has been anxious to benefit by their necromancy, and yet afraid to come in contact with the magicians themselves. Thus “ the Veddahs of Ceylon, when they wanted arrows, used to bring some flesh in the night, and hang it up in a smith's shop, also a leaf cut in the form they will have their arrows made, and hang by it ; which if the smith do make according to their pattern, they will acquite and bring him more flesh. ” * If our knowledge of this peculiar mode of barter had been derived from the Veddahs, it would undoubtedly have taken the form of the old European myth. The metallurgists of old, to preserve their monopoly, evidently had a great interest in keeping up this superstition. Sir Cornewall Lewis, in the second place, accuses Pytheas of having described the sea round the Lipari islands as being in a boiling state. But we do not know what his exact words were, and cannot fairly judge him, for it makes a great difference whether he was repeating a statement made to him, or making one on his own authority. Moreover, we must remember that there have been submarine eruptions in the Mediterranean, and that the Lipari islands lie between Mount Etna and Vesuvius, in the very centre of an active p. 593.

• Knox's Historical Relation of

the Island Ceylon. London, 1861 . Quoted in the Ethnological Society's Trans. vol . ii. p. 285, N.S. See also Sir J. E. Tennent's Ceylon, vol. i . The Belgian form of the myth as related by Schmerling ( Ossements fossiles, vol . i. p. 43) still more closely resembles the account given by Knox. Speaking of the caves near Liege, he says : “ Ces ouvertures sont connues des habitans de l'endroit sous le nom de Trous des Sottais. Ils préten dent que jadis ces grottes servaient d'habitation à une espèce humaine d'une très petite taille, Sottais, nains, pygmées, qui y vivaient de leur industrie, et restauraient tout ce qu'on déposait près des ouver tures, à condition que l'on y ajoutât des vivres. En très peu de temps ces effets étaient réparés, et remis à la même place.” PYTHEAS. 69 volcanic area. These two mountains, which for the last two thousand years have been more or less frequently in eruption , seem to have enjoyed a long period of rest, during which the Lipari islands served as a vent. It seems to me, therefore, highly probable that this statement made by Pytheas was a perfectly truthful record of an actual occurrence. The third difficulty is the assertion that round the island of Thule Pytheas saw a substance which was neither earth , air, nor water, but a substance resembling medusæ or jelly ishes (πνεύμονι θαλασσίω έoικός) , which could neither be passed on foot nor in ships. This passage, which has completely puzzled southern commentators, is justly regarded by Professor Nilsson as a striking evidence of Pytheas's veracity. For when the Northern Ocean freezes , this does not happen as in our ponds or lakes, but small, separate plates of ice are formed, and as soon as this process commences, the fisher men hurry to the shore, lest they should be caught in the ice, which for some time is too thick to permit the passage of a boat, yet too weak to support the weight of a man. A very similar description is given by Captain Lyon. came, ” he says, “ amongst young ice, in that state called sludge, which resembles in appearance and consistency a far better thing - lemon ice. From this we came to small round plates, of about a foot in diameter, which have the appear ance of the scales of gigantic fishes. " * Richardson also particularly mentions the “ circular plates of ice, six or eight inches in diameter.” + These discs of ice tossed about by the waves suggested to Professor Nilsson himself, when he first saw them , the idea of a crowd of medusæ, and if we imagine a southerner who had never before witnessed such a phenomenon, and who on his return home wished to describe it to his fellow - countrymen, it would have been difficult to find an apter or more ingenious simile. It is, moreover, one

• Lyon's Journal, p. 84. + Arctic Expedition , vol. ii . p. 97.

“ We 70 PYTHEAS. which would hardly have occurred to any one who had not witnessed the actual phenomenon. “ Fourthly,” says Sir C. Lewis, “ Pytheas affirmed that in returning from his great northern voyage, in which he first obtained accounts of the remote island of Thule, he had sailed along the entire coast of the ocean between Gadeira and the Tanais; that is from Cadiz, round Spain, Gaul, Germany, and Scythia, to the river Don, which was considered by the ancients as the boundary of Europe and Asia. This state ment furnishes an additional proof of the mendacity of Pytheas, because it is founded on the belief, received in his time, that Europe did not project far to the North, and that the Ocean swept along its shores to the north of Scythia and India . ” Pytheas, however, did not, in reality, lay himself open to any such accusation ; the passage on which Sir C. Lewis relies only affirms that after his return from the north ( επανελθών ενθένδε) he travelled along the whole coast of Europe from Cadiz to the Don. This, which evidently refers to a second journey, is a very different statement, and one which I see no reason to doubt. According to Geminus, Pytheas in his northern journey reached a place where the nights were only two or three hours long, and he adds that the Barbarians took him to see the place where the sun slept. These two statements seem to point to Dönnäs as the northernmost point of his voyage. Here the shortest night is two hours long, but behind the town is a mountain, the top of which is the southernmost point from which the midnight sun can be The inhabitants took Professor Nilsson here in the year 1816, to show him the place where the sun rested, just as their predecessors may have conducted Pytheas to the same spot, for the same purpose, more than 2000 years before. On this subject I will only add that Pytheas was no mere wanderer, but a distinguished astronomer, who with seen. PHENICIAN COLONIES AND COMMERCE, 71 the help of the gnomon only, estimated the latitude of Mar seilles at 43° 17'8", a calculation which differs merely by a few seconds from the result given by modern astronomers namely, 43° 17' 52" . I have dwelt at some length on this part of my subject, for while we are all anxious to pay due honour to our modern travellers, to Livingstone and Galton, to Speke and Grant, we ought not to forget those who led the way. The memory of great men is a precious legacy, which we cannot afford lightly to surrender, and not the least valuable part of Professor Nilsson's work on the Bronze Age is the chapter in which he has rescued the memory of Pytheas from the cloud by which it has been so long and so unjustly obscured. But even if Sir Cornewall Lewis could have established his case, and destroyed our faith in these particular expeditions, still there remain overwhelming proofs of an important and extended commerce in even more ancient times than those of Pytheas or Himilco. The evidence of this has been well put together by Dr. Smith, * of Camborne, to whose work I would refer those who may wish for more detailed informa tion ; for the present I must content myself with referring to a few well -known facts, which, however, will be sufficient for my present purpose. We know, then , that Marseilles was founded by the Pho cean Greeks, B.C. 600 ; Carthage is supposed to have been built by the Phænicians about 800 B.C.; and Utica, according to Strabo and Pliny, about 300 years earlier still ; while, according to Velleius Paterculus and Pomponius Mela, the city of Gades (Cadiz) was founded by the Tyrians not long after the fall of Troy. Before such facts as these the sup posed improbability of Pytheas's voyage to Norway falls to the ground. The distance between Cadiz and Phænicia is more than 2000 miles, and it is greater than that between

• The Cassiterides, by George Smith, LL.D.

72 PHENICIAN COLONIES AND COMMERCE. Cadiz and Norway. Even, therefore, if Pytheas effected all that has been claimed for him , he will not have made a longer voyage than hundreds of his countrymen had done a thousand years before. The above- given dates must not, of course, be considered as exact, but there is no reason to doubt their general accu racy. Not only do the writings of Hesiod and Homer, which are probably not of a later date than 800 B.C., and most likely somewhat earlier, but even more conclusively the Biblical narrative, and the Assyrian and Egyptian evidence, * show that the nations on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean were at a very early period highly civilized , and had a con siderable commerce. Indeed, brass, i.e. bronze, is mentioned in the fourth chapter of Genesis, which would be, according to the chronology of the established version, 3875 B.C.; but there is so much doubt about these dates that I do not feel disposed to rely on this isolated passage. The high civilization of Egypt in the time of Joseph is apparent to every reader of the book of Exodus ; but it appears to be still uncertain at what period the Egyptians first became acquainted with bronze. When Solomon prepared to build the temple in Jerusalem , he sent to the king of Tyre for cedar - trees out of Lebanon ; “ for thou knowest,” he said, “ that there is not among us any that can skill to hew timber like unto the Sidonians ” ( 1 Kings v. 6) ; and again we read (1.c. vii. 13, 14 ) that “ King Solomon sent and fetched Hiram out of Tyre. He was a widow's son of the tribe of Naphtali, and his father was a man of Tyre, a worker in brass : and he was filled with wisdom , and understanding, and cunning to work all works in brass." It is admitted that the word which here, and in so many other passages, is translated " brass, ” should rather be “ bronze.” This latter, which was the common metal of antiquity, is never mentioned in our version, while on the

• See ante, p. 6.

COPPER . 73 other hand, the alloy which we now term brass, and which is composed of copper and zinc, was not known in ancient times. Now this bronze, which from the wholly independent state ments of Homer and in the Book of Kings, as well as from Assyrian and Egyptian records, we find to have been abun dant in the East at any rate three thousand years ago, was composed of copper and tin , in the proportions of about nine parts of the former to one of the latter ; and the question therefore arises, whence were these metals obtained ? Copper is found in so many countries that we cannot, as yet, form any definite opinion as to the source, or sources, from which it was first derived. Nevertheless, we have some reason to hope and expect that we shall eventually be able to do so, because the slight impurities by which it is accompanied afford a clue to the country from which it was obtained. As regards tin, the case is very different ; although ores of this metal are found in other countries, as for instance in France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Saxony, and in Siberia, still almost all the tin now used is derived either from Cornwall or from the island of Banca, which lies between Sumatra and Borneo. In ancient times a certain amount of tin was no doubt obtained in Spain ,* but, as Dr. Smith observes, t " the most remarkable feature in tin mining seems to be the enduring character of the mines. Wherever tin has been produced in any considerable quan tities, within the range of authentic history, there it is still abundantly found. In Banca, we are told, the supply is inexhaustible ; and Cornwall can now supply as large a quantity annually as it ever could. ” The result of inquiries made of the Government Engineers, at the College of Mines in Madrid, is as follows : " I cannot learn that Spain ever

• See Howorth , Trans. Ethn. Soc.

1867, p. 80 . See also Appendix. + The Cassiterides, p. 45. 74 SUPPOSED TRACES OF PHENICIAN COMMERCE. produced any quantity of this metal. The Government do not work any mines of tin. The quantity being produced at present is very small, chiefly by streamers ; or rather labourers, while out of their regular employment, search some of the rivers near the granite hills in Galicia and in Zamora. I cannot learn that there is any tin mining in the country.” Unless, then, the ancients had some source of tin with which we are unacquainted, it seems to be well established, and is indeed admitted even by Sir Cornewall Lewis, that the Phænician tin was mainly derived from Cornwall, and, consequently, that even at this early period a considerable commerce had been organized, and very distant countries brought into connection with one another. Sir C. Lewis, however, considers that the tin was “ carried across Gaul to Massilia, and imported thence into Greece and Italy." Doubt less much of it did in late times come by this route, but the Phoenicians were in the plenitude of their power 1200 years B.C. , while Massilia was not built until 600 B.C. Moreover, Strabo expressly says that in early times the Phænicians carried on the tin trade from Cadiz, which we must remember was nearer to Cornwall than to Tyre or Sidon. We are , therefore, surely quite justified in concluding that between B.C. 1500 and B.C. 1200 the Phænicians were already acquainted with the mineral fields of Spain and Britain ; and under these circumstances it is , I think, more than probable that they pushed their explorations still farther, in search of other shores as rich in mineral wealth as ours. Indeed, we must remember that amber, so much valued in ancient times, could not have been obtained from any nearer source than the coast of the German Ocean. Professor Nilsson has attempted, as already mentioned , to show that the Phænicians had settlements far up on the northern shores of Norway. His arguments may be reduced to seven, namely, the small size of the sword- handles, brace TRACES OF BAAL WORSHIP IN NORTHERN EUROPE. 75 lets, etc.; the character of the ornaments on the bronze imple ments; the engravings in Bronze Age tumuli; the worship of Baal; certain peculiar methods of reaping and fishing ; and the use of war - chariots. The implements and ornaments of bronze certainly appear to have belonged to a race with smaller hands than those of the present European nations ; the ornaments on them are also peculiar, and have, in Professor Nilsson's opinion, a symbolic meaning. Although the great stones in tumuli attributed to the Bronze Age are very seldom ornamented, or even hewn into shape, still there are some few exceptions ; one of these being the remarkable monument near Kivik in Christianstad. From the general character of the engravings, Professor Nilsson has no hesitation in referring this tumulus to the Bronze Age, and on two of the stones are representa tions of human figures, which may fairly be said to have a Phænician , or Egyptian appearance. On another of the stones an obelisk is represented, which Professor Nilsson regards as symbolical of the Sun- God ; and it is certainly remarkable that, in an ancient ruin in Malta,* characterized by other decorations of the Bronze Age types, a somewhat similar obelisk was discovered ; we know also that in many countries Baal , the God of the Phænicians, was worshipped under the form of a conical stone. Nor is this, by any means, the only case in which Professor Nilsson finds traces of Baal worship in Scandinavia. Indeed , the festival of Baal, or Balder, was, he tells us, celebrated on Midsummer's night in Scania, and far up into Norway, almost to the Loffoden Islands, until within the last fifty years. A wood fire was made upon a hill or mountain , and the people of the neighbourhood gathered together in order,

• For an account of the ruins of Hagiar Kem, see Furse, Trans. Int.

Congress of Pre -hist. Archæol. 1868, p. 407, or Dr. Adams's Archæol. and Nat. Hist. of the Nile Valley, and the Maltese Islands. 76 OBJECTIONS TO THE PHENICIAN THEORY. like Baal's prophets of old, to dance round it, shouting and singing. This Midsummer's-night fire has even retained in some parts the ancient name of “ Baldersbal,” or Balders fire. Leopold von Buch long ago suggested that this custom could not have originated in a country where at Midsummer the sun is never lost sight of, and where, consequently, the smoke only, not the fire, is visible. A similar custom also prevailed until lately in some parts of our islands. Baal has given his name to many Scandinavian localities, as, for in stance, the Baltic, the Great and Little Belt, Belteberga, Baleshaugen , Balestranden, etc. The ornamentation characteristic of the Bronze Age is, in the opinion of Professor Nilsson, decidedly Semitic rather than Indo - European. He lays considerable stress on two curious vase -carriages, one found in Sweden and the other in Mecklenburg, which certainly appear to have been very like the “ vases ” made for Solomon's temple, and described in the first Book of Kings. Finally, he believes that the use of war chariots, the practice of reaping close to the ear, and a certain method of fishing, are all evidences of Phænician intercourse. Professor Nilsson is so great an authority as an archæo logist, and his labours have contributed so much to place the science on a sound basis, that his opinions are deserving of the most careful consideration. Nor can they fairly be judged by the very short abstract which has been given above, as many of his arguments must be followed in detail before they can be properly appreciated. That the Phænicians have left their traces in Norway is, however, in my opinion , all that can fairly be deduced from the facts on which he relies, even if we attribute to them all the significance claimed for them by him . Further evidence is required before it would be safe to connect them with the Bronze Age. As regards the smallness of the hands, we must remember that OBJECTIONS TO THE PHENICIAN THEORY. 77 Hindoos share this peculiarity with Egyptians ; this character is therefore not less reconcilable with an Indo-European than with a Phænician origin of the Bronze Age civilization. There are three strong objections to the theory so ably advocated by Professor Nilsson. The first is the character of the ornamentation on the bronze weapons and implements. This almost always consists of geometrical figures, and we rarely, if ever, find upon them representations of animals or plants ; while on the ornamented shields, etc. , described by Homer, as well as in the decoration of Solomon's temple, animals and plants were abundantly represented . Secondly, the burial customs of the Phænicians differed altogether from those of the Bronze Age, and although it may be said that those who attribute the presence of bronze in Northern and Western Europe to Phænician commerce, do not necessarily, on that account, assume that the population of those countries became Phænician, still in this case the hypothesis explains the presence of bronze, but not the Bronze Age, of which the use of bronze, though the most striking, is by no means the only characteristic. Thirdly, the Phoenicians, so far as we know them, were well acquainted with the use of iron ; in Homer we find the warriors already armed with iron weapons, and the tools used in preparing the materials for Solomon's temple were of this metal. It is very remarkable that scarcely any traces of ancient commerce have been found in Cornwall, and it is much to be regretted that our museums possess so few specimens of Phænician art. When these wants shall have been supplied, as we may hope that ere long they will be, there is no doubt that much light will be thrown on the subject. Owing to the habit of burning the dead which prevailed at that period, we have, as yet, very few skulls which can safely be referred to the Bronze Age. This is to be regretted, as the form of the skull would have been very instructive. 78 OBJECTIONS TO THE PHONICIAN THEORY. On the whole, then, though there is, I think, ample evi dence to prove that the general use of bronze weapons and implements characterizes a well- marked epoch in history, it must also be admitted that we have still very much to learn in regard to this interesting phase in the development of European civilization, and the race by whom the knowledge of metals was introduced into our Continent. ( 79 ) CHAPTER IV. THE USE OF STONE IN ANCIENT TIMES. Thepreceding chapters have beendevotedtotheAgeof Bronze. We must now pass on to still earlier times and ruder races of men ; to a period which, for obvious reasons, is called by archæologists the Stone Age. * The Stone Age, however, falls naturally, as has been already stated, into two great divisions. First. That of the Drift, which I have proposed to call the Palæolithic or Archæolithic period. Secondly. The later Stone Age, for which I have sug gested the term Neolithic, and in which the stone implements are more skilfully made, more varied in form , and often polished. We will now consider this later period, reserving the earlier for a subsequent chapter. The immense number of stone implements which occur, in all parts of the world, is sufficient evidence of the important part they played in ancient times. M. Herbst has favoured me with the following list of the numbers contained in the Copenhagen Museum : Flint axes and wedges 1070 Broad chisels 285 Hollow ditto 270 Narrow chisels 365 Hollow ditto . 33 Poniards 250 Lance - heads . 656 . .

• For further information on the

subject of this chapter, I may refer to Mr. Evans's excellent work on “ Ancient Stone Implements.” 80 THE GREAT ABUNDANCE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. Arrow -heads . Half-moon shaped implements Pierced axes and axe-hammers Flint flakes Sundries 171 205 746 300 489 4840 Rough stone implements from the Kjök kenmöddings . Bone implements Ditto from Kjökkenmöddings . 3678 171 109 8798 These figures refer to the year 1864, and if duplicates and broken specimens were counted, M. Herbst thinks that the number would have been between 11,000 and 12,000. He has also had the kindness to estimate for me the numbers in private and provincial museums, and, on the whole, he believes we shall be within the mark if we consider that the Danish museums contain 30,000 stone implements, to which, more over, must be added the rich stores then at Flensborg and Kiel, as well as the very numerous specimens with which the liberality of Danish archæologists has enriched other countries, for there is scarcely any important collection in Europe which does not possess some illustrations of the Danish stone imple ments. The museum of the Royal Irish Academy includes nearly 700 flint flakes, 512 celts, more than 400 arrow - heads, and 50 spear-heads, besides 75 " scrapers, and numerous other objects of stone, such as slingstones, hammers, whetstones, querns, grain -crushers, etc. Again, the museum at Stockholm is estimated to contain between 15,000 and 16,000 specimens. In addition to those cases in which large numbers of stone implements have been found on spots which were evidently 70 8 9 2 3 5 7 11 72 1 STONE IMPLEMENTS USED AFTER DISCOVERY OF METAL 81 the sites of dwellings or villages, there are many instances in which considerable numbers have been met with under cir cumstances which show that they were purposely deposited, either hidden away for future use, or perhaps, as Worsaae has maintained, * as offerings to the gods. Thus at Frederickville in Illinois, 3500 disks of flint were found at a depth of about five feet ranged carefully side by side ; in Ross County, Ohio, 4000 disks and pointed instruments of stone were found near some ancient mounds known as Clark's Work. We have indeed in our very language evidence of the exist ence of a stone age, for our word “ chisel ” is merely the German kiesel, flint, and carries us back to the time when the chisel was not steel, but merely a sharp stone. Yet the very existence of a Stone Age is, or has lately been, denied by some eminent archæologists. Thus Mr. Wright, the learned Secretary of the Ethnological Society, while admitting that “ there may have been a period when society was in so barbarous a state that sticks or stones were the only implements with which men knew how to furnish themselves," doubts “ if the antiquary has yet found any evidence of such a period. ” And though the above figures are sufficient to prove that stone was at one time used for many implements which we now make of metal, this is not in itself a conclusive answer to Mr. Wright, nor in fact would it be denied by that gentleman. Moreover, there is no doubt that in early ages stone and metal were used at the same time, the former by the poor, the latter by the rich. If we consider the difficulties of mining in early days, the rude implements with which men had then to work, their ignorance of the many ingenious methods by which the opera tions of modern miners are so much facilitated, and, finally, the difficulties of carriage either by land or water, it is easy to see that bronze implements must always have been very expensive.

• Met. p. Serv . 1882, p. 131.

G 82 MATERIALS PREFERRED FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS. In addition, moreover, to the à priori probability, there is plenty of direct evidence that bronze and stone were in use at the same time. Thus Mr. Bateman records thirty -seven instances of tumuli which contained objects of bronze, and in no less than twenty -nine of these stone implements also were found. At the time of the discovery of America, the Mexicans, though well acquainted with the use of bronze, still used flakes of obsidian for knives and razors, and even after the introduction of iron, stone was still used for various purposes. Still, however, there appears to be enough evidence to justify us in believing, not only that there was a period “ when society was in so barbarous a state that sticks or stones ” (to which we must add horns and bones) “ were the only implements with which men knew how to furnish themselves," but also that the antiquary has found clear “ evidence of such a period .” Our knowledge of this ancient period is derived principally from four sources, to the consideration of which I propose to devote four separate chapters : namely, the Tumuli, or ancient burial-mounds ; the Lake habitations of Switzerland ; the Kjökkenmöddings, or shell -mounds, of Denmark ; and the Bone- caves. There are, indeed, many other remains of great interest, such, for example, as the ancient fortifications, the “ castles” and “ camps ” which crown so many of our hill - tops ; and the great lines of embankment, such as Offa's - dyke and the Wans-dyke, which cross so many of our uplands ; there are the so - called Druidical circles and the vestiges of ancient habitations ; the " Hut- circles, " " Cloghauns," " Weems,” “ Pen pits,” “ Picts' houses,” etc. The majority of these belong, how ever, in all probability to a later period ; and at any rate, in the present state of our knowledge, we cannot say which, or how many, are referable to the Stone Age. As regards material, every kind of stone, hard and tough enough for the purpose, was used during the Stone Age in JADE. 83 the manufacture of implements. The magnificent collection of celts at Dublin has been specially studied, from a mineralogical point of view, by the Rev. S. Haughton, and the results are thus recorded by Wilde : * “ Of the better qualities of rock suited for celt-making, the type of the felspathic extreme of the series of trap rocks is the pure felstone, or petrosilex, . . . . of a pale blueish or greyish green , except where the surface has been acted upon , and the average composition of which is 25 parts quartz and 75 felspar. Its physical characters are absence of toughness , and the existence of a splintery conchoidal fracture almost as sharp as that of flint. . . . . At the hornblendic extreme of the trap rocks we find the basalt, of which also celts were made ; tough and heavy, the siliceous varieties having a splintery fracture, but never affording so cutting an edge as the former. .... Intermediate in character between these two rocks, we find all the varieties of felstone, slate, and porphyry streaked with hornblende, from which the great majority of the fore going implements have been made. ” It is very remarkable how carefully the best kinds of stone were selected, even when very rare. Of this the most interest ing example is afforded by the axes, etc., of Jade or Nephrite, of Jadeite and of Saussurite. These minerals are very distinct chemically, but so similar in appearance that they can only be distinguished by analysis. Objects made from them, though far from common, are not very rare. M. Fischer gives the following table : France. Germany. Switzerland. Jade or Nephrite 0 3 1118 Jadeite . 77 46 138 Chloromelanite 53 17 66 . . . Till 1884, no European locality of Jade or Nephrite was known,

• Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy, p. 72.

84 FLINT. but Traube has announced that it has been found in Silesia. Even if this is confirmed , however, it is the only European locality known, so that their implements must have travelled great distances from hand to hand. This applies even more to those of Jadeite, that metal not having been found native in any part of Europe ; * they must therefore have passed from tribe to tribe by a sort of barter. Again, beads of Callais, a mineral not known to occur in Europe, have been found in the tumuli of Brittany and some other parts of France. Other facts of a similar nature are on record. Thus Messrs. Squier and Davis tell us that in the tumuli of the Mississippi valley we find “ side by side, in the same mounds, native copper from Lake Superior, mica from the Alleghanies, shells from the Gulf, and obsidian ( perhaps porphyry) from Mexico.” Fair representations of the sea- cow or manatee are found a thousand miles from the shores inhabited by that animal, and shells of the large tropical Pyrula perversa are met with in the tumuli round the great lakes, two thousand miles from home. On the whole, however, flint was the stone most frequently used in Europe : and it has had a much more important influence on our civilization than is generally supposed. Savages value it on account of its hardness and mode of fracture, which is such that, with practice, a good sound block can be chipped into almost any form that may be required. In many cases, blocks and pebbles of flint, picked up on the surface of the ground, were used in the manufacture of implements; but in others much labour was spent in obtain ing flint of good quality. A good illustration of this is afforded by the so - called Grimes' Graves, near Brandon ,

• See Appendix.

ANCIENT WORKINGS FOR FLINT. 85 one of which has recently, by the kind permission of Mr. Angerstein, been explored by Mr. Greenwell;* who has shown them to be excavations made in the chalk for the purpose of obtaining flint. They are depressions, 254 in number, vary ing in diameter from 20 to 60 feet, placed irregularly, gene rally about 25 feet apart, and occupying rather more than 20 acres. Although they are now comparatively shallow, Mr. Greenwell has proved that the pits originally went down to a depth of 39 feet, when they branch out into passages, often communicating with one another. On the east side is a mound, apparently consisting of chalk taken from the first pit ; after which it would seem that when a new pit was dug, most of the material was thrown down the old shafts, which were thus filled in, to within a few feet of the surface. As usual in the Upper Chalk , the flint is disposed in layers, which differ in quality, while maintaining the same character over considerable areas. It may be remarked that, as Mr. Flower has well pointed out, † Brandon, “ though situated in a bleak and barren district, has evidently been a place of considerable resort from a very remote period — a circum stance which can only be attributed to the abundance and good quality of the flint found there. " Palæolithic imple ments abound in the drift gravels ; the surface is strewn with flint flakes and fragments of flint implements ; and at the present time is the only place in England where gun-flints are still made. For this purpose, one particular layer of flint is found to be peculiarly well adapted, on account of its hardness and fineness of grain ; while another layer, less suitable for gun - flints, is known as “ wall-stone," being much used for building purposes. Now it is interesting to find that, even in very early times, the merits of the gun - flint layer were well known and appreciated ; for although there is abundance of flint on the surface, the ancient flint-men

• Trans. Ethn. Soc. 1870, p. 419. + Ibid . p . 437.

86 ANCIENT WORKINGS FOR FLINT. sank their shafts down past the layer of “ wall-stone,” which occurs at a depth of 191 feet, to the gun- flint layer, which at the spot in question is 39 feet deep, although about a mile to the S.W., where it is now worked, it is much nearer the surface. At present the workmen excavate the chalk both above and below the layer of flint ; but in the old galleries, perhaps from the greater difficulty of raising the material, the chalk below the flint bed was in no case removed. The implements used in making these excavations were deer's horns; the brow tine being used as a pick, and the others removed. Thus treated, a deer's horn closely resembles in form a modern pick, but of course it is subject to rapid wear by use, which accounts for the large numbers of worn - out implements found by Mr. Greenwell among the rubbish . In one case the roof of a passage had given way. On removing the chalk which had fallen in, the end of the gallery came in view. The flint had been hollowed out in three places, and in front of two of these recesses, pointing towards the half- excavated stone, were two deer - horn picks, lying just as they had been left, still coated with chalk dust, on which was in one place plainly visible the print of the workman's hand. The tools had evidently been left at the close of a day's work ; during the night the gallery had fallen in, and they had never been recovered. “ It was a most impressive sight, ” says Mr. Greenwell, “ and one never to be forgotten , to look, after a lapse, it may be, of 3000 years, upon a piece of work unfinished, with the tools of the workmen still lying where they had been placed so many centuries ago." Similar shafts and chambers have been excavated and described by Col. Lane Fox, * now General Pitt Rivers, in and round Cissbury Camp, near Worthing. In these excavations

• Journ. Anthr. Inst. vol. viii. p. 357.

GRIMES' GRAVES. — PRESSIGNY. 87 the horns of deer were the principal tools used, but“ the wedge and punch, driven into cracks in the chalk with the thick end of the horn," seem to have been more employed than the pick. These excavations were, some of them at least, certainly ante rior to the Camp. Deer-horn picks have been found in other localities, where chalk has been worked for flint, and also in the Cornish Tin Stream Works.* Near Spiennes also, in Belgium, there are extensive workings, consisting of a system of shafts and galleries, very like those of Grimes' Graves. These have been described by MM. Malaise, Briart, Cornet, and Houzeau de Lehaie . + Many tools of deer's horns have been obtained, but they are of a very different character, having been apparently used as hammers, the horn being cut off just above the brow tine, which served as a handle. In addition to the deer - horn picks, a few adze - shaped tools of flint have been discovered in Grimes' Graves, and a basalt hatchet, in form resembling that represented in fig. 97, but with an oblique cutting edge, the marks of which were distinctly seen upon the sides of the gallery ; showing that it had been used in excavating the chalk. As already mentioned, it was very desirable, in the manu facture of flint implements, to have the flint of a good quality, free from cracks and flaws, and easily accessible. Hence, places which fulfilled these conditions were specially frequented in ancient times, and whole districts were sup plied from these favoured localities. One of the most re markable of these manufactories is that discovered by Dr. Leveillé at Pressigny - le -Grand, in France, about half -way between Tours and Poitiers. Here there is an abundance of good flint of a honey colour, and of even, though coarse, texture. This flint was largely used in ancient times : the

• See, for instance, Rep. of the + Mem. de la Soc. des Sciences,

Roy. Inst. of Cornwall, 1871, p. xxii. des Arts, & c ., du Hainaut, 1866-7. 88 THE FRACTURE OF FLINT. fields are covered with nuclei, flakes, etc.; and implements made here, and easily recognizable by the peculiar colour, have been found in various parts of France, and even, it would seem, in Belgium . I have in my collection a block of Pressigny flint, from which a flake more than twelve inches in length has been struck. The large nuclei of this form, which from their shape are known as “ livres de beurre, ” have excited a good deal of discussion. They are generally from eight to thirteen inches in length, shaped more or less like a boat, with a broad butt at one end, tapering gradually to the other. The form has been attained by a succession of lateral chips, at right angles to the longer axis, while generally one or more longitudinal flakes have also been removed. Many of the flint flakes were certainly never intended to serve as knives, but were worked up into saws, awls, or arrow heads. Savages use flint or chert in this manner, even at the present day ; and the Mexicans, in the time of Cortez, used precisely similar fragments of obsidian. The operations of modern gun - flint makers give us a very clear insight into the mode of manufacture of ancient flint implements, and the process is one of considerable interest. If we take a rounded hammer, and with it strike on a flat surface of flint, a conoidal fracture is produced, the size of which depends, in a great measure, on the form of the hammer. The surface of fracture is propagated downwards through the flint, in a diverging direction, and thus embraces a cone, the apex of which is at the point struck by the ham mer, and which can afterwards be chipped out of the mass. Flint cones, formed in this way, may sometimes be found among heaps of stones broken up to mend the roads, and have doubtless often been mistaken for casts of fossil shells. If a blow is given, not on a flat surface, but at the angle of a more or less square flint, the fracture is at first semi conoidal or nearly so, but after expanding for a short distance, FLINT FLAKES . 89 FIG. 82. FIG . 83 . FIG . 84 . it becomes flat, and may be propagated through a length of as much as thirteen inches, thus forming a blade- like flake ( figs. 82—89), with a triangular cross section (fig. 90) . The consequence is, that a perfect flint flake will always have a small bulb, or projection (fig. 83 a ), at the butt end, on the flat side ; this has been called the FIG . 81. Flint core or nucleus. Flint Flakes.-Denmark. bulb, or cone, of percussion. After the four original angles of a square block have been thus flaked off, the eight new angles may be treated in a similar manner, and so on. Fig. 81, and pl. 1 , fig. 6, represent blocks, or cores, from which flakes have been struck off. A flake itself is represented in pl. 1, fig. 7, and a very long one from Fannerup in Jutland 90 FLINT FLAKES. FIG. 85 . Arrow -shaped Flint Flake.- Ireland . is figured, one -half of the natural size, in figs. 82, 84. The bulb is shown in figs. 83 a and 84, and the flake has been FIG. 86 . FIG. 87. FIG . 88 . FIG. 89 . Flint Flakes.-Denmark . worked into a point at the end. The largest flake I am acquainted with is described by M. de Caneto, in the Revue de Gascoyne, for 1865. It was found in the commune of Pauilhaic, and is 13 } inches in length. Fig. 85 is an arrow shaped flake, chipped away at the base, apparently to adapt it to a handle or shaft. DIFFICULTY OF MAKING FLINT FLAKES. 91 Figs. 86–89 represent small Danish flakes : forms exactly similar may be found in any country where the ancient in habitants could obtain flint or obsidian. In fig. 86 we see that another flake had been previously taken from the same block. Figs. 86, 88, represent flakes of which the points have been broken off, but we see along their whole length the depression caused by the previous removal of other flakes. The section of such a flake is, therefore, not triangular, as in fig. 90 a, but four- sided, as in fig. 90 6. Sometimes, though not often , a wide flake is taken off in such a way as to over lap two previous flakes, as in the case of the one represented in fig. 89. In this instance, the section is pentagonal; the flat under -surface remaining always the same, but the upper side showing four facets. Easy as it may seem to make such flakes as these, a little practice will convince any one who attempts to do so, that a certain knack is required ; and a gun - flint maker at Brandon told me that it took him two years to acquire the art. It is also necessary to be careful in selecting the flint. It is therefore evident that these flakes, simple as they may appear, are always the work of man. To make one, the flint must be held firmly, and then a considerable force must be applied , either by pressure or 8 by blows, repeated three or four times, but at least three, and given in certain slightly different directions, with a certain definite force ; conditions which could scarcely occur by acci dent ; so that, simple as it may seem to the untrained eye, a flint flake is to the antiquary as sure a trace of man, as the footprint in the sand was to Robinson Crusoe. It is hardly necessary to say, that the flakes have a sharp FIG . 90 . Sections of Flakes . 92 MODERN FLAKES. cutting edge on each side, and might therefore be at once used as knives, as in fig. 91, which represents a North American two - bladed knife : they are indeed so named by FIG . 91. North American Knife. FIG . 92 ( ( WW Australians making Flakes. some archæologists ; but it seems to me more convenient to call them simply flakes, and to confine the name of knife to implements more especially intended and adapted for cutting purposes. Fig. 92, from a drawing by Mr. Baines, * represents an Australian making rude flakes. Fig. 93 represents an

• See Geol. and Nat. Hist. Repertory, No. 13, May, 1866.

MANUFACTURE OF FLAKES IN MEXICO. 93 Australian flake, and fig. 94, one from the Cape of Good Hope. Figs. 95, 96, represent a New Caledonian javelin, with an obsidian flake (fig. 96) for a head. FIG . 93. FIG. 94 . Section Section Australian Flake. Flake from the Cape of Good Hope. Some of the old Spanish writers in Mexico give us a description of the manner in which the Aztecs obtained their obsidian flakes. Torquemada,* who is confirmed by Her nandez, tells us —I quote from Mr. Taylor's Anahuac “ they had, and still have, workmen who make knives of

• Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana. Seville, 1615.

94 MANUFACTURE OF FLAKES FIG. 95. FIG . 96 . B a certain block stone or flint (obsidian) , in this manner : one of these Indian workmen sits down upon the ground, and takes a piece of this black stone, which is like jet, and as hard as flint. . . . The piece they take is about eight inches long, or rather more, and as thick as one's leg, or rather less, and cylindrical; they have a stick as large as the shaft of a lance, and three cubits or rather more in length, and at the end of it they fasten firmly another piece of wood, eight inches long, to give more weight to this part ; then pressing their naked feet together, they hold the stone as with a pair of pincers, or the vice of a carpenter's bench. They take the stick (which is cut off smooth at the end) with both hands, and set it well home against the edge of the front of the stone, which also is cut smooth in that part ; and then they press it against their breast, and with the force of the pressure there flies off a knife, with its point and edge on one side, as neatly as if one were to make them of a turnip with a sharp knife, or of iron in the fire. ” Thus it appears that the obsidian flakes were made, not by blows, but by strong pressure ; and the same is the case with the chert implements of the Esquimaux, according to the description given by Sir E. Belcher. * “ Selecting,” he says, “ a log of wood in which a spoon-shaped cavity was Section ,

• Trans. of the Ethnological Soc. , New Series, vol. i. p . 138 .

New Caledonian Javelin . AMONG THE ESQUIMAUX. 95 cut, they placed the splinter to be worked over it, and by pressing gently along the margin vertically, first on one side, then the other, as one would set a saw, they splintered off alternate fragments, until the object, thus properly outlined, presented the spear or arrow - head form , with two cutting serrated sides .” A very similar account is also given by Lieutenant Beckwith of the method used by the North Ameri can Indians ; * among whom certain men devoted themselves specially to the manufacture of arrow- heads.t Next to flint flakes, the axes, wedges, or celts, are, perhaps, of most importance. The largest and finest specimens are found in Denmark ; one in my possession, of beautiful white flint, is 13in. long, 1 } in. thick, and 3 } in. in breadth. The Seeland axes have very often, indeed generally, perpendicular sides ; in Jutland a large proportion have sloping sides ; this is also usually the case in other parts of North- western Europe. In Switzerland, however, the axes, which are much smaller than those from Denmark, have perpendicular sides ( fig. 164 ). The common Danish axe or wedge is figured in pl. 1 , fig. 1. Figs. 97 and 98 represent forms which, though rare in Seeland, are common in other parts of Europe. Those found in Denmark are sometimes polished , but almost, if not quite as often, left rough. On the contrary, in other parts of North - western Europe, the axes are usually ground to a more or less smooth surface. That some were held in the hand is evident, but that others were fixed in wooden handles is equally clear, in many specimens, from the presence of peculiar polished spaces, which have been produced by the friction of the wood. In almost all cases, the wooden handle has long perished, but there are one or two instances on record in which it has been preserved. Fig. 99 represents

• Report of the Explorations and Surveys of the Pacific Railroad ,

1855, vol. ii. p. 43. + Bancroft. Native Races of the Pacific States, vol. i. p. 342. 96 STONE AXES. FIG. 97 . a stone hatchet, found, some years ago, in the county of Monaghan ; the handle was of pine, and was 134 in. long. A somewhat similar specimen, found in Solway Moor, is pre served in the British Museum . Fig. 100 represents another stone axe in its handle ; this specimen was found at Concise, on the Lake of Neufchatel, and closely resembles the modern African axe ( fig. 20). In the latter case, however, the blade is of iron. It will be observed that the Swiss specimen differs from the other two in FIG. 99 . FIG . 98 . Stone Axes.- Ireland . Stone Celt in handle. having an intermediate piece of horn . These horn sockets are very numerous in some of the Swiss lake villages. To us, accustomed as we are to the use of metals, it seems difficult to believe that such things were ever made use of ; we know, however, that many savages of the present day have no better tools. Yet, with axes such as these, and generally with the assistance of fire, they will cut down large trees, and hollow them out into canoes. The piles used in THE USE OF STONE AXES. 97 the Swiss Stone Age lake habitations were evidently, from the marks of the cuts on them , prepared with the help of stone axes ; and in the Danish peat bogs, several trees have been found with the marks of stone axes, and of fire, upon them, and in one or two cases, stone celts have even been found lying at the side. In the excavations known as Grimes' Graves again, as already mentioned ( ante, p. 82), a basalt hatchet was found, which had evidently been used for exca vating the gallery, as shown by the marks still distinctly visible on the walls. FIG . 100. Swiss Stone Axe. One use of the North American tomahawk was to crush bones for the sake of the marrow ; * and it is most probable that the ancient stone axes also served the same purpose. In many cases the axes themselves bear unmistakable marks of long continued use. For instance, the specimen represented in figs. 101 , 102, has no doubt once been much longer, and had surfaces consisting of one continuous sweep, as in pl. 1 , fig. 1. The edge, however, having been destroyed by use, it was again chipped sharp and re - polished, the new surface meeting the old one at a . A second time the edge became destroyed, and the owner, as may be seen in fig. 102, has commenced the formation of a new one. That they were also weapons of war is probable, not only on à priori grounds, but also because they have frequently

• James' Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, vol. i. p. 193.

H 98 THE USE OF ANCIENT STONE AXES. been found in the graves of chiefs, associated with bronze daggers. About the year 1809, a large cairn in Kircud brightshire, popularly supposed to be the tomb of a King Aldus M'Galdus, was reinoved by a farmer. “ When the cairn had been removed, the workmen came to a stone coffin of very rude workmanship, and on removing the lid, they FIG . 101 . FIG. 102 . WW Danish Axe . found the skeleton of a man of uncommon size. The bones were in such a state of decomposition that the ribs and vertebræ crumbled into dust on attempting to lift them. The remaining bones, being less decayed, were taken out, when it was discovered that one of the arms had been almost separated from the shoulder by the stroke of a stone axe, and that a fragment of the axe still remained in the bone. The axe was of greenstone, a material which does not occur in this part of Scotland. There were also found with this skeleton a ball of flint, about three inches in diameter, PIERCED HATCHETS . 99 which was perfectly round and highly polished, and the head of an arrow , also flint, but not a particle of any metallic substance ." * We know also the North American stone axe or tomahawk served not merely as an implement, but also as a weapon, being used both in the hand and also as a missile. + Another class of stone hatchets are those which are pierced for the handle, as in pl. 1, fig. 2. From the nature of flint these were scarcely ever made of that material. There are, however, in Copenhagen, two such hatchets, in which advan tage has been ingeniously taken of a natural hole in the flint. In many kinds of hard stone, however, it is quite possible to drill a hole by means of a cylinder of bone or horn, with a little sand and water ; yet it is very doubtful whether this class of implements truly belong to the Stone Age. The pierced axes are generally found in graves of the Bronze period, and it is most probable that this mode of attaching the handle was used very rarely, if at all , until the discovery of metal had rendered the process far more easy than could have been the case previously. The so -called " scrapers ” ( figs. 103, 104) , are oblong stones rounded at one end, which is brought to a bevelled edge by a series of small blows. One side is flat, the other, or outer , one is more or less convex ; sometimes they have a short handle, which gives them very much the appearance of a spoon. They have been found in England, France, Den mark, Ireland, Switzerland, and other countries. They vary from one to four inches in length, and from half an inch to two inches in breadth. An Esquimaux scraper used in pre paring skins is represented in figs. 105-107. These modern specimens are of exactly the same form as the old ones.

• New Statist. Acc. Kircudbrightshire, vol. iv. p. 332. Quoted by Wilson, Pre -his. Ann. of Scotland , 2nd edit. vol. i . p. 187.

+ Colden's History of the Five Nations, vol. i. p. 10. H2 100 SCRAPERS. It is curious, that while these spoon-shaped scrapers are so common in Europe, they are very rare, if indeed they occur at all , in North America south of the Esquimaux region. FIG. 103 FIG. 104 . Scraper To the small, triangular " axes ” ( figs. 108–110) , which are very characteristic of the Kjökkenmöddings, as well as of the Coast - finds, I have applied the name by which they are usually known, but without wishing to prejudge the question as to their purpose. They are flat on one side, and more or less convex on the other ; rudely triangular or quadrangular in shape, with the cutting edge at the broader end ; and from 2 } in . to 5ļin. in length , with a breadth of 1 } in to 2 } in. They are never ground, and the cutting edge, though not SHELL - MOUND AXES. 101 sharp, is very strong, as it is formed by a plane, meeting the flat side at a very obtuse angle. Professor Steenstrup doubts whether these curious and peculiar implements were ever intended for axes, and regards them as having been, in all probability, mere weights for fishing - lines, in support of which view he figures some not, perhaps, very dissimilar stone objects, used for that purpose by the Esquimaux. The so FIG . 105. FIG. 106 . FIG. 107 . Esquimaux Scraper. called edge, in his opinion, neither has nor could have been used for cutting, but is merely the result of that form which was found by the fishermen to be most convenient. He also calls attention to the polished facets on their sur faces, which he regards as affording strong support to his opinion. It must be at once admitted that there are many of these " axes” which could never have been used for cutting, but these may be regarded as imperfect, and are certainly not to be taken as normal specimens. It is true that the two sur faces, constituting the edge, form a very obtuse angle with one another, but we must remember that if this detracts from the sharpness, it adds greatly to the strength. Moreover, the 102 CHISELS. angle is almost exactly the same as that which we find in the adze of the New Zealanders and other South Sea Islanders. Figs. 111-113 represent a recent adze, brought by the Rev. R. Taylor from New Zealand, and now in the British Museum, which very closely resembles the typical axes of the Kjökken FIG. 108 . FIG . 109. FIG. 110 . Danish Axe. möddings. The edge, indeed, is polished, but is after all not smoother than the natural fracture of the flint. The projection on the under side of the Danish specimen ( fig. 110) is acci dental, and due to some peculiarity in the fint. This face is usually as flat in the Danish specimens as in those from New Zealand. Very similar adzes also occur in the shell mounds of Japan. The chisels (pl. 1 , fig. 5) resemble the Danish axes in having perpendicular sides, but they are narrower, and are almost always ground to a smooth surface. Many of them are slightly hollowed on one side, as in fig . 114. SEMI-LUNAR IMPLEMENTS. 103 The flat, semi-circular flint instruments represented in pl. 1 , fig. 3, are common in Denmark, but very rarely, if ever, found in Great Britain, France, or Italy. The convex edge was evidently fastened into a handle of wood, the marks of which are still, in many cases, plainly visible. The other edge, which is either straight or concave, is generally provided with FIG. 111. FIG . 112. FIG . 113. New Zealand Adze. a number of teeth, giving it more or less resemblance to a saw . In some cases it is so much worn away by use, that the implement takes the form of a new moon or of a boomerang. The edge is in many cases quite polished, evidently by con tinuous friction against a soft substance. I say a soft sub stance, because the polished part overlaps on both sides, and passes in between the teeth of the saw, which would not have been otherwise the case. It is probable that the semi-lunar instruments were fixed in wooden handles, and then used in cleaning skins. Similarly-shaped instruments are even now 104 AWLS. SPEARS. DAGGERS. FIG. 114. பாப்பா used as knives by the Esquimaux women, under the name of Ooloos. It might be convenient to apply this term to the ancient Danish specimens. The so - called “ awls " are rude pieces of flint, or flakes worked up at one place by a number of small chips to a point (fig. 172) . Though not very sharp, they are pretty strong The spear -heads ( fig. 115) are very variable in size and form ; some of them are scarcely distinguishable from large arrow - heads ; others are much larger. Some are so rude that it is questionable whether they were finished, while others are marvellous specimens of ancient art. One in my possession is 12 in. in length, 1 } in. in breadth, and of wonderfully beautiful workmanship. It is one of six , found together inside a large tumulus in the island of Moen . The daggers (pl. 1 , fig. 4, and fig. 116) are often marvels of skill in flint chipping The form so closely re sembles that of metallic daggers, that some antiquaries are inclined to regard them as copies of bronze daggers, and therefore as not belonging to the Stone Age. The localities in which they have been found do not, however, offer any support to this hypothesis. Another form of flint weapon ( fig. 117) , which is common in Denmark, has a handle like that of the last form , but instead of a blade, it ends in a point, and suggests the idea that if the tip of the dagger had been accidentally broken off, or the blade rendered narrow by wear and tear, the rest of the weapon might have been worked up into a Hollow Chisel. SLING-STONES. 105 poniard, and thus utilized. In both these classes the crimping along the edges of the handle is very curious. FIG . 116. FIG. 117. FIG 115 Dagger. Dagger. Dagger (broken at the point) . The sling -stones are of two kinds. The first are merely rough pieces of flint ( pl. 1 , fig. 12) , reduced by a few blows of a hammer to a convenient size and form . But for the situations in which they are found, these might almost be regarded as natural fragments. Professor Steenstrup is now 106 SLING-STONES. ARROW-HEADS. 1 1 FIG. 118 . disposed to think that many of them were used as sink stones for nets, but that some have really served as sling stones seems to be indicated by their presence in the Peat mosses, which it is difficult to account for in any other way. The other kind of sling-stones are round, flattish flint disks, some of which are beautifully made. The oval tool - stones ( fig. 118) , or “ Tilhuggersteens” of the northern antiquaries, are oval or egg - shaped stones, more or less indented on one or both surfaces. Their use is not at present thoroughly understood. Some antiquaries suppose that they were held between the finger and thumb, and used as hammers or chippers. If, however, a large series is obtained, it will be found that the depression varies greatly in depth, and that sometimes the stone is completely perforated, which favours the view of those who regard these implements as ring stones for nets, or small hammer -heads. It is very doubtful whether these implements really belong to the Stone Age. Other stones, in which the longer axis is encircled by a groove, appear to have been evidently intended as sink- stones for nets. The arrow -heads are divided by Sir W. R. Wilde into five varieties. Firstly, the triangular ( fig. 119) , which frequently had a notch on each side to receive the string which attached it to the shaft ; secondly, that which is hollowed out or indented at the base, as in fig. 120 ; thirdly, the stemmed arrow , which has a tang or projection for sinking into the shaft ; fourthly, when the wings are prolonged on each side, this passes into the barbed arrow ( fig. 121 ) ; finally, we have the leaf- shaped form , a beautiful example of which is repre sented in fig. 122. The true arrow-heads are generally about an inch in length, but they pass gradually into the javelin, and from that into the spear-head . The great similarity of Oval Tool-stone. ARROW - HEADS. 107 arrow -heads, even from the most distant localities, may be seen in figs. 123, 124, and 125, which represent specimens from France, North America, and Tierra del Fuego respectively. The different forms were perhaps in use in different tribes, but more probably they are due to the variety of purposes for which they were intended ; thus in North FIG . 122. America the war arrows taper to the end, so that when the shaft is drawn out, the head FIG . 119 . FIG. 120. FIG . 121. AG Arrow -heads.- Ireland . remains in the wound ; while hunting arrows are expanded at the end, so that the head is drawn out with the shaft. The Bygas, an aboriginal tribe of Central India, according to Forsyth, make the same distinction . * Among other tribes, the lance- shaped arrows are used in hunting, barbed arrow heads in war. The Negritos of the Philippine Islands have three kinds of arrows. One, with a separate head- piece, for wild boars, one for birds. The use of the third is not stated. Every man carries one of each kind. Another kind of arrow head resembled figs. 108–110, but in miniature. This form is not confined to Northern Europe, but occurs elsewhere, as for instance in Egypt, where one, still fixed to the shaft, has

• Highlands of Central India, p. 361 .

+ Murray. Travels in North America, vol. i. p. 385. I Schadenberg. Z. f. Ethn . 1880 . 108 SAWS. BONE IMPLEMENTS. AWLS . been discovered in a tomb. * The manufacture of these arrows required much time and skill: “ Under the most favourable circumstances,” Messrs. Blackmore and Dodge tell us, " the most skilful Indian workman cannot hope to complete more than a single arrow in a hard day's work. ” + FIG. 124. А FIG . 123. Fig . 125 . Tierra del Fuego. France. North America. FIG. 126 . There are various other kinds of flint implements, such as hammers, saws ( fig . 126), har poons, etc., but - omitting for the present the earlier, or drift types — the above are the prin cipal forms of stone weapons Stone Saw. and implements. FIG . 127. Bone Awl. -Scotland.

• Baye. Pointes de fleches en + Hunting Grounds of the Great Silex, p. 139, 1874. West. Dodge & Blackmore, p. 349.

1 HARPOONS. 109 FIG. 128 . Besides being employed for handling the stone axes, the bones and horns of animals were much used as the material of various simple implements, and those of the stag appear to have been preferred, as being the hardest. The commonest bone implement is the pin or awl ( fig. 127) ; not much less numerous are certain oblong chisel-like implements ( fig. 128), the use of which it is not easy to determine. Ribs split open, and pointed at one end, are sometimes found, and have been supposed by some archæologists to have served in preparing flax ; by others, to have been used in the manufacture of pottery. Arrow -heads, spear heads, chisels, and bone harpoons ( figs. 129, 130), also occur. Fig. 130 represents a bone harpoon belonging to the Reindeer period, which will be described in the chapter on Caves. Fig. 131 represents a North American Bone Implement. bone chisel used in dressing deer- skins for taking off the hair. Pierced teeth also were not unfrequently worn as amulets. Stone implements are frequently found on the surface of the ground, or are dug up in agricultural and other opera tions. But those found singly in this manner have compara tively little scientific value : it is specially when they occur in considerable numbers, and especially when associated with other remains, that they serve to throw much light on the manners and customs of ancient times. As already men tioned, the tumuli, the lake habitations, and the shell mounds are specially valuable in this respect, but I must also say a few words about the “ coast - finds ” of the Danish antiquaries. “ Coast- finds ” are discoveries of rude flint imple ments, which are found lying in large numbers on certain spots along the whole line of coast . Owing probably to the elevation of the land which has taken place in Jutland 110 FLINT- FINDS. FIG. 129 . FIG. 130 . North America . since the Stone Age, some of them are now a considerable distance from the present water - line. Some, on the other FIG . 131. hand, are at low levels ; one, for instance, close to the Railway station at Korsör, is exposed only at low tide, and others are always covered. The “ coast - finds," how ever, belong probably to different classes. Thus, one at Anholt was evidently a workshop of flint im plements, as is shown by the character of the chips, and by the Modern discovery of more than sixty flint Implement. cores. Those, on the contrary , which even at the present day are under water, were probably so in old times, and as there are no traces of lake habi tations in Denmark, it seems the most natural supposition that they were the places where the fishermen used to drag their nets. It is still usual to choose particular spots for this purpose, and it is evident that many of the rude objects used in fishing, especially of the stones employed as net-weights, would there be lost. The objects discovered are just what might have been expected under these circumstances. They consist of irregular flint chippings, net-weights or sling -stones, flakes, scrapers, awls, and axes. These six different classes of objects have been found in most, if not all , of the coast - finds, though in different proportions. To give an idea of the Denmark numbers in which they occur , I may mention that Ancient Bone Harpoon. France. Ancient Bone FLINT-FINDS. 111 Professor Steenstrup and I gathered in about an hour at Froëlund, near Korsör, 141 flakes, 84 weights, 5 axes, 1 scraper, and about 150 flint chips ; while at a similarspot, near Aarhuus in Jutland, I myself picked up, in two hours and a half, 76 weights, 40 flakes, 39 scrapers, 17 awls, and a considerable number of flint chips. In the sheltered and shallow fjords of Denmark the sea is generally calm, and, in many instances, a layer of sand has accumulated over and thus protected the flint fragments. This was the case with both the above-mentioned coast- finds, one of which was exposed in draining the land, the other in a railway cutting. Sometimes a change of currents will remove the light sand, and leave the heavier stones, which again in other cases have lain apparently undisturbed and exposed from the first ; and in such instances the spots are sometimes so thickly strewn with white flints that they may be distinguished by their colour, even at a considerable distance. Of course, in a sea like that which surrounds our coast, such remains would soon be reduced to mere gravel; besides which, we must remember that on our Southern and Eastern shores, even in historical times, the sea has encroached greatly. “ Flint-finds, ” however, resembling in many respects these Danish “ coast - finds, ” are not unknown in this country , or on the Continent. They appear to indicate the position of ancient villages; and in some cases, as, for instance, those of Grimes' Graves and Pressigny, are evidently places selected for the manufacture of stone implements on account of the good quality of the flint. Nor are these discoveries confined to Europe. Mr. Busk and Mr. Langham Dale have met with a very similar assem blage of flakes, etc., on the Cape Flats, at the Cape of Good Hope. * Throughout the whole of America, Australia, and Polynesia, indeed, stone implements were in use down to a

• Trans. Ethn. Soc. 1869, p. 51.

112 FLINT - FINDS. comparatively modern period, and in many parts are so still. In Asia and Africa, on the contrary, as in Europe, stone implements have, for the most part, been long abandoned. Still there also, as, for instance, in Algeria and at the Cape, in Palestine and Assyria, in India and Japan, stone implements have been discovered, showing that these countries also, like Europe, have, in all probability, passed through an age of Stone. ( 113 ) CHAPTER V. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS AND TUMULI. A LL over Europe, we might indeed say all over the world, wherever they have not been destroyed by the plough or the hammer, we find relics of pre -historic times-camps, fortifications, dykes, tumuli, menhirs or standing stones, Fig . 132. a faire Danish Tumulus. cromlechs or stone circles, dolmens * or stone chambers, etc., many of which astonish us by their magnitude, while all of

• In this country it has become the custom to reverse these two

names . Cromlech, however, is de rived from “ crom,” a circle, and “ lech , ” stone ; and dolmen from “ daul,” a table, and “ maen ,” a stone. They should therefore, I consider, be used as in the text. I may add that “ menhir, " a standing stone, is derived from “ maen , ” stone, and “ hir ," long. I 114 TUMULI. them excite our interest by the antiquity of their origin , and the mystery with which they are surrounded . * FIG . 133 . ICO Plan of the preceding. In our own island the smaller tumuli may be seen on almost every down ; in the Orkneys alone it is estimated that more than two thousand still remain ; in France there are 4000 dolmens, 1600 menhirs, and 450 stone circles ; in Den mark they are even more abundant; they are found all over

• Since the last edition of this

work, several important contribu tions have been made to our knowledge of ancient British burial customs. I may refer especially to Greenwell and Rolleston's “ British Barrows,” Jewitt's “ GraveMounds and their contents," Borlase's “Nenia Cornubiæ, ” and Warne’s « Celtic Tumuli of Dorset." Fer gusson’s “ Rude StoneMonuments," also, though written in support of a theory which is I think erroneous, contains a valuable summary of our knowledge of megalithic monu ments. TUMULI. 115 Europe, from the shores of the Atlantic to the Oural mountains; in Asia they are scattered over the great steppes, from the FIG . 134 . Sepulchral Stone Circle . borders of Russia to the Pacific Ocean, and from the plains of Siberia to those of Hindostan ; the entire plain of Jelalabad , FIG . 135 . Danish Dolmen . says Masson , “ is literally covered with tumuli and mounds." * In America we are told that they are to be numbered by thousands and tens of thousands; nor are they wanting in Africa, t where the Pyramids themselves exhibit the most

• Journeys in Baloochistan , Af- + See, for instance, Livingstone's

ghanistan, etc., vol. ii. p. 164. See Miss. Travels, pp. 219, 304. also p. 155 , and vol. ii. pp. 111-113. I 2 116 MENHIRS. magnificent development of the same idea ; indeed the whole world is studded with the burial- places of the dead . Many FIG 136 Sepulchral Stone Circle. of them, indeed , are small, but some are very large, such as, for instance, those of Odin, Thor, and Freya, at Upsala (see Frontispiece). Silbury Hill, the greatest in Europe, has a height of one hundred and thirty feet, and covers five and a half acres. FIG 137 Kit's Coty House. The standing stones, or “ menhirs," also were no doubt generally erected in memorial of some particular event, the majority being in fact the tombstones of Archaic times. STONE CIRCLES. 117 In addition to these memorials of the past, ancient camps and fortifications crown many of our hills. In some parts of Scotland the old hill fortresses present the remarkable peculiarity, first noticed by Mr. John Williams in 1777, of having been subjected to considerable heat. Until 1837 these vitrified forts were supposed to be peculiar to our island, but in that year Professor Zippe called atten tion to the existence of similar remains in Bohemia, and since that time vitrified forts have been discovered in various parts of France and Germany. * Lastly, the country is intersected by great dykes, or lines of embankment,—such, for instance, as the Wansdyke, the Devil's Dyke at Newmarket, and Offa's Dyke, which runs from the Bristol Channel to the Dee, thus roughly dividing England from Wales , —which were no doubt partly boundary lines and partly fortifications, like the Roman Wall or the still more remarkable Wall of China. Stone circles, or cromlechs, consist of rough upright stones, arranged in a circle. The usual diameter is about 100 feet, but some are much larger, the principal circle at Abury, for instance, being 1200 feet across. The stones are placed at equal distances, and the number of them had probably some significance. “ The two inner circles at Abury, the lesser circle at Stennis, and one at Stanton Drew, each consisted of twelve ; the outer circles at Abury, the outer circles of uprights and transoms at Stonehenge, the large circle at Stanton Drew, and the circle at Arbor Low , each of thirty ; those of Rollrich and Stennis, of sixty ; and the large enclosing circle of Abury, of one hundred stones. Four circles at Boscawen, and adjacent places in Cornwall, have

• References to the various me

moirs in which these are described are given by.Virchow, Zeit. f. Eth nologie, 1870, p. 258. See also papers by Mr. Stuart and Dr. Fodisch in the Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, vol. viii. 118 STONE CIRCLES. each been formed of nineteen stones." * Stonehenge is the most celebrated example of a stone circle, but it differs from the usual type in several respects ; for instance, in having the principal stones roughly hewn, and in the presence of capstones. Stone circles are by no means confined to Europe. The Todas of the Neilgherry Hills have stone circles within which burial ceremonies are performed , the ashes being placed under one of the stones. Throughout the Deccan are numerous stone circles sacred to Vetal, whose worship still holds its own against the Brahmanical innovations ;; while Sir Bartle Frere, in his Introductions to Miss Frere's charming “ Old Deccan Days," tells us that in that part of India outside almost every village there is a circle of large stones sacred to Vetal. Stanley saw, a few miles to the north of Tyre, a circle of rough upright stones ; Mr. Palmer, in his “ Desert of the Exodus, " mentions the existence of “ huge stone circles in the neighbourhood of Mount Sinai, some of them measuring 100 feet in diameter, having a cist in the centre covered with a heap of large boulders ;” and Kohen, a Jesuit missionary, has recently discovered in Arabia, near Khabb, in the district of Kasim , three large stone circles described as being extremely like Stonehenge, and consisting of very lofty trilithons.|| Barth also describes and figures similar trilithons as occurring in Tripoli. I In this case the pillars are 10 feet high, and stand on a raised foundation. Arctic travellers, also, mention stone circles and stone rows among the Esquimaux. These are, however, of a different character, being quite small, and merely the lower part of the habitations.

• Thurnam . Crania Britannica, $ 1. c . p . x.

Decade iv. || Bonstetten . Sur les Dolmens, + Breeks. Primitive Tribes of the Neilgherries , pp. 24, 72. | Travels in Central Africa, I Old Deccan Days, p. X. vol. i. pp. 58, 74. p. 27. MENTION OF STONE CIRCLES IN ANCIENT HISTORY. 119 Lafitau figures an Indian ( Virginian) temple consisting of a circle of upright stones, which, however, are carved at the top into rude representations of human faces. * Mr. Squier mentions stone circles as occurring in Peru.t As regards the period at, or purposes for, which the European stone circles were erected, history gives us no information. Mr. George Petrie, indeed, has called Dr. Wilson's attention to several cases in which the Orkney circles were mentioned in old deeds, etc. Thus, in 1349, William de Saint Michael was summoned to attend a court held " apud stantes lapides de Rane en le Garniach ,” to answer for his forcible detention of certain ecclesiastical property ; and in 1380, Alexander, Lord of Regality of Badenoch, and son of Robert II. , held a court, “ apud le standand stanys de la Rathe de Kyngucy Estir, ” to inquire into the titles by which the Bishop of Moray held certain of his lands. Even so late as the year 1438, we find a notice, that “ John off Erwyne and Will. Bernardson swor on the Hirdmane Stein before oure Lorde ye Erle off Orknay and the gentiless off the cuntre . ” This comparatively recent use of the stone circles does not, how ever, enable us to form any opinion as to the purpose for which they were originally intended. It is perhaps more to the purpose to observe that both in the Iliad (B. xviii. ) and Odyssey (B. viii. ) assemblies of elders are mentioned as sitting in solemn conclave on stone seats arranged in circles, but in the former case the seats are said to have been polished. Many, however, of the British stone circles were certainly sepulchral; and it seems probable that this was their original purpose ; but that, like other shrines, they were subsequently used as temples. As regards stone pillars and tumuli, we are told, in Gen. xxxi. , that “ Jacob took a stone and set it up for a pillar;"

• Mæurs des Sauv. Amer. vol. ii .

p. 135. I have given a copy in the Origin ofCivilization ,2nd ed . p . 179. + Amer. Nat. vol. iv. p. 12. I Pre - historic Annals of Scot land, 2nd edit . vol. i . p. 164. 120 MENTION OF STONE CIRCLES IN ANCIENT HISTORY. and in verse 51, “ Laban said to Jacob, Behold this heap, and behold this pillar, which I have cast between me and thee. This heap is a witness, and this pillar is a witness, that I will not pass over this heap to thee, and that thou shalt not pass over this pillar to me, to do me harm , " etc. At Mount Sinai , Moses erected twelve pillars. * And so, again , when the children of Israel had crossed over Jordan, Joshua took twelve stones and pitched them in Gilgal. “ And he spake unto the children of Israel, saying, When your children shall ask their fathers in time to come, saying, What mean these stones ? then ye shall let your children know, saying, Israel came over this Jordan on dry land .” + Achan and his whole family were stoned with stones and burned with fire, after which we are told that Israel “ raised over him a great heap of stones unto this day. So the Lord turned from the fierceness of his anger.” Again, the king of Ai was buried under a great heap of stones ; and so also was Absalom, of whom likewise we are told that he " reared up for himself a pillar, which is in the King's Dale ; for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance, and he called the pillar after his own name, and it is called unto this day Absalom's Place . ” In one of the ancient Babylonian records, Izdubar is re corded to have erected a memorial mound. I According to Diodorus, Semiramis, the widow of Ninus, buried her husband within the precincts of the palace, and raised over him a great mound of earth. Pausanias mentions that stones were collected together, and heaped up over the tomb of Laius, the father of Edipus. In the time of the Trojan war, Tydeus and Lycus are mentioned as having been buried under two earthen barrows. “ Hector's barrow was of stone and earth. Achilles erected a tumulus, upwards of an hundred feet in diameter, over the remains of his friend

• Ex. xxiv. 4. I Le Normant. Les Premières

+ Joshua iv. 21 , 22. Civilisations, vol. ii . p. 47. MENTION OF TUMULI IN ANCIENT HISTORY. 121 Patroclus. The mound supposed by Xenophon to contain the remains of Alyattes, father of Cresus, king of Lydia, was of stone and earth, and more than a quarter of a league in circumference. In later times, Alexander the Great caused a tumulus to be heaped over his friend Hephæstion, at the cost of 1200 talents, no mean sum even for a conqueror like Alexander, it being £232,500 sterling. " * Virgil tells us that Dercennus, king of Latium , was buried under an earthen mound; and, according to the earliest historians,whose state ments are confirmed by the researches of archæologists, mound burial was practised in ancient times by the Scythians, Greeks, Etruscans, Germans, and many other nations. By far the greater number of the tumuli in Western Europe are entirely pre-historic, but there are some few of which the date and origin are known to us, such as the tumuli of Queen Thyra and King Gorm, who died about 950, at Jellinge, in Denmark. There are, moreover, other cases in which tumuli are men tioned, though not in a manner which enables us to identify them with any of those now existing. Thus Gregory of Tourst has a quaint story to the effect that Macliav, flying from his brother Chanaon, took refuge with Chonomor, Count of the Bretons. Chanaon sent messengers to demand that Macliav should be given up to him, but Chonomor concealed him in a tomb, “ rearing over him a tumulus in the usual man ner, but leaving a small opening for the entrance of air ” (com ponens desuper ex more tumulum, parvumque ei spiraculum reservans, unde halitum resumere posset ). He then showed this tumulus to the messengers, and assured them that Macliav was buried in it. The Codex Diplomaticus contains references to more than sixty barrows or lows, bearing the names of particular persons ;

• Ten Years' Diggings in the Celtic and Saxon Grave- hills, p. v.

+ Historia Francorum , iv. 4. 122 ANTIQUITY OF MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. some of them , as, for instance, Wódne’s Beorgh, or Woden's Barrow , are probably mythical, but there seenis no reason to doubt that some — for instance, Alfrede's Beorh, Æthelwolde's Beorh, Cissan Beorh , Cwichelme's Hlow, Oswolde's Hlaw , etc. —retain the name of the person really buried within. * It appears that in England the habit of burying under tumuli was finally abandoned during the 10th century. The Danish Sagas also tell us that in the middle of the 8th century, Sigurd Ring, having conquered his uncle, King Harald Hildetand, in the battle of Braavalla, “ washed the corpse, placed it on Harald's war chariot, and buried it in a tumulus which he had formed for the purpose. Harald's horse also was slain and buried with him, with the saddle, so that Harald might either ride to Valhalla, or go in his chariot, as he preferred. Ring then gave a great feast, after which he recommended the chiefs present to throw their ornaments and arms into the tumulus in honour of Harald . Finally the tumulus was carefully closed .” + Most of these monuments, however, are doubtless far older. Some, indeed, were ancient and mysterious even in the days of Homer. Thus at the burial of Patroclus, when Nestor is pointing out to his son Antilochus the course for the chariot race, he says , “ Plain is the goal That now I tell thee of ; nor canst thou miss it :

• * *

On either side Where narrowest is the way, and all the course Around is smooth, rise two white stones, set there To mark the tomb of some one long since dead, Or form a goal for men in ages past.” I

• For an interesting memoir on Grammaticus. His. Dan . 1. x. ch .

notices of heathen interment in the xii. Codex Diplomaticus, see Kemble, I Iliad , xxiii. 384. I have quoted Arch. Jour, vol. xiv. p. 119. from Mr. Wright's translation , + Engelhardt . Guide Illustré du which , in this passage at least, is Musee des Antiquités du Nord à more faithful than any other with Copenhague, 1868. -See also Saxo which I am acquainted. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS NOT DRUIDICAL, 123 It is very striking to find these menhirs mentioned in our earliest writings, as monuments of events even then already lost in the obscurity of the past. Many of the very largest tumuli in Western Europe appear, from the nature of their contents, to have been constructed during the Stone Age. At first, indeed, it seems almost incredible that the immense tumuli of Brittany should have been erected by a people who possessed no metal. We must remember, however, that some of the South Sea monuments were quite as considerable. Moreover, though hundreds of beautiful stone axes and ornaments have been found in the tumuli of Brittany, no weapons of metal have yet occurred in them . It has been supposed that the carvings on some of the stones could not have been cut without metal. Actual experiments, however, as Messrs. Bertrand and de Mortillet have shown me, prove that the stone can be cut with flint, while bronze produces no effect on it. Sir James Y. Simpson also has shown that the engravings on the Scotch rocks, even those on granite, may have been carved with a flint tool. * In this country we still habitually call the megalithic monuments “ Druidical,” but it is hardly necessary to men tion that there is really no sufficient reason for connecting them with Druidical worship. The greatest of all so -called Druidical monuments is the temple of Abury, in Wiltshire. It is, indeed, much less known than Stonehenge ; and yet, though a ruder, it must have been originally even a grander temple. According to Aubrey, Abury “ did as much exceed Stonehenge as a cathedral does a parish church . ” When perfect, it consisted of a circular ditch and embankment, containing an area of 28 } acres ; inside the ditch was a circle of great stones, and within this, again , two smaller circles, formed by a double row of smaller stones, standing side by side. From the outer embankment started two long

• Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, vol. vi. 1867, p. 122 .

124 ABURY AND SILBURY HILL. به2 را 2 2 winding avenues of stones, one of which went in the direction of Beckhampton, and the other in that of Kennet, where it ended in another double circle. Stukely supposed that the idea of the whole was that of a snake transmitted through a circle ; the Kennet circle representing the head, the Beckhamp ton avenue the tail. Midway between the two avenues stood Silbury Hill, the largest artificial mound in Europe, measuring no less than 130 feet in height. At one time it was no doubt even higher. From its position it appears to form part of the general plan, and though it has been twice examined, no primary interment has been found in it. On the whole, this appears to have been the finest megalithic ruin in Europe ; but , unfortunately for us, the pretty little village of Abury, like some beautiful parasite, has grown up at the expense, and in the midst, of the ancient temple, and out of 650 great stones, not above 20 are still standing. Mr. Fergusson * has attempted to prove that both Stone henge and Abury belong to post -Roman times. “ The Roman road ,” he says, “ from Bath to Marlborough, either passes under Silbury Hill, or makes a sudden bend to get round it in a manner that no Roman road, in Britain at least, was ever known to do. .... From a careful examination of all the circumstances of the case, the conclusion seems inevitable that Silbury Hill stands on the Roman road, and consequently must have been erected subsequently to the time of the Romans leaving the country.”' Startled by this argument, and yet satisfied that there must be some error, I turned to the Ordnance map, and found, to my surprise, that the Roman road was distinctly laid down as passing, not under, but at the side of, Silbury Hill. Not content with this, I persuaded Professor Tyndall to visit the locality with me, and we convinced ourselves that upon this point the map was quite correct. The impres

• Rude Stone Monuments.

Hakpen Hill Abury « GA Trackwa British Cove Calne Kennet West Marlbró lo Beckhampton Jilbury Hill R.Keanet . Devizes to Rore Roman .B:KENNET W:KENNET . CO .BARKOW LONG .BARROW LONG Ground Plan ofAbury .From Dr. Thurnam's paper onaLong Barrow atWest Knnet (Archæologia ,vol .xxxviii p406 ) (Toface pge 124. )

STONEHENGE. 125 sion on our minds was that the Roman engineer, in con structing the road from Morgan's Hill, had taken Silbury Hill as a point to steer for, swerving only just before reaching it. Moreover, the map will show that not only this Roman road, but some others, in the same part of England, are less straight than is usually the case. In order to set the point at rest, I caused excavations to be made, under the auspices of the Wiltshire Archæo logical Society, at the side of Silbury Hill, and the ditches running along the Roman road were clearly traced. Mr. Fergusson himself admits, in the passage just cited, that the pieces of the road on the two sides of Silbury Hill are not in the same straight line, so that there must have been a bend somewhere. I quite agree, therefore, with old Stukely, that the Roman road curved abruptly southward to avoid Silbury Hill, and that “ this shows Silbury Hill was ancienter than the Roman road ." * How much more ancient it is impos sible to say.t As regards Stonehenge, we have, I think, satisfactory reasons for attributing it to the Bronze Age. The historical account, if I may use such an expression, of Stonehenge is, that it was erected by Aurelius Ambrosius in memory of the British chieftains, treacherously murdered by Hengist and the Saxons, about the year 460. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing at the close of the 12th century , says, “ that there was in Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of stones worthy of admiration, called the Giant's Dance, because giants, from the remotest part of Africa, brought them into Ireland ; and in the plains of Kildare, not far from the Castle of Naas, as well by force of art as strength, miracu

• Mr. Blandford, who superin- memoir in the same volume, by the tended the opening of the Hill in Rev. A. C. Smith .

1849, came also to the same con- + Stukely thinks it was founded clusion. Proc. Archæol. Inst. 1849, in 1859 B.C. , the year of the death See also the interesting of Sarah, Abraham's wife. p. 303. 126 MYTHICAL ACCOUNT OF STONEHENGE. lously set them up ; and similar stones, erected in a like manner, are to be seen there at this day. These stones (according to the British history ) Aurelius Ambrosius, king of the Britons, procured Merlin, by supernatural means, to bring from Ireland into Britain. And that he might leave some famous monument of so great a treason to future ages, in the same order and art as they stood formerly, set them up where the flower of the British nation fell by the cut throat practice of the Saxons, and where, under the pretence of peace, the ill - secured youth of the kinydom , by murderous designs, were slain . ” * This account is clearly mythical. The larger stones were evidently obtained in the neighbourhood, and are in fact Sarcens, ” identical with those which occur in hundreds on Salisbury Plain . Moreover, the very name of Stonehenge, like those of Stanton Drew, Stennis, etc., seems to me a very strong argument against those who attribute these monuments to so recent an origin. Stanton Drew , for instance, is “ The Stone Town of the Druids. ” How could it have been called so if it was erected in Saxon times ? Stonehenge is generally considered to mean the Hanging -stones, as indeed was long ago suggested by Wace, an Anglo -Norman poet, who says : Stanhengues ont nom en Englois Pieres pandues en Francois ; t but it is surely more natural to derive the last syllable from the Anglo - Saxon word " ing," a field ; as we have Keston, originally Kyst - stan - ing, the field of stone coffins. What more natural than that a new race, finding this magnificent ruin standing in solitary grandeur on Salisbury Plain, and able to learn nothing of its origin, should call it simply the place of stones ? What more unnatural than that they should do so, if they knew the name of him in whose honour it was

• Giraldus. Topogr. of Ireland .

+ Wright's Wanderings of an Antiquary, p. 301. ORIGIN OF THE NAME. 127 erected ? The plan also of Stonehenge seems to be a suffi cient reason for not referring it to post-Roman times. It has, indeed, been urged that if Stonehenge had existed in the time of Cæsar, we should find it mentioned by ancient writers. Hecatæus, however, does allude to a magnificent circular temple in the island of the Hyperboreans, over against Celtica, and many archæologists have confidently assumed that this refers to Stonehenge. But why should we expect to find it described , if it was, as we suppose, even at that time a ruin, more perfect, no doubt, than at this day, but still a ruin ? The Caledonian Wall was a most impor tant fortification constructed by the Romans themselves, and yet, as Dr. Wilson tells us, * only one of the Roman historians makes the least allusion to its erection, nor is Abury itself mentioned by any mediæval author. It is evident that Stonehenge was at one time a spot of great sanctity. A glance at the Ordnance map will show that tumuli cluster in great numbers round and within sight of it ; within a radius of three miles, there are about three hundred burial mounds, while the rest of the country is com paratively free from them . If, then, we could determine the date of these tumuli, we should be justified, I think, in refer ring the Great Temple itself to the same period. Now, of these barrows, Sir Richard Colt Hoare examined a great number, 151 of which had not been previously opened. Of these the great majority contained interments by cremation, in the manner usual during the Bronze Age. Only two con tained any iron weapons, and these were both secondary interments ; that is to say, the owners of the iron weapons were not the original occupiers of the tumuli. Of the other burial mounds, no less than 39 contained objects of bronze, and one of them, in which were found a spear-head and pin of bronze, was still more connected with the temple by the

• Pre-historic Ann. of Scot. vol. ii. p. 39.

128 STONEHENGE A MONUMENT OF THE BRONZE AGE. presence of fragments, not only of Sarcen stones, but also of the blue stones which form the inner circle at Stonehenge ; and which do not naturally occur in Wiltshire. Stonehenge then may, I think, be regarded as a monument of the Bronze Age, though apparently it was not all erected at one time, the inner circle of small, unwrought, blue stones being probably older than the rest ; * as regards Abury, since the stones are all in their natural condition, while those of Stonehenge are roughly hewn, it seems reasonable to conclude that Abury is the older of the two, and belongs either to the close of the Stone Age, or to the commencement of that of Bronze. Both Abury and Stonehenge were, I believe, used as tem ples. Some of the stone circles, however, have been proved to be burial- places. In fact, a complete burial- place may be described as a dolmen, covered by a tumulus, and surrounded by a stone circle. Often, however, we have only the tumulus, sometimes only the dolmen, and sometimes again only the stone circle. The celebrated monument of Carnac (fig . 138) , in Brit tany, consists of eleven rows of unhewn stones, which differ greatly both in size and height, the largest being 22 feet above ground, while some are quite small. It appears that the avenues originally extended for several miles, but at present they are very imperfect, the stones having been The great * There are, in fact, four kinds of and Cumberland. Lastly, the so stones in Stonehenge. called altar stone is grey sandstone, outer circle and the trilithons are resembling some of the Devonian “ Sarcen ” stones, that is to say, and Cambrian rocks. Maskelyne, they are formed from the sandstone Wilts. Arch. Magazine, Oct. 1877. blocks of the neighbourhood. The It has been said that some Roman majority of the small pillars forming pottery was found under one of the the inner circle consist of an igneous trilithons at Stonehenge. Mr. Cun rock known as Diabase, but four nington, however, has pointed out stones of this series are schistoid , that there is no authority for this and resemble some of the Silurian statement. Wilts. Arch . Mag. Dec. and Cambrian rocks of North Wales 1883. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN INDIA. 129 cleared away in places for agricultural improvements. At present, therefore, there are several detached portions, which , however, have the same general direction, and appear to have been connected together. Fig. 138 is from a sketch made by Sir Joseph Hooker, when we visited Brittany together, in the spring of 1867. Most of the great tumuli in Brittany probably belong to the Stone Age, and I am therefore disposed to regard Carnac as having been erected during the same period. FIG . 138 . Carnac . Megalithic erections, resembling those which are generally, but without sufficient reason, ascribed to the Druids, are found in very distant countries. In Moab, De Saulcy ob served rude stone avenues, and other monuments, which he compares to Celtic dolmens. Lieut. Oliver, also, mentions that the Hovas of Madagascar to this day erect monoliths and stone tombs closely resembling those of Western Europe. * Mr. Mauricet was, I believe, the first to point out, that in some parts of India there are various monuments of stone, which, in the words of Colonel Yule, “ recall strongly those mysterious, solitary, or clustered monuments of un known origin, so long the puzzle and delight of antiquaries,

• Trans. Ethn. Soc. 1870, p. 67. + India Antiqua.

K 130 MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN INDIA. which abound in our native country, and are seen here and there in all parts of Europe and Western Asia. " . Mr. Fer gusson goes farther, and argues with great ingenuity that the “ Buddhist architecture in India, as practised from the third century B.C. to seventh A.D., is essentially tumular, circular, and external, thus possessing the three great cha racteristics of all the so-called Druidical remains. ” + These resemblances, indeed, are too great to be accidental, and the differences represent, not so much a difference in style, as in civilization. “ In the most celebrated example in India, that at Sanchee, the circle consists of roughly squared upright stone posts, joined at the top by an architrave of the same thickness as the posts, exactly as at Stonehenge ; the only difference being the insertion of three stone rails between each of the uprights, which is a masonic refinement hardly to be expected among the Celts. ” In India, then , the circles of stones seem generally to have surrounded tumuli; but this is not always the case, and there are some “ which apparently enclose nothing. ” Again, they are generally covered with sculpture ; but to this also there are exceptions, as, for instance, at Amravati, where there are numberless little circles of rude unhewn stone, identical with those in this country, but smaller. In Europe we know that the stones of Megalithic monu ments are almost invariably uncarved. There is indeed a dolmen , near Confolens in Charente, in which the upper stone is supported, not on rude stone blocks, but on four slender columns. I agree, however, with M. p . 93.

• Jour. of the Asiat. Soc. of Ben

gal , vol. xiii . p. 617. See also Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, vol . i. Babington, Trans. Lit. Soc. Bombay, 1823. Congreve, Madras Jour. of Lit. and Science, 1847. Yule, Proc. Soc. Ant. Scotland, vol . i . p. 93. Wise, ditto, p. 154. Hooker's Hima layan Journals. Taylor, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad . vol. xxiv, etc. + l . c . p. 212. I Statistique Monumentale de la Charente. MODERN INDIAN DOLMENS. 131 Rochebrune, that the supports were probably carved at a period long subsequent to the erection of the monument. * At Stonehenge the stones are roughly hewn, but at this stage the Megalithic architecture in Western Europe seems to have been replaced by a totally different style. In Algeria, f on the contrary, it advanced further ; we there find tumuli of regular masonry and stone circles, in which the floors are paved. On the principal stones in one of the stone circles are letters, the meaning of which, however, is unknown. In India it reached a still higher stage of development, so that it requires an observant eye to detect in the rude cromlechs, stone circles, and tumuli, the prototypes of the highly deco rated architecture of the Buddhists. It is a very remarkable fact, that even to the present day, some of the hill tribes in India continue to erect menhirs, cromlechs, and other combinations of gigantic stones, some times singly, sometimes in rows, sometimes in circles, in either case very closely resembling those found in Western Europe. Among the Khasias, “ the funeral ceremonies are the only ones of any importance, and are often conducted with barbaric pomp and expense ; and rude stones of gigantic proportions are erected as monuments, singly or in rows, circles, or supporting one another like those of Stonehenge, which they rival in dimensions and appearance.” An interesting account is given by Dr. Inman, on the authority of Mr. Greey, of the mode in which these large blocks of stone are moved. Two long horizontal poles are placed under the stone pillar, and firmly lashed to it, one at each end . At intervals of about three feet other poles were then fastened to the two first, parallel to the stone pillar, so

• Mém . sur les Restes d'industrie Province de Constantine, 1863, P.

appartenant aux temps primordiaux 214. See also Letourneux, Ar. f. dans le Dép. de la Charente. 1866. Anthropolgie, 1868, p. 307. + Recueil des Notices et Mémoires I Dr. Hooker's Himalayan Jour. de la Société Archéologique de la vol. ii . p. 276. See also p. 320. K 2 132 MODERN INDIAN DOLMENS. that a large number of men could get a firm hand-hold. In this manner Mr. Greey saw a stone about 30 feet long, 10 feet broad, and weighing about 24 tons, easily moved by about 600 men. * The single pillars are sometimes tombstones, sometimes memorials of important events. Colonel Yule once asked a native if there were any tradition about one of these pillars, which is known as Mausmai, i.e. “ the stone of the oath ." “ There was war, ” said the man, “ between two villages, and when they made peace, and swore to it, they erected this stone for a witness.” + FIG. 139 . 90 WW Indian Dolmens. Sir Joseph Hooker| has called attention to the fact that the Khasian word for a stone, “ Mau,” as commonly occurs in the names of their villages and places, as that of Man, Maen and Men, does in those of Brittany, Wales, Cornwall, etc.; thus Mausmai signifies in Khasia the Stone of Oath, — Mamloo, the Stone of Salt, — Mouflong, the Grassy Stone, -

• Proceedings Lit. and Soc. of Liverpool, vol. xxx . p. 108.

† Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, vol. i. p. 93. I Address to the British Association, 1868, p. 7. MODERN INDIAN DOLMENS. 133 just as in Wales, Penmaenmawr signifies the Hill of the Big Stone; while a Menhir is a standing stone, and a Dolmen a table stone, etc. Those who believe that the use of metal was introduced into Europe by a race of Indo - European origin, will find in these facts an interesting confirmation of their opinion. How closely these Indian dolmens resemble those of Europe may be seen by comparing figs. 139 and 140 with 135 and 137. The Indian dolmens, as shown in the valuable memoirs by Captain Meadows Taylor * ( figs. 139, 140) , may truly be said FIG . 140 . WN Indian Dolmen . to be identical with those of Western Europe. He examined a very considerable number, having obtained particulars of no less than 2129 dolmens in the district of Bellary, in the Dekhan, and it is interesting that, as is sometimes the case in Europe, more than 1100 had an opening in one of the side stones, perhaps in order to introduce food, perhaps as an exit for the spirit of the dead. Montpérieux figures (pl. xxx. ) a dolmen with a similar hole, in his work on the Caucasus. Very similar dolmens appear to exist in the United States. They are described as “ constructed of four flat stones—two

• Trans. R. Irish Academy, vol . Leslie's valuable work, “ The Early xxiv. p. 329. See also Col. Forbes Races of Scotland."

134 MODES OF BURIAL IN TUMULI. set on edge forming the sides, a third closing one end, and a large flat stone placed horizontally on the top ; the other end being left open . ” * Schoolcraft also mentions that in the United States the Redskins very frequently left an opening in the grave cover for the same purpose. Archæologists are divided as to whether dolmens were in all cases originally covered over with earth. Mr. Fergusson denies this, while it has been ably maintained by Mr. Lukis. It must, I think, be admitted that some of the cases relied on by Mr. Fergusson must be abandoned ; nevertheless, I am disposed to believe that in some instances the dolmen was left uncovered. The majority of these dolmen were no doubt sepulchral. Some, however, were very probably shrines, erected in honour of a god, not of a man. Mr. Walhouse, in an interesting paper on non-sepulchral rude stone monuments, describes a dolmen consisting of back and side slabs set on edge, observed by him on the table - land of Mysore, and which was a temple to Hanumân, containing a rude image of the god, with a few flowers strewn before it. Subsequently he found there temple dolmens in common use by the Malayâlies, a Tamil race inhabiting the Shiarâi Hills. We must not, however, attribute too much importance to the similarity existing between the megalithic erections in various parts of the world . Give any child a box of bricks, and it will immediately build dolmens, cromlechs, and “ tri lithons," like those of Stonehenge, so that the construction of these remarkable monuments may be regarded as another illustration of the curious similarity existing between the child and the savage.

• Jones, Antiquities ofthe South ern Indians, p. 216. Bartram's

Travels, p. 370. + Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, pt. i. p. 33. I Jour. Anthr. Inst. Aug. 1877. MODES OF BURIAL IN TUMULI. 135 Tumuli or barrows are much more numerous and more widely distributed than stone circles. No doubt the great majority of them are burial mounds, but some also were erected as memorials, like the “ heap of witness ” erected by Laban and Jacob, or the mound heaped up by the Ten Thousand in their celebrated retreat, when they obtained their first view of the sea. The tumuli were generally constructed of materials found on the spot, the cists, however, and chambers, when present, being often built of slabs brought from a distance. Generally the earth, etc., is heaped up without any order, having been, at any rate in many cases, dug with deer's -horn picks, and carried to the mound perhaps in baskets. In other cases the materials are arranged in more or less regular layers. The size of the tumulus may be taken as a rough indication of the estimation in which the deceased was held , as James * also tells us was the case among the North American Indians. The Scotch Highlanderst have a complimentary proverb, Curri mi clach er du cuirn ,” i.e. “ I will add a stone to your cairn ;" and I am informed by Mr. R. Gray that the custom still exists in the Hebrides, as it does among various savage and semi-savage races. The remark made by Schoolcraft as regards the American Indians is applicable to many savage tribes. " Nothing that the dead possessed was deemed too valuable to be interred with the body. The most costly dress, arms, ornaments, and implements, are deposited in the grave ; " which is “ placed in the choicest scenic situations - on some crowning hill or gentle eminence in a secluded valley. " And the North American Indians are said, even until within the last few years, to have cherished a friendly feeling for the French , because, in the time of their supremacy, they had at least

• Expedition to the Rocky Moun- + Wilson , Pre-historic Annals of

tains, vol. ii. p . 2. Scotland, vol. i. p. 86, 2nd ed. << 136 CHAMBERED TUMULI. 1 this one great merit, that they never disturbed the resting places of the dead. Coffins do not appear to have been used during the Stone Age, though Mr. Greenwell has sometimes found traces of decayed wood, and in one case the side of a grave showed the impression of a rough board. Such burials, I believe, generally belong to the Bronze Age. A good example is that of Gristhorpe, near Scarborough, described by Prof. Williamson, which, among other relics, contained a small bronze dagger. The majority of tumuli are mere heaps of earth , or of stones, covering the bones or ashes of the dead ; in many cases, how ever, the mound contains a cist of stones, evidently intended to protect the remains of the deceased, while in other cases the dead man was buried in a dolmen, more or less resembling those represented in figs. 135—137, and the whole was then covered over. Such dolmens, either covered or uncovered, occur, as already mentioned, in Northern Africa and in India . Some archæologists have considered that all dolmens were originally covered with earth or stones, but I think the evidence shows that some at least were intentionally left exposed. Some of the oldest tumuli of Scandinavia are of a different character. They contain a passage, formed by great blocks of stone, almost always opening (as do those of Brittany ) towards the south or east-never to the north—and leading into a large central chamber, round which the dead sit. At Goldhavn, for instance, in the year 1830, a grave ( if so it can be called) of this kind was opened, and numerous skeletons were found, sitting on a low seat round the walls, each with his weapons and ornaments by his side. Now the dwellings used by Arctic nations -- the " winter-houses" of the Esquimaux and Greenlanders, the “ Yourts” of the Siberians — correspond closely with these “ Ganggraben ” or “ Passage graves.” The Siberian Yurt, for instance, as described by Erman, consists of a central chamber, sunk a little in the ground, and, in the 1 THE USE OF TUMULI AS DWELLINGS. 137 absence of great stones, formed of timber, while earth is heaped up on the roof and against the sides, reducing it to the form of a mound. The opening is on the south, and a small hole for a window is sometimes left on the east side. Instead of glass, a plate of ice is used ; it is at first a foot thick, and four or five generally last through the winter. The FIG. 141 . Summer and Winter Dwellings. — Kamskatka. fire -place is opposite the entrance ; and round the sides of the room, against the walls, " the floor is raised for a width of about six feet, and on this elevated part the inmates slept at night, and sat at work by day.” Captain Cook gives a very similar description of the winter habitations used by the Tschutski in the extreme north - east of Asia. They are, he says,* “ exactly like a vault, the floor of which is sunk a little below the surface of the earth. One of them, which I examined, was of an oval form , about twenty feet long and twelve or more high. The framing was composed of wood, and the ribs of whales, disposed in a judicious manner, and bound together with smaller materials

• Voyages to the Pacific Ocean , vol. ii. p. 450. See also vol . iii . p. 374.

138 YURTS AND GAMMES. warm. of the same sort. Over this framing is laid a covering of strong coarse grass, and that, again, is covered with earth ; so that, on the outside, the house looks like a little hillock supported by a wall of stone three or four feet high, which is built round the two sides and one end.” " The Aleutian Islanders, ” says Mr. Dall, “ especially in their winter villages, were used to construct large, half under ground habitations, often of extraordinary size. These were so arranged by internal partitions as to afford shelter to even as many as one hundred families. No fires were built in the central undivided portion, which was entered through a hole in the roof, provided with a notched log by way of ladder. In the small compartments each family had its own oil lamp, which, with the closely fitting door of skins, and the heat of numerous bodies in a very small space, sufficed to keep them We learn that the bodies, while being prepared for encasement, as above described, were sometimes kept in the compartment which they had occupied during life until ready for deposition elsewhere. We also know from early accounts, proved true by our own excavations, that the bodies of the dead, in the compressed position before mentioned, were some times placed in the compartment, laid on their sides, and covered with earth , with which the whole compartment was filled and then walled up. It is stated that others in the same yourt continued to occupy their several compartments after this as usual, a proceeding very different from that of the majority of the Innuit, who usually abandon at once a house in which a death has occurred ." * Fig. 141 * represents the plan of a Laplander's gamme, or hut, at Komagfiord, as given by Mr. Brooke. It was built of sods, supported by a rude framework, and the interstices

• Dall. TI slands. + Brooke's Travels in Lapland,

Smithonian Contributions. 1878. ian p . 318. HUT-BURIAL AMONG MODERN SAVAGES. 139 were stuffed with moss. The greatest height was 6 ft., the breadth 14ft ., the whole length 30ft. A is the door ; B, the passage, 3ft. high, 6 ft . broad, and 12ft. in length ; C is the inner door, opening into the gamme, D ; E, the fire- place, FIG. 141 . G G D G B A Laplander's Gamme, or Hut. composed of a few large stones to confine the wood - fire ; F , an opening in the roof to let out the smoke ; G G are sleep ing divisions, which serve also to support the roof ; H is a portion fenced off for the sheep and goats. A comparison of this hut with the corresponding plan of a tumulus ( fig. 143) will show how closely these dwellings appear to agree with the “ Ganggraben :” indeed, it is possible that in some cases ruined dwellings of this kind have been mistaken for sepulchral tumuli ; * for some mounds have been examined which contained broken implements, pottery, ashes, etc., but no human bones ; in short, numerous indications of life, but no trace of death. We know, also, that several savage tribes have a superstitious reluctance to use anything which has belonged to a dead person,perhaps from fear of irritating his

• The so - called “ Pond - barrows " perhaps belong to this class.

140 PICTS' HOUSES. ghost ; in some cases this applies to his house, which is either deserted or used as a grave. Thus, some of the North American tribes, for instance, the Cherokees and Chichasaws, buried the dead under the couch on which he died. * The Indians of the Amazons also bury their dead under their houses, which , however, are not therefore abandoned by the living. Among the New Zealanders, on the contrary, according to Mr. Taylor, “ when the owner died, and was buried in his house, it was left with all it contained ; the door was tied up and painted with ochre, to show it was made tapu, and then no one ever entered it again. ” + In many villages, he says, nearly half the houses belonged to the dead. The islanders of Torres Straits also used the ordinary huts as dead houses. Denham& also states that in the great central African king dom of Bornou “ every one is buried under the floor of his own house, without monument or memorial; and among the commonalty the house continues occupied as usual, but among the great there is more refinement, and it is ever afterwards abandoned." The same is the case with the Dahomans, Yorubans, Fantees, and other African races. Other races, as, for instance, some of the Tibeto -Burman tribes and the natives of Madagascar,** erect miniature houses over graves. It is still more significant that the Esquimaux theinselves frequently leave the dead in the houses which they occupied when alive.tt Nor can any one compare the plan of a

• Jones, Antiquities ofthe South

ern Indians, p. 114. + New Zealand and its Inhabi. tants, p. 101. I M'Gillivray, Voyage of the Rattlesnake, vol. ii. p. 48. § Travels in Africa, vol. iv. pp. 55-130. || Burton's Mission to Dahome, vol. ii. p. 2. | McMahon, Karens of the Golden Chersonese, pp. 91, 318.

• • Sibree, Madagascar and its People, pp. 166, 251 .

++ Ross' Arctic Expedition, 1829 -1833, p. 290. PICTS' HOUSES. 141 Scandinavian “passage grave," as, for instance, the one repre sented in fig. 143, with any drawing (see fig . 141 *) of an Esquimaux snow house, without being struck with the great similarity existing between them. Hut burial also occurs among several South American tribes. Under these circumstances, without denying that in some cases these chambered long barrows may have served as ossuaries, there seems much probability in the view advocated by Professor Nilsson, the venerable archæologist of Sweden, that these “ Ganggraben " are a copy, a development, or an adaptation, of the dwelling -house ; that the ancient inhabi tants of Scandinavia, unable to imagine a future altogether different from the present, or a world quite unlike our own, showed their respect and affection for the dead by burying with them those things which in life they had valued most : with women , their ornaments ; with warriors, their weapons. They buried the house with its owner, and the grave was literally the dwelling of the dead. When a great man died; he was placed on his favourite seat, food and drink were arranged before him, his weapons were placed by his side, his house was closed , and the door covered up ; sometimes, however, to be opened again when his wife or children joined him in the land of spirits. It is just possible that the comparative rarity of chambered tumuli in England and France may be connected with the greater mildness of the climate, which did not necessitate the use of underground “ winter-houses ;” or it may be an indication of a difference in race. Further investigations will, doubtless, decide this point . In the mean time we must remember that the so- called “ Picts' Houses” are abundant in the northern parts of Great Britain. These curious dwellings are “ scarcely distinguishable from the larger tumuli ; but on 142 THE MOUND BUILDERS. digging into the green mound, it is found to cover a series of large chambers, built generally with stones of considerable size, and converging towards the centre, where an opening appears to have been left for light and ventilation. These differ little from many of the subterranean weems, excepting that they are erected on the natural surface of the soil, and have been buried by means of an artificial mound heaped over them . ” According to Mr. Bateman, who has recorded the syste matic opening of more than four hundred tumuli (a very large proportion of which were investigated in his presence) , and whose opinion is, therefore, of great value, “ the funda mental design of them (i.e. the British tumuli) , with the exception of the very few chambered or galleried mounds in Berkshire, Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Ireland, etc. , as New Grange, Wayland Smith's Cave, Uleybury, and others, and those of the much later Saxon period, is pretty nearly the same in most places ; the leading feature of these sepulchral mounds is, that they enclose either an artless stone vault, or chamber, or a stone chest, otherwise called a Kistvaen, built with more or less care ; and, in other cases, a grave cut out more or less below the natural surface, and lined , if need be, with stone slabs, in which the body was placed in a perfect state, or reduced to ashes by fire . ” + The “ long" tumuli of Great Britain resemble, in some respects, the Scandinavian “ Ganggraben ,” and, like them , in districts where large blocks of stones occur, contain mega lithic chambers, in which the dead were buried and not burut. No trace of metal has yet been found in this class of tumulus ; which therefore probably belongs to the Stone Age. The skulls found in these tumuli are very long and

• Wilson, I. c. vol. i. p. 161 .

+ Bateman , Ten Years' Diggings, p. xi. LONG BARROWS. 143 narrow skulls, which have received from FIG. 142. Dr. Wilson the name of " Kumbecepha lic ," or boat-shaped skulls, resembling the one in fig. 142, which was obtained by Mr. Bateman from the tumulus known as “ Longlow ," near Watton, in Derbyshire. This tumulus contained the remains of thirteen individuals, who had been buried in the usual contracted position. They were con tained in a cist composed of large stones, and were accompanied with several Long Skul).— Derbyshire. worked flints, including three carefully made arrow - heads. Long skulls are comparatively rare in the round tumuli of England, while, on the contrary, no round skulls have yet been met with in the long tumuli, at any rate in Wiltshire and Gloucestershire : so that the evidence appears to support Dr. Thurnam's aphorism , Long barrows, long skulls ; round bar rows, round skulls. * This conclusion rests on the measure ments of 137 skulls, 70 from round barrows and 67 from long ones, and it must be observed that these are not selected specimens, but, so far as the long - barrow skulls are concerned, comprise the whole number which we possess in a sufficiently perfect condition ; while, as regards the 70 from round tumuli, Dr. Thurnam has taken the whole number (41) contained in the Bateman collection , those described in the Crania Brit tannica, and all those in his own collection. It is important to observe, therefore, that in neither case has any selection been made which could influence the results. Now if we class those skulls in which the relation of the breadth to the length is less than 73 to 100 as long heads, or Dolichocephalic, those

• Mem. Anthropological Soc. the same Society ), of which Dr. vol. i. The following facts, how- Thurnam has been so kind as to ever , are mainly taken from his forward me the proofs.

second paper (in the memoirs of

144 OBJECTS BURIED WITH THE DEAD. in which it is from 74–79 to 100 as medium heads, and those in which the proportion is 80 or more than 80 to 100 as short heads, or Brachycephalic, we shall have the following result : Total number of Dolichocephalic Orthocephalic Brachycephalic skulls. 63---73. 74–79. 80–89. Long barrows 67 55 12 0 Round barrows . 70 0 26 44 . . Thus there is not a single long head among the 70 specimens from round barrows, nor a single round head among the 67 specimens from long barrows. So remarkable a distinction certainly appears to imply a difference of race, and Dr. Thurnam is disposed to refer the Dolichocephalic people to the Neolithic Age, the Brachycephalic to that of Bronze. The more recent researches of Canon Greenwell and Dr. Rolleston confirm these views. They have never found a round skull in a long barrow . On the other hand, although Dr. Thurnam found no long skulls in round barrows, yet, unless the long-headed race were entirely destroyed by the men with round heads, we should naturally expect that, though the round heads would preponderate in the later round barrows, still skulls of the earlier long -headed race would sometimes occur ; and this we find is really the case. The women at any rate of the earlier race were probably not wholly exterminated. As yet, no bone belonging to any of the extinct mammalia has been found in a tumulus. Even the reindeer, so far as our present evidence goes, is entirely wanting. Again, the stone implements, as already mentioned, are of a character very different from those used by Palæolithic men. It is therefore not surprising to find that the skulls which have been obtained from tumuli attributed to the Stone Age indi cate that Europe was, even at that period, already inhabited OBJECTS BURIED WITH THE DEAD. 145 by more than one race of men. On the Continent, as in England, some are brachycephalic, or short - headed, and so far resemble those of the Lapps, while others are doli chocephalic, or long - headed * ( fig. 142) . Virchowt has published a memoir on the skulls obtained from Danish tumuli, and contained in the Copenhagen Museum. Omitting fragmentary specimens, and those belonging to young per sons, he has examined 41 skulls referred to the Stone Age, 3 to the Bronze Age, and 5 to the Iron Age, and compared them with the specimens of Lapp ( 6) , Greenland ( 5) , and Finn (3) skulls contained in the same collection. On the whole, these Stone Age skulls are orthocephalic, inclining to bra chycephalism ; the Bronze Age and Iron Age specimens are dolichocephalic, but it must be remarked that it would not be safe to draw any definite conclusion from so small a number of specimens ; and that even if the Bronze Age indicates the immigration of a new race into Western Europe, they would probably not exterminate the earlier inhabitants, but would at any rate spare the young women, so that, until we have a considerable body of evidence, it would be very unsafe to speculate on the character of the population during the Bronze Age. The Greenlanders are dolichocephalic, the Lapps and Finns, on the contrary, brachycephalic ; but Virchow observes that if, in this respect, the skulls of the latter resemble the type of the Danish Stone Age, they differ greatly in height and breadth , so that no ethnic affinity can be predicated between them. In some cases the skulls obtained from one and the same tumulus differ from one another very considerably. Thus among those found in the great tumulus at Borreby, in

• Nilsson's Stone Age,

ed. p. 121 . glish + Ar. für Anthropologie, 1870, p. 55. L 146 OBJECTS BURIED WITH THE DEAD. Denmark, the breadth, taking the length at 100, varied from 71.8 to 85 : 7, or no less than 14 per cent. * The care with which the dead were interred, and the custom of burying implements with them , have been regarded by some archæologists as proving the existence of a belief in the immortality of the soul, and in a material existence after death. “ That the ancient Briton ,” says Dr. Wilson, t “ lived in the belief of a future state, and of some doctrine of probation and of final retribution , is apparent from the constant deposition beside the dead, not only of weapons, implements, and personal ornaments, but also of vessels which may be presumed to have contained food and drink . That his ideas of a future state were rude and degraded, is abundantly manifest from the same evidence.” The objects buried with the dead are sometimes numerous, and always instructive. In a large tumulus, near Everley, a deposit of burnt bones was “ surrounded by a circular wreath of horns of the red -deer ; " whilst at a higher level, though three feet from the summit, was the skeleton of a small dog, the “ attendant in the chase, and perhaps the victim in death ,” of the hunter, whose exquisitely chipped arrow-heads, five in number, were deposited with his ashes.” + But it is very far from being “ constantly ” the case that the dead were so well supplied with what we call the necessaries of life ; indeed, it is quite the exception and not the rule ; so that if we are to apply the evidence of the tumuli in this manner, we must, I think, come to a con clusion exactly the reverse of that stated by Dr. Wilson. Thus, out of more than 250 interments described by Sir R. Colt Hoare in the first volume of his great work on Ancient Wiltshire, only 18 had any implements of stone, only 31 of bone, 67 of bronze, and 11 of iron ; and while pottery was

• Busk, Vogt's Lectures on Man, + 1. c. vol. i. p. 498.

p. 384. I Archäologia, 43, p. 536. THE DEAD FREQUENTLY BURIED WITHOUT ORNAMENTS. 147 present in 107, more than 60 of these contained only sepul chral urns, intended to receive the ashes of the dead, and certainly never meant to hold food. So far, however, as stone implements are concerned , I must confess that Sir R. C. Hoare appears to have overlooked the ruder instruments and weapons. I will, therefore, rely principally on the evidence afforded by the researches of Mr. Bateman and Mr. Greenwell. * Although a large number of the interments described by Mr. Bateman had been already examined, there were 297 which had not been previously disturbed , and though he carefully mentions even the rudest bit of chipped flint, no less than 100 of these were without any implement at all, either of stone or metal, and the drinking -vessels and food vases were only about 40 in number. Moreover, lest it should be supposed that these ill -provided interments were those of poor persons or enemies, we will leave all these out of consideration. This we can easily do. We may be sure that these tumuli, which must have required much labour, were only raised in honour of the rich or great ; though they may have served, and, no doubt, often did serve after wards, as burial-places for the poor. But it is almost always easy to distinguish the primary interment; for though there are some few cases in which the original occupant has been ignominiously ejected from his grave to make room for a successor, these instances are rare, and can generally be detected, while the secondary interments are usually situated either above the first, or on the sides of the tumulus. The same feeling which made our ancestors prefer to bury their dead in a pre-existing tumulus, generally prevented them from desecrating the earlier interments. In the following tables, then , I have recorded the primary

• Since the third edition of this prising a number of barrows in work, Mr. Greenwell has published addition to those mentioned in the the results of his explorations, com- following table.

L 2 148 MODELS OF IMPLEMENTS SOMETIMES BURIED. interments only ; the first column contains the name of the tumulus, the succeeding nine indicate the disposition of the corpse, and the articles found therewith, while the last is reserved for any special remarks. Out of 139 interments examined by Mr. Bateman, only 105 had any implements or weapons, and only 35 were accompanied by any pottery that can have held either food or drink. Moreover, if we examine the nature of the implements which were deposited with the dead, we shall find that they are far from representing com plete sets of tools or ornaments. The rarity of bronze in tombs is, perhaps, not surprising; but to men so practised as our predecessors, it must have been an easy matter to make a rude arrow-head, or a flint flake. Yet some of the corpses are accompanied by but one single arrow -head, others by a small flint flake ; some, again, by a single scraper . It must also be observed that many of the stone objects found by Mr. Bateman are much ruder than might be supposed from the names he has given them . In the table with which Mr. Greenwell has been so good as to furnish me, and which shows the primary deposits in 102 tumuli examined by him , it will be observed that only thirty contained any implement, the other 72 being altogether bare. * There is not single case in which the corpse was de posited in that extended position which seems to us so natural. Thus, then , there seems to have been no intention of de positing with each corpse a complete set of implements. The barrow on Cronkstone Hill, for instance, contained the skeleton of a man, with whom had been buried the burnt bones of some one, probably a slave, or, perhaps, a wife, who had been sacrificed at his grave, and yet the only implement found with him was a “ circular instrument, ” probably a

• Mr. Greenwell's subsequent

researches have tended to confirm this. Out of 379 burials, 63 only had implements of stone, 16 of bronze, and 4 of bone. MODELS OF IMPLEMENTS SOMETIMES BURIED. 149 flint scraper or a sling - stone. Again, the mound known as “ Cow Low ” contained only a bone pin. The affectionate relatives who heaped up this tumulus would certainly not have sent their dead sister into the new world with nothing but a bone pin, if they had thought that the things they buried with her could be of any use. Even the great tumulus at Arbor Low contained only a bone pin, a piece of iron pyrites, a kidney - shaped instrument of flint, and two vases. It would be easy to multiply illustrations, and it is, I think , sufficiently evident that the articles found in the graves can not seriously be considered as affording any evidence of a definite belief in a future state of existence, or as having been intended for the use of the dead in the new world to which they were going. Moreover, there is a well-marked speciality in each case, which seems to show that the presence of these rude implements, far from being the result of a national belief, are simply the touching evidence of individual affection . In some cases, however, the facts certainly seem to indicate a belief that the dead could carry their wealth with them to another world. For instance, Mr. Greenwell found in one barrow * no less than 79 saws, 17 scrapers, 3 leaf- shaped arrow -points, 2 pointed tools ( probably for boring) , several flint articles of uncertain purpose, a hammer- stone, and a piece of a greenstone axe. Many of the saws were very delicately serrated, some along both edges, and showing by the glaze upon the edge that they had been in use. The number of saws in this case far exceeded the aggregate of those obtained from all the barrows he had opened ; and though, as he says, “ it is by no means easy to give any reasonable explanation of the phenomenon ,” I would venture to suggest that they were regarded as wealth ; in fact as a form of money, which would enable their owner to purchase what he might require.

• British Barrows, p. 262.

PRIMARY INTERMENTS . BATEMAN'S VESTIGES OFTHE ANTIQUITIES DERBYSHIRE . 150CORPSE . OBJECTS OF REMARKS . CONTRACTED . BURNT . EXTENDED POSITION UNCERTAIN . CIST STONE . BONE . BRONZE . .*IRON POTTERY . .. .. Arrow -head and celt high ,18ft.tumulus Large Pieces of fibula near the sur bnt flint .Iron face . .Two skeletons Circular instrument head -Arrow Cist Moor 2Middleton Low 3ark's 4Bee Low 5Liff's Fragments Jncense cup .. red ochre .Cist Three bits of 6Brassington Moor .. .. .. Fragments .. Cist .. Pin Two arrow -heads ,two Hammer of chisels spear ,2-heads horn 2knives ,etc Lance -head and two cir instruments cular Lance -head and three instruments otherBit ofaceltnd flint chipped

TABULATED INTERMENTS. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Sepulchral urn Drinking cup

human With burnt .polisher Cist Sandstone bones . children and oftwo burntones Cist Wih horse's tooth . Cisthild . skele th ,and bones human burnt With Cist only about Tumulus .child ton ofa 18in.high Piece .infant ofanthe remains Cist With pyrites iron . .. . . .. .. Drinking cup inThree -heads 3arrow ,Dagger etc. struments Flint chppings Pin instru- shaped Kidney - ment Dagger Sepulchral urn Two urns Cist Piece ofspherical iron pyrites . .. Gib Hill 1 7Elk Low Low 8Cross Low Sliper 910Cross Low Low ..11Green 12Sheldon Low 13Arbor Inns 14New Low 15The Low 16Net

.. Two rude instruments .. Dagger &pins 2 instrument One Two rude instruments Urn Pieces 17Wetton 18Bostorn19Harthill Moor 20Castern 21Moot Lw22Gratton Hill Wood 23Bassett 24Ilam Ilam 25 26Ilam Cist .barrow Cist Very small and low ,and coal Kimmeridge ofrnaments Two flint .calcined offragments Cist Burnt hman bones . Cist Cist Small barrow . Cist needle .silver Glass bed , Cist Horses 'teeth . .alarge brrow Cist This was Cist Skeleton ofadog .Large brow Cist Head ofabull .Large brow Cist Small barrow . Spear -head Six rude instruments Knives etc. Box , Fragments

Pin Fragments probable *Itisseveral thatumuli ofthe contained which iron belonged tohe Anglo period -Saxon .

.. .. .. Rude instrument .. Cist .Hammer & ?spear .. .. Small instrument Two instruments Urn Drinking cup Dagger 27Welton 28Lidow 29Casterne Buxton 3031Cow L 32Dowe Lowe .. 33Slip Low 34Narrow Dle Hill 35Middleton Pin Cist Cist Cist Skeleton oflarge dimensions . With burnt human bones .Hrses 'teeth Probably afemale . skeletons Two . Cist Cist Small piece ofburnt flint . Cist instrument Flint Two arrw -heads Dagger Sepulchral urn .. circular and head -Spear ended instrument ..

Knife Sepulchral urn Vessel offlint .Cist Many pieces Burnt animal bones . Cist Cist

.knife Part ofa head -Spear Pin BATEMAN'S “TEN YARS 'DIGGINGS .” Three cipped flints Beads . .. Vase

 :: . :

.. Animal's Cist bones .Shrds drinking ofacup . and Jet ncklace bone Cistow's tooth .. Evidently afemale ,with child . Cist Cist Tumulus about 2ft.high Fragments of .mound infound pttery Cist Wih unburnt the skeleton ofachild . Cist Bead ofjet . Tumulus 8high ft. Secondary The former onthe natural surface ,thewo latter unde Cist Secondary Cist Jet bad . it. Cist Jet stud . TABULATED INTERMENTS .

Spear -head Pin Circular flint .. Celt and dagger Chippings Three spear -heads ,etc. Oval piece of horn stag's

Two flints ,one arrow headhead -Spear Dagger head Spear -head -Spear . .. ..

Drinking cup

Drinking cup

Cist .flint of}Chippings Female ,with the skleton ofaninfant . .horn Stag's Cist With the skleton ofachild . Cist Female ,with the skleton ofaninfant . Two vases Drinking cup

One broken instrument Arrow -head in.two rude One or struments

Cist One mal and two females .Many jet ornaments . Cist With asecondlender skeleton .Large tooth ofsome animal .Core acw's horn .Lage brrow

Saxon . Cist Cist Saxon . One brass coin ofthe lower empire . 151Knife . -head spear Dagger and Pins &box .. Several things 36Flaxdale 37Bruncliff 38Monyash 39Gotam .. 1Parcelly Hay 2Middleton Moor Low 3Sharpe 4Dovedale Ecton 5 6Shuttlestone 7Booth Low Bent 8Low 9 10 11Dowel 12End Low13Moneystones 14 Low Blake 15 16 17Rusden Low Low 18Borthor Haddon 19Over 20 21 22Vincent Knoll Chelmorton 23 24Nether Low 25Hurdlow Low 26Minning vessels Bits of3 (Wheelmade ) CORPSE . OBJECTS OF CONTRACTED . BURNT . EXTENDED POSITION . UNCERTAIN . CISTREMARKS . STONE . BONE . BRONZE IRON . POTTERY . 152Low 27Minning 28Ballidon Moor 29Hillead Implement Dagger Some good flints flint One poor only Thin instrument

..Awl instrument Good etc. ,

Sword ,etc. Twopieces Drinking cup

Cist Cist The grave contained three skeltons of animals 'bones .men ,besides other Cist Cist Cist Probably alate interment .Small barrow Cist Cist Orsepulchral chamber . gravel In. Vincent 30Knoll 31Brushfield Taddington 32 33Stakor Hurst's House 34Hob 35Bole Hill Foremark 36 37 33 39 40 41Smerrill 42 Rude instrument Pin Bit .Saxon Perhaps ,but no sle .Cist Primary Cist Female . Drinking cup etc. Knives , Drinking cup

Chelmorton 43Haddon 44Field Throwley 45 Hill 46Mare 47Deepdale 48Mouse Lw .. TABULATED INTERMENTS.

Cist Two skeletons .Bit ofpotery Cist Cist Drinking cup

Flake and knife Dagger spear ,etc. net Bone rule ting -head ,etc. Arrow Mesh rule Awl Arrow -head Spear -head Arrow -head Dagger Spear -head and imple 4arrows Two . ments Aneat insrument Dagger implements Afew man Several implements Several implements Two pointed flints Rude imple .Pin ments Spear -head Chipped instrument Arrow.head Two arrow.heads and basaltic Spear -head Several Awl im. axe plements Arrow -head Pin Bits

Two skeletons Cist pottery .Bit of Cist

.. .. .. Incense cup Cist Wih burntones .

Cist Sepulchral urn

With burnt human bones . Sepulchral urn , upright

.. .. .. .. offlintound inthe Some instruments earth above the interment . Cist Part ofavase . .. :::

pointed Two neat instru .Pin ments Three instruments Spear -head and oval in:. strumentBroken instrument Two skeletons ofyoung men . .. .. Surrounded bysandstones .Two small pieces ofpottery . 1) Thorncliff 49 Stanton 50 51Ribden Low Throwley 52 53Lomherlow . Gateham 54Bunster 55Grublow 56Throwley 57 Blore 58 Wetton 59 Warslow 60 61 Scrip 62Low 63Ladyow .. Dagger . .. .. .. Hill 64Ecton Round flint .. .. .. .. .. Several instruments instruments Afew Armilla Awl

Castern 65Elkstone 66 67 68Calton Moor 69EctonHill 70Cold Eaton Wyaston 71 Surrounded contracted bysix other ske letons which ,ere accompanied by threo rude flints . Burnt hman bones . .Tumulus Cist not entirely excavated onlye foot high . .tumulus inthe found ,etc. head -Arrow Cist Twenty -eight convex objects ofbone , moulds like button . Saxon ldy ,ring and earring ofsilver ,brooch necklace andmber ofporcelain , and glass .Only theeth rmaining instruments Two Two combs Fragments .. .. .. Beads ..

Arrow -head Pin Vase Incense cup Dagger Pickering 72 73SaintaftCawthornCamps 74 75 ap"76Gindle Pickering 77 78 Spear -head Two instruments Several instruments Cist Cist Two skeletons . Cist

.. Vase Sepulchral urn Drinking cup with handle Thick vessel .. . .. .. Cist Wih the infant skeleon ofan. 79 .. .. Vase Cist

80 81 82 83 Bits ofanurn . ..

Vase Vessel

Cist Cist Cist

TABULATED INTERMENTS. Vase Jawbone ofasheep . 86 Cist Cist . 87 .. .. .. .. .. .. Incense cup .. .. 88 .. .. Several instruments in, cluding aspear -head Two lance heads -and oe round -ended Spear -head -head Spear Lance andrrow -head .. Spear -head Chisel and spear head - Lance ,arrow -head and circular instrument indifferent Two instru ments Spear -head ,arrow and hammer Two spears and round instrument ended Spear -head ,etc. Arrow head -an ..rough instruments instruments Cutting Graver Three poor flints implements Twenty -one Four instruments flints Five Knifehead -Spear Round instrument .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Cist Head goat ofa. 89 93 .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 90 91 ..

Dagger 92

93 94 95 96Allerston Warren 97Pickering 98 99Allerston Warren 100 Gib Hill 101 Benty Grange 102 Croukstone

Incense cup Cist Sepulchral urn small Two ofballs stone . Vase Cist Cist Cist Vase Incense cup Vase Cist Incense cup Very pretty vase Cist Mound not originally sepulchral . Many thigs Saxon ;hir only remaining leather drinking cup . With burnt Cist bones apparently ,deposited the atsame tie . 153 Circular instrument CONTENTS OFTUMULI EXAMINED BYTHE REV .W.GREENWELL . CORPSE 154OBJECTS OF GRAVE OR REMARKS . CONTRACTED . BURNT CIST . STONE . BONE . BRONZE . IRON . (POTTERY . NORTH RIDING . ... Moor ,I1Egton .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 2 11... .. .. .. .. ..

I). TABULATED

Hambleton 3 4Grimston Moor ,I. 5 6 III . Howard ,1.7Castle 8 JI. 9 III . 10 IV. 11 V. 12 VI. 13 VII .VIII . 15 IX. 16 X. iii : i :::: .

..Food vessel The deposit ofbones thre feet above the natural surface . The deposit ofbones fureet above the natural surface . Cinerary urn natural surface .Upon the Shallow grave Incense cup Shallow grave Food Shallow vessel grave Deposit ofbones upon the natural surface .Deposit ofbones upon the natural surface . Small urn Shallow grave Incense cup Shallow grave Cinerary urn surface .natural Upon the Shallow grave Incense cup Shallow grave incense 2cups ..Shallow grave Incense cup Shallow grave Shallow grave Small urn Deposit ofbones upon the natural surface . Small base ofurn trench around the Sallow grave Square barrow . Onthe natural surface . 2cinerary urns , The urns onthe natural surface ,and one covered by surrounded circle byastones of,setn third aurn edge ,foureet indiameter . Shallow grave Shallow grave Cinerary urn , Onthe natural surface . with asmaller itwithin one Cinerary urn Onthe natural surface . INTERMENTS. 14 9) Round scraper offlint , unburnt burnt Two pieces offlint , Wykeham Moor 17,I. 18 II.

19 20 III . IV. knife flint Largeburnt Piece offint , Dagger .. 21 22 23 V. VI. VII . Piece offlint ,burntofflint ,burnt Four pieces Javelin head ,burnt

24 VIII . Piece offlint ,burnt .. .. RIDING EAST . 25Kirby Underdale .. Deep grave .. shoulder Two blades ofathe boar in .grave 26Langton Wold Flint flake .. ..! .. .. man onthe natural surface ,andjet woman ;she had close tohim ,apierced adeer's tooth ,bead apiece ofnerita pierced ,avertebra offish ,and her waist .cowries ,atthree .. .. .. .. .. Two imple -Thre ments ,one awls like the bow ofadrill .. 27Duggleby Wold Heslerton 2829Sherburn Wold ,I. 30 II.

Food vessel Food vessel

.. Food vessel Javelin head ,burnt 31 III . 32 IV. 33 V. 34 35Potter Brompton Wold I.

Scraper and 5chippings VI. rn

Body onthe natural surface . Grave Achild about three years old . Onthe natural surface . Inthis mound were the remains ofaDeep grave man and woman ,overlying deposit Deep grave bones ofburnt Probably .man a,his wife and slave . Shallow grave Shallow grave Onthe natural surface . child body ofathe was Shallow grave In touching the other body . InDeep grave the grave some broken human bones , and some potsherds . Shallow grave end the east age ,tofmiddle grave ..Aman Deep and the atwest young aman . upon the bones .Shallow grave The urn laid onits side Behind the was head body ofavery Perforated axe ,burnt .. .. .. .. .. .36 37 II. III . .. TIL 9 Food vessel :: Arrow point offlint , barbed Pin ,burnt ..

38 39 .IV V. Urn .. TABULATED INTERMENTS. Pin

.child young 40 41 VI. VII . Flat piece .. the knife iLong flint with no but ,grave either the unburnt or burnt body 42Ganton Wold ,I. 43 II.

Urn 44 III .

IV. Oval scraper 45

.. Food vessel Pin 9 Shallow grave remains scattered were the grave ..InDeep ofthree bodis ,and several fragments ofa“drinking cup and two feet ,above the bodies were bons ofa burnt body . Onthe natural surface . Shallow grave Five bodies were laid close together ,and evidently buried atthe same ti . Onthe natural surface . Deep grave The body ha been laid upon awoden platform ,which rested upon stakes . Shallow grave Deep grave .. Shallow grave Onthe natural surface . Deep grave Deep grave Inthe grave scttered bones ofabody .Deep grave Onthe natural surface . Shallow grave Awoman .Atthe oher end ofgrave Deep grave three cildren ,the was amnnd bones ofwhom had been displaced and relaid inasort ofruderder . 46 V. 47 VI. 48 VII . 49 VIII .50Willerby Wold ,I. 51 II. 52 III . 53 IV. 54 V. 55 VI. Oval scraper ,burnt

1 2knives and 4flint chips Food vessel Food vessel Drinking cup CORPSE OBJECTS OF GRAVE REMARKS . OR CONTRACTED . BURNT STONE . BONE . BRONZE CIST . IRON . POTTERY . 156 56Rudston . .. Drinking .cup Grave dis ofaremains were grave Inthe turbed body . made Club the from antler ofa red der Dagger , drill &axe Awl Butterwick 57, 1. Knife . . 58 .II Cinerary urn vessel Food 59Weaverthorpe ,1. 60 61 62 63 II. III . IV. V. Large flake flake Knife ad large

Drinking cup

button .and oe stone Five large jet ,..Deep grave Onthe natural surface . Grave Grave body cut through inmaking the grave .A Deep grave Onthe natural surface . heads with three were the Above grave Shallow out lower jas ,carefully deposited in the form ofY. Deep grave Grave child inthe bones ofadisturbed Some grave . . TABULATED 6485 VI.VII . ofTwo tines orknife .Oval scraper ared der's cut ,anler off 66 VIII . Urn .. .. .. .. circular flat 119 ,beads ofjet Ncklace shallow .Very grave central pendant .disks ,and triangular .surface natural the On .zig beads ,with aglass ofblue Necklace Very shallow grave .white inpattern zag 67 IX.X. :: ::file ofTongue ,Armlet fibula .bula replac bro the ing ken bronze tongue Armlet INTERMENTS . 69 XI. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 70 XII . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

.. 71 XIII . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

.. ..72 XIV . .. .. 73 .. .. .. .. ..

women 66,7group ;small ,a66—69 Nos .shallow Very

grave Keltic of"late armlets The .men 68,9 tonecklace similar the like type ,and ."Arras atfound those shallow Very .. graveshallow Very grave and unbonesurnt some grave Grave the Inburntones ofachild ,all scattered and several pieces ofa"drinking cup . The two bodies were placed facing ech other ,and inreverse position .The Shallow grave .them between was urn .surface natural the ..On dis some bnes ofaMan :inthe grave ,Deep grave turbed body . Deep grave Woman .The two graves joined byan .wide feet two opening .. .. .. .. .. ..

..73 XV. Urn 74 .XVI .. .. Hammer ofreddeerhorn round axe ,Perforated ,andaflake scraperofflint Two flint chippings 2earrings ..75 > XVII . .. .. .

Javelin head

76Weaverthorpe , XVIII . Enthorpe 77,I. 78 II.

Urn

.. .. .. Urn 79 III . .. .. .. .. .. .. Two urns . Urn 8081 82 Deep grave Onthe natural surface Urn .laid upon the bones . Onthe natural surface .Urn laid upon the bones . Just abovenatural surface Urns .amongst the bones . Three feet above the natural surface . Deep grave Grave Shallow grave Shallow grave Shallow grave Shallow grave IV. V. VI. I. II. III . .83Gardham , Cinerary urn IV. .. Pin .. .. . .. Drinking cup Grave TABULATED

Drinking cup narrow Long and knife , unburnt :: Cist Below natural the surface . Shallow grave WEST RIDING . Ferrybridge 87 .CUMBERLAND 88CastleCarrock ,1. 89 II. WESTMORELAND . 90Moor Divock KirbyStephen 91,I. 92 II. 93 III . 94Warcop .. 95Asby .. NORTHUMBER LAND . 96Ford ,I.. vessel Food Incense cup Grave round Stoe circle the base ofcirn . Shallow grave Onthe natural surface . Grave natural Onthe surface . Stonehallow grave the circle round base ofcairn .

INTERMENTS . .. .. Food vessel Cist 84 85 86 97 98 II. III . .Avery young child Stone circl round the base ofrrow . surface Fourjet beads .Dpoit ofbones on surface Onthe natural . :: Cinerary urn Cinerary urn :: DE 99 IV. Fragment offlint ,burnt ofPin Fragment pin Pointed oval knife (7)un burnt Arrow -point ,burnt .. ..

Grave

.

Food vessel Grave Cist 100 Chatton101 Old Bewick ,I.

102 II. Chollerton 103 Knife ..

.. Cist .. natural Below the surface .Stone circl base round ofcairn . natural Below the Stone surface .circle round base ofcairn . Onthe natural surface . .. 157 .. Cist .. 158 BARROWS BELONG TO VERY DIFFERENT PERIODS. In some few cases, again, small models of weapons have been found, in lieu of the weapons themselves. In modern Esquimaux graves, small models of kajaks, spears, etc., are sometimes buried, and a similar fact has been observed in Egyptian tombs. Mr. Franks informs me that much of the jewellery found in Etruscan tombs is so thin that it can scarcely have been intended for wear during life. In Japan those who are entitled to wear swords during life have wooden ones placed in their graves, as insignia of rank ; and it has long been the custom in China to burn paper cuttings, or drawings, of horses, money, etc., under the belief that the objects so represented will be actually possessed by the deceased. * We must always bear in mind that the ancient tumuli do not all belong to one period, nor to one race of men. No tumuli belonging to the Paleolithic period have yet been discovered, but this mode of burial appears to have existed in Northern and Western Europe from the Neolithic, or second Stone period, down to the introduction of Christianity. Indeed it was the examination of the tumuli which first induced Sir R. Colt Hoare, and other archæologists, to adopt for Northern Europe the division into three great periods. So far, however, as the barrows themselves are concerned , (though the passage-graves and long barrows seem always to belong to the Stone Age) , we are not acquainted with any external differences by which the tumuli of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages can, with certainty, be distinguished from one another. The contents of the graves are more instructive, though it would of course be unsafe to conclude that a given tumulus belongs to the Stone Age, because it contained one or two implements made of that material. We know that stone was extensively used throughout the Bronze Age ; and, indeed, out of 37 tumuli in which Mr. Bateman found

• See, for instance, Marco Polo's Travels, Edin. 1846, pp. 248—260.

BARROWS BELONG TO VERY DIFFERENT PERIODS. 159 objects made of bronze, no less than 29 contained also stone implements, many of which, moreover, were extremely rude. There are also cases in which is evident that flint imple ments were deposited in graves rather in deference to ancient customs, than because they were still in every -day use. Thus in the tumulus known as Kouloba, or “ Hill of Cinders, ” near Kertch, a heap of sharp flints was found. This tumulus was of considerable size, and contained the remains of a chief, his wife, servant, and horse. He wore a cap orna mented with plates of gold, a gold enamelled necklace, and gold bracelets. His sword was of iron, the handle covered with leaves of gold embossed with figures of hares and foxes. His shield was also of gold, covered with heads of Medusa, etc. An electrum plate, which had formed part of a quiver, was also ornamented with figures of animals, such as a tiger seizing a goat , and a deer attacked by a griffin. Above the tail of the tiger was written πορναχο. Statuettes, bronze cauldrons, and many other things were deposited around. The queen was also richly ornamented. The tumulus con tained also a diadem of gold ; a necklace of gold filagree, to which were suspended small bottles of fine gold ; medallions of green and blue enamel ; a magnificent vase in electrum ; two gold bracelets ; and six knives with ivory handles, besides many other gold ornaments. Many of these objects were ornamented with beautiful figures of animals. A mitre, for instance, had a plate of electrum, on which were represented four women in Greek costume, sitting in the midst of gar lands of lotuses, the stalks of which served as seats and backs. The plate was attached to the mitre by four masks of lions, and the bottom of the mitre was bordered by a diadem of gold, adorned by small enamelled rosettes. In the same tumulus, under this tomb, was a second still richer one, from which no less than 120 pounds- weight of gold jewellery are said to have been taken. 160 DIFFICULTY OF DETERMINING THE PERIOD In such a tumulus as this, flint flakes could evidently have but a symbolical meaning.* Evidently, therefore, the mere presence of a few implements of stone is in itself no sufficient reason for referring any given interment to the Stone Age. The following tabular statement of 297 interments, recorded by Mr. Bateman, will, however, I think, be found interesting :- CORPSE. Implements. Total. Contracted. Burnt. Extended . Position Uncertain . None... Stone Bronze Iron 27 53 15 2 63 48 10 3 3 2 5 14 7 31 7 7 100 134 37 26 Total .... 97 124 24 52 297 These interments are all from the counties of Derby, Stafford , and York. In his work on ancient Wiltshire, Sir R. C. Hoare records the examination of 267 interments, which may be tabulated in a similar manner, as follows: CORPSE . Implements. Total. Contracted. Burnt. Extended . Position Uncertain None .... Stone Bronze Iron 9 2 160 5 49 3 1 2 7 12 1 8 184 9 63 11 1 A Total ... 15 214 13 25 267 We see that in this latter table nearly all the cases of bronze were in interments preceded by cremation, and the same is the case in the Yorkshire tumuli examined by Mr. Greenwell. As regards the Salisbury Plain tumuli, I am disposed to regard the great majority as belonging to the

• Journal of the British Archæological Association, vol. xiii .

TO WHICH A TUMULUS BELONGS. 161 Bronze Age. No less than 270 cluster round Stonehenge, and it seems most probable that the dead were brought from a distance to lie near the great temple. In this case the great majority of the tumuli belong, therefore, to one period, that, namely, at which the temple was held sacred. Some few , indeed, may be referable to earlier or later times, but as out of 152 of these interments which were examined by Sir R. C. Hoare, no less than 39 contained objects of bronze, I am disposed to regard the whole group as belonging to the Bronze period. Now in these 152 cases the corpse was contracted in four only, and extended in three. In 16 the disposition of the corpse was not ascertained , and in no less than 129 it had been burnt. If we combine the observations of Sir R. C. Hoare and Mr. Bateman, we shall obtain the following table : CORPSE. Implements. Total. Contracted. Burnt. Extended Position Uncertain . None .. Stone Bronze Iron 36 55 19 2 223 53 59 3 6 3 7 21 19 32 15 11 284 143 100 37 Total........ 112 338 37 77 564 Some few of these interments were no doubt Anglo - Saxon ; if these had been eliminated the argument would have appeared still stronger; but taking them as they are, out of 37 graves containing iron weapons or implements, the corpse was certainly extended in 21 cases, and probably so in several others ; while, out of no less than 527 cases in which iron was not present, the corpse was extended only in 16, the proportion being at least is ths in one case, and only 3rd in the other. On the whole we may certainly conclude that this mode of burial was introduced at about the same period as the use of iron. M 162 DIFFICULTY OF DETERMINING THE PERIOD As regards the habit of burning the dead, the evidence is less conclusive. Out of 100 cases, indeed, of graves charac terized by the presence of bronze, the corpse appears to have been buried in a contracted posture 19 times only ; in an extended position, only seven times. It would seem, there fore, that during the Bronze Age the dead were generally burnt. It is also true that there are many cases in which interments by cremation, if I may use such an expression, contain no weapons or objects of bronze . We know, however, that this metal must always have been expensive, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that many, at any rate, of these interments may belong to the Bronze Age, although no objects of metal occurred in them . There can be no doubt that in the Neolithic Stone Age it was usual to bury the corpse in a sitting or contracted posture; and, indeed, it appears probable, although far from being satisfactorily established, that in Western Europe this attitude generally indicates an interment of the Stone Age ; while those cases in which the skeleton was extended may referred, with little hesitation, to the Age of Iron. At the same time it must be admitted that the evidence is very far from conclusive; and we must remember that in Anglo -Saxon times the dead were burned by some tribes, and buried by others. But although the presence of a few flint flakes, or other stone implements, is certainly no sufficient reason for refer ring any given tumulus to the Stone Age, the case is different where a large number of objects have been found together ; for instance, I have in my collection a group of stone imple ments consisting of 14 beautifully made axes, wedges, chisels, spear -heads, etc. , and more than 60 capital flakes, which were all found together in one of the large Danish sepulchral chambers, on the island of Möen, and have been described be TO WHICH A TUMULUS BELONGS. 163 by M. Boye. * The tumulus had a circumference of 140 ells, and a height of about eight ells. It is probable that it had been surrounded by a circle of stones, for M. Jensen, the owner, remembered that, many years before, the northern side had been surrounded by a row of stones standing close together. None of them, however, at present remain. Un fortunately M. Boye was not present when they began to remove the tumulus ; still he thinks that the account given to him may be relied on with safety. M. Jensen began to dig on the east side of the tumulus, and the first thing which he came to was a jar, which he unfortunately broke. It con tained burnt bones and a bronze pin, the head of which was ornamented with concentric lines. Towards the S.S.E. was found a cist, about an ell long, and formed of flat stones. In it were burnt bones, a bent knife, and a pair of pincers two inches in length ; both these objects were of bronze. Not far from this cist was another urn , containing burnt bones, with FIG. 143. N 9 E W G a S Plan of the Chamber in a Danish Tumulus in Möen.

• Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie, 1858, p. 202.

M 2 164 DANISH TUMULUS The passage, several objects of bronze, namely, a knife four inches in length, part of a small symbolical sword, and two fragments of an awl. It is evident that these three interments belonged to the Bronze Age, and also that they were secondary, that is to say, that they belonged to a later date than the original sepulchral chamber, over which the tumulus had been made. The sepulchral chamber itself ( fig. 143) lay north and south , was of an oval form , about eight and a half ells in length , and twenty and a half in circumference, and about two and a half in height. The walls consisted of twelve very large, unhewn stones, which , however, did not in most cases touch one another, but left intervals which were filled up by smaller stones. The roof was formed by five great blocks, the spaces between them being filled up by smaller ones. which was on the east side, was five ells long and one ell broad, and was formed by eleven side stones and three roof stones. At the place ( a) was, on each side, a smaller stone, which, in conjunction with another on the floor between them , formed a sort of threshold, probably indicating the place where the door stood. Similar traces of a doorway have been found in other Danish tumuli, and may, perhaps, be taken as evidence that the mounds had been used previously as houses ; at the time of the interment the construction of a door would have been simply purposeless, the passage leading to it being filled up with rubbish . The chamber was filled up with mould to within half an ell of the roof. About the middle, not far from the bottom, a skeleton, perhaps of a sacrificed slave, was extended (at b) , with the head towards the north. On the south side ( at c and d) occurred two crania, each of which lay on a quantity of bones, indicating that the corpses had been buried in a sitting posture. At (e) was a similar skeleton, close to which were three amber beads, a beautiful flint axe, which did not seem to have been ever used, a small unfinished chisel, and some fragments of pottery, ornamented with points IN THE ISLAND OF MÖEN. 165 and lines. At ( f) was another skeleton, in a similar position, with a flint flake, an amber bead, and some fragments of pottery. Figs. 144, 145, represent one of the skulls from this FIG . 144 . FIG . 145 . POI Skull from a Danish Tumulus at Möen. stone chamber. Several other skeletons were found sitting round the side walls, but they had unluckily been removed and thrown away before the arrival of M. Boye. With them were at least 20 different jars or urns, all of them inverted , and prettily decorated with points and lines. Besides these objects, the earth in the chamber contained five flint spear-heads, a fragment of a flint spear which had been broken and worked up again, two small flint chisels, 53 flint flakes, varying from three to five and a half inches in length ; 19 perfect, and 31 broken , amber beads, of which the greater number were hammer- like, the rest tubular or ring - shaped. The passage was filled up by earth, mixed with fragments of pottery, and small stones. About the middle was a skeleton, with the head towards the east, at the side of which were five flakes and an amber bead. Close to the feet was a jar, unornamented, and much ruder than those found in the chamber itself. Not the smallest fragment of metal was found either in the chamber or in the passage. Again, as a second case of the same sort, I may mention 166 DANISH CHAMBERED TUMULUS. the Long Barrow ( fig. 146) near West Kennet, in Wiltshire, described by Dr. Thurnam . * The tumulus in this case is FIG . 146 . kh៩៤៩)) View in the Chamber looking through the entrance. 336 feet in length, 40 feet wide at the west end, and 75 feet at the east, with a height of eight feet. The walls of the chamber are formed by six great blocks of stone, and it opens into a passage, so that the ground plan very closely resembles that of the tumulus just described, and, in fact, of the " Passage graves" generally. The chamber and entrance were nearly filled with chalk rubble, containing also bones of animals, flint implements ( figs. 147—150 ), and fragments of pottery.

• Archæologia, vol. xxxviii. p. 405.

DESCRIPTION OF A BARROW AT WEST KENNET. 167 In the chamber were four skeletons, two of which appear to have been buried in a sitting posture. In different parts of FIG. 147. FIG . 148. FIG . 149. FIG . 150 . Flint Implements from the Tumulus at West Kennet. the chamber were found nearly 300 flakes, three or four fint cores, a whetstone, a scraper, part of a bone pin, a bead of Kimmeridge shale, and several heaps of fragments of pottery ( figs. 151–156) belonging apparently to no less than 50 dif ferent vessels, and all made by hand, with one doubtful excep tion. No trace of metal was discovered. The two pieces ( figs. 155, 156) were found apart from the rest, and may, perhaps, be of later origin. The large tumuli of Brittany, most of which have recently been opened, have afforded several other instances of the same kind. Thus the great Mont St. Michel, at Carnac, which is no less than 380 feet in length, and 190 feet broad, 168 POTTERY FROM THE WEST KENNET TUMULUS. with an average height of 33 feet, was found to contain a square chamber, in which were eleven beautiful jade celts, two large rough celts, and twenty - six small fibrolite celts, FIG . 151 . FIG . 152. Ve UV RUUVUOVO CV FIG . 153. FIG . 154 . Pottery from the Tumulus at West Kennet. besides 110 beads, mostly of callais, and some fragments of flint. * Again, the chamber in the tumulus called Manné - er

• Rapport à M. Le. Préfet du St. Michel. Par M. René Galles.

Morbihan sur les fouilles du Mont 1862. BRETON TUMULI. 169 H'roek contained a hundred and three stone axes, three flint flakes, and fifty beads of callais, jasper, quartz, and agate, but neither of these great tumuli contained a trace of metal. * FIG . 155 . FIG . 156 . Pottery from the Tumulus at West Kennet. Other similar cases might be mentioned , † in which tumuli of large size, covering a sepulchral chamber, constructed with great labour, and evidently intended for a person or persons of high rank, have contained numerous objects of stone and pottery, without a trace of metal. It appears reasonable to conclude that these interments belong to the ante -metallic period ; especially when, as in the first -mentioned case, we find several secondary interments, plainly belonging to a later age, and although presenting no such indications of high rank, still accompanied by objects of bronze. It may seem at first sight very improbable that works so considerable should have been undertaken and carried out by nations entirely ignorant of metal. The burial mound of Oberea, in Otaheiti, was nevertheless two hundred and sixty seven feet long, eighty -seven wide, and forty - four in height.

• Manné -er-H’roeck . Rapport à + See, for instance, Lukis, Arche

la Société Polymathique. Par M. ologia, vol. xxxv. p. 247. Lefebvre et M. René Galles. 1863. 170 BRETON TUMULI. And in treating of modern savages, I shall hereafter have occasion to notice other instances quite as extraordinary. The practice of burying in old tumuli, which continued even down to the times of Charlemagne,* has led to some confusion, because objects of very different date are thus liable to be described as coming from one grave ; yet, on the other hand, it is very instructive, as there are several cases on record, besides the one above mentioned, of interments cha racterized by bronze being found above, and being, therefore, evidently subsequent to others, accompanied by stone only. On the whole, however, though it is evident that the objects most frequently buried with the dead would be those most generally used by the living, and though the prevalence of stone implements proves the important part played by stone in ancient times, and goes far to justify the belief in a Stone Age ; still, the evidence to be brought forward on this point in the following chapters will, probably, to many minds seem more satisfactory ; and, at any rate, we must admit that in the present state of our knowledge, there are comparatively few interments which we could, with confidence, refer to the Neolithic Stone Age, however firmly we may believe that a great many of them must belong to it. Mr. Bateman has proposed to range the pottery found in ancient British tumuli under four different heads, namely, 1, Urns ; 2, Incense Cups ; 3, Food Vases ; 4, Drinking Cups. The urns generally accompany interments by cremation, and have either contained or been inverted over burnt human bones. They are generally of large size, “ from ten to sixteen inches high, with a deep border, more or less decorated by

• One of his regulations ran as follows : - “ Jubemus ut corpora

Christianorum Saxonorum ad ceme teria ecclesiæ deferantur, et non ad tumulos paganorum ." + See, for instance , Von Sacken, Leitfaden zur Kunde des heidnis chen Alterthumes, p. 15. SEPULCHRAL POTTERY. 171 FIG . 157. impressions of twisted thongs, and incised patterns in which the chevron or herring -bone constantly recurs in various com binations, occasionally relieved by circular punctures, or assum ing a reticulated appearance. They are all made by hand, no trace of the potter's -wheel being ever found on them . They almost invariably have an overhanging rim . The ma terial of which they are formed is clay mixed with pebbles, and some of them have been described as " sun -dried." This, however, appears to be alto gether a mistake, arising from the imperfect manner in which Sepulchral Urn . they were burnt. In colour they are generally brown or burnt umber outside and black inside. Fig. 157 represents a specimen from Flaxdale Barrow , in Derbyshire. FIG . 158 . FIG . 159 . 00 00000000000 LOOSU0000000DE ooooooo Vessels from a Tumulus at Arbor Low . Secondly, the “ incense cups," so called by Sir R. Colt Hoare. They differ very much in shape, and are seldom more than three inches high. When decorated the patterns are the same as those on the urns, and are usually on the under surface, but 172 URNS. FOOD VASES. INCENSE CUPS.” they are often left plain. They are often pierced. “ Incense cups" have been found throughout Great Britain, and also in Ireland. Their use seems to me FIG . 160 . still very doubtful. They have in several cases been found with bronze. “ The third division includes vessels of every style of ornament, from the rudest to the most elaborate, but nearly alike in size, and more difficult to assign to a determinate period than any other, from the fact of a coarse and a well- finished one having several times been found in company.” The above wood- cuts ( figs. 158, 159) repre sent two vessels found in a barrow on the circle at Arbor Drinking Cup. Low , in Derbyshire. Fourthly, “ The drinking cups (fig. 160) are generally from six and a half to nine inches high, of a tall shape, contracted in the middle, globular below, and expanding at the mouth : they are carefully formed by hand, of fine clay, tempered with sharp sand, and well- baked ; the walls are thin, ave raging about three - eighth of an inch, light brown outside and grey within.” They have not yet been found in Ireland. They are generally much ornamented, and usually accompany well -made flint implements and unburnt bodies. Mr. Bate man considered that the greater number belong to the ante metallic period, but they have so often been found in associa tion with bronze, that I think we may safely refer them to the Bronze Age. The Domestic Pottery of the period is not so well known to us, but some has been found in caves, and on the site of DRINKING CUPS. 173 ancient dwelling-places. It is formed of the same material as that found in the tumuli, but is of different and plainer forms, and generally entirely without ornament. The pottery of the pre- Roman tumuli is very distinctive, and differs in material, form , colour, and mode of decoration, both from that of the Roman and of the Anglo- Saxon periods. It is, I believe I may say invariably, hand -made; and is never artificially coloured. Numerous as are the varieties of pottery found in ante Roman tumuli, they appear (so far, at any rate, as those discovered by Mr. Bateman are concerned) to have been all made by hand, without any assistance from the potter's wheel ; they are formed of clay tempered with sand, and often with pebbles; they very rarely have handles, and spouts seem to have been unknown ; the ornaments consist of straight lines, dots, or marks, as if a cord had been impressed on the soft clay ; circular or curved lines are rare, nor is there the slightest attempt to copy any animal or plant. In some cases it is obvious that woven fabrics have been impressed on the clay while still soft, and we thus obtain proof of the existence of pre-historic textile fabrics, the actual specimens of which have long ceased to exist . * As a general rule the megalithic monuments are constructed of rough stones neither hewn nor ornamented. Lately, how ever, several instances of engravings have been observed. In the north of England and in Scotland these generally take the form of cups, spirals, circles with a dot in the middle, or incomplete circles with a dot in the middle, or incomplete circles with a line running from the centre through the interval, as in fig. 161.1 We have as yet no satisfactory

• See, for instance, Holmes, Rep. Sculpturings of Cups and Concen of U. S. Bur. of Ethnology, 1881 . tric Rings, etc. Proc. S. of Anti

+ See Tate on the Sculptured quaries of Scotland, vol. vi. 1867. Rocks of Northumberland, 1865. The monuments described by Mr. Sir J. Y. Simpson on Ancient Stuart, in his great work on the 174 ROCK SCULPTURES. clue to the meaning of these engravings, many of which have been figured by Mr. Tate and Sir J. Y. Simpson. They occur FIG. 161. Rock Sculptures. -Scotland. in evident association with ancient oppida and fortifications, as well as on menhirs, and on the stones composing dolmens and cromlechs. Fig. 161 represents a characteristic group on a rock at Auchnabreach in Argyleshire. The surface of the rock is well adapted to receive such sculpturings, having been smoothed and prepared by glacial action. Similar sculpturings have been found in Ireland, where also the great tumuli on the Boyne afford instances of more elaborate ornamentation. The great stone at the entrance of Sculptured Stones of Scotland, be- in Spain, see Don M. de Góngora long to a much later period, and y Martinez, Antigüedades Prehis scarcely fall within the scope of the tóricas de Andalucia. present work. For rock carvings BONES OF ANIMALS IN TUMULI. 175 New Grange, for instance, is covered with double spirals, and those forming the central chamber are also covered with circles, spirals, and other patterns, one of the most remarkable being that of a so - called fern leaf, which occurs also in Brittany and in the so-called temple of Hagiar Kem, in Malta. Mr. Conwell has recently discovered an extensive series of inte resting sepulchral sculptures in the county of Meath. With the exception of the “ fern leaf, ” all these archaic sculpturings in Great Britain are mere geometrical figures. The same figures also occur in Brittany, accompanied, however, by frequent representations of stone axes, both with and without handles. The rock sculptures of Scandinavia present a still further advance, many of them being rude representations of boats, much like those on some of the bronze knives ( figs. 42—45) . The most remarkable monument of this kind, however, is that of Kivik in Scania, close to the shore of the Baltic. Cup markings also occur among the Kumaon Hills in Hindostan . Mr. Rivett Carnac has suggested that they are connected with Lingam worship ; the central mark repre senting the Lingam , the circle the Yoni. The rich, he sup poses, put up a monument, the poor merely carved the symbol. The remains of other mammals found with ancient human relics have acquired increased interest, since the admirable researches of the Danish and Swiss zoologico- archæologists, and especially of Steenstrup and Rütimeyer, by whose skilful cross - examination much valuable and unexpected evidence has been elicited, from materials of most unpromising appear ance. Unfortunately the non-human remains found in tumuli are usually in a very fragmentary condition . No remains of any extinct animal have as yet been found in the tumuli of Western Europe. Even the reindeer is altogether absent. The deer and ox are most frequent. The latter was certainly domesticated in Switzerland as early as the Neolithic period. 176 SEPULCHRAL FEASTS. SACRIFICES. Whether this was the case in Northern Europe, though pro bable, is still uncertain. Some archæologists believe the dog to have been at that period the only animal domesticated ; others, on the contrary, consider the cow, sheep, pig, and goat, if not the horse, to have been at that early period domesticated in the North. In the contents of British barrows, bones of these animals have been frequently observed ; and it would appear from the researches of Mr. Greenwell that most of them belonged to domesticated animals. * Remains of the horse are very rare in English barrows, and I know no well authenticated case of their occurrence in a long barrow. I have thought, therefore, that it might be of interest to point out the class of graves in which bones or teeth of horses were found. In Mr. Bateman's valuable works there are, altogether, twenty-eight cases ; but of these, nine were in tumuli which had been previously opened, and in one case no body was found. Of the remaining eighteen, five were tumuli containing iron, and seven were accompanied with bronze. In one more case, that of the “ Liffs, ” it is doubtful whether the barrow had not been disturbed. Of the remaining six tumuli, two contained beautiful drinking vessels, of a very well marked type, certainly in use during the Bronze Age, if not peculiar to it ; and in both these instances, as well as in a third, the interment was accompanied by burnt human bones, suggestive of dreadful rites. Even, however, if these cases cannot be referred to the Bronze Age, we still see that out of the two hundred and ninety -seven interments only sixty-three contained metal, or about twenty - one per cent. ; while out of the eighteen cases of horses' remains, twelve, or about sixty-six per cent. , certainly belong to the metallic period. This seems to be prima facie evidence that the horse was very rare, if not altogether unknown, in England during the Stone Age. Both the horse and bull appear to have been

• Greenwell. British Barrows.

PRE - HISTORIC RACES OF MEN , 177 sacrificed at graves during later times, and probably formed part of the funeral feast. The teeth of oxen are so common in tumuli, that they are even said by Mr. Bateman to be " uniformly found with the more ancient interments. " The very frequent presence of the bones of quadrupeds in tumuli appears to show that sepulchral feasts were generally held in honour of the dead , and the numerous cases in which interments were accompanied by burnt human bones tend to prove the prevalence of still more dreadful customs, and that not only horses * and dogs, but slaves also, were frequently sacrificed at their masters' graves ; it is not improbable that wives often were burnt with their husbands, as in India, and among many savage tribes. For instance, among the Fijis it is usual on the death of a chief to sacrifice a certain number of slaves, whose bodies “ are called ' grass ' for bedding ” the grave.t " It is probable ,” says Mr. Bateman, “ that the critical examination of all deposits of burnt bones would lead to much curious information respecting the statistics of suttee and infanticide, both which abominations we are unwillingly com pelled, by accumulated evidence, to believe were practised in pagan Britain .” From the numerous cases in which the bones of an infant and a woman have been found together in one grave, it would seem that if any woman died in childbirth, or while nursing, the baby was buried alive with her, as is still the practice among some of the Esquimaux fanıilies. It is, however, an interesting fact, and throws some light on the social relations of the times, that there are several cases in which a barrow even of considerable size has been erected over the remains of an infant, the favourite child, we may suppose, of some powerful chief.

• Even so lately as in 1871 , + Manners and Customs of the

Frederick Casimir was laid in his Feegees, by T. Williams, 1860, grave with his slaughtered horse . vol. i. p. 189. Horæ ferales, p. 66. N 178 PRE- HISTORIC RACES OF MEN. No traces of Corn have yet been observed in any of our Neolithic barrows. These conclusions, however, cannot be extended to Europe. In Switzerland, for instance, as far as our present evidence goes, though it is far from being so full as that derived from English sources, the introduction of bronze does not appear to have been accompanied by any change of race. In Scandi navia, again , we have two classes of barrows corresponding to those of this country. But though the Scandinavian long barrows so remarkably resemble those of England, they were erected by a very different race ; that of the English long barrows being long -headed, while the constructors of the Scandinavian chambered barrows were, on the contrary, almost always round - headed. It is curious that in some barrows no trace of a burial has been found. Some archæologists suppose that in these cases the body was buried without any vase, ornament, or implement, and that it has wholly disappeared. I should, however, rather be disposed to regard them as memorial barrows. The common people were no doubt interred without barrows. On the whole, then , the tumuli of Northern Europe appear to range in point of time from the Neolithic down to post Roman times. Since, however, they never contain remains of the extinct mammalia, nor even of the reindeer, and as no implements of the Palæolithic type have ever been discovered in them, we cannot refer any of them to the earlier Stone Age. So far as England is concerned, the ante - Roman barrows appear to fall into two great groups — the long barrows and the round barrows. The long barrows are apparently the earlier and belong exclusively to the Stone Age, as they also do in Scandinavia. They contain no metal, but little pottery, and were constructed by a long- headed race. Professor Rolles ton has called attention to the remarkable character afforded by the lower jaw ; the tumid horizontal segment corresponding CONDITION OF THE OBJECTS FOUND. 191 bathed by the water, are generally covered by a layer of carbonate of lime, while the lower part which has sunk into the mud is quite unaltered. M. Troyon once obtained at Cortaillod a pair of bracelets in one haul of the dredge—the first, which had been visible from the boat, was greenish and covered with incrustation ; the second, which had been in the mud immediately below, was as fresh as if it had only just been made. As piles of the Bronze Age are sometimes found at a depth of as much as fifteen feet, and as it is manifest that buildings cannot have been constructed over water much deeper than this, it is evident that the Swiss lakes cannot then have stood at a much higher level than at present. This conclusion is confirmed by the position of Roman remains at Thonon, on the Lake of Geneva, and we thus obtain satisfactory evidence that the height of the Swiss lakes must have remained almost unaltered for a very long period. In the large lakes the passing traveller may readily mark the number and general distribution of the piles, he may determine the area which they occupy, and pick up fragments of bone and pottery ; but, on the whole, the peat- mosses are more instructive. In them we not only obtain evidence as to the size, form , and construction of the huts, but implements of wood, specimens of fruit, nuts, grain, and even fragments of clothing, none of which can be preserved in the open water of the large lakes. After having chosen a favourable situation, the first step in the construction of the Lake- habitations was to obtain the necessary timber. To cut down a tree with a stone hatchet must have been no slight undertaking. It is, indeed, most probable that use was made of fire, in the same manner as is done by existing savages in felling trees and making canoes. Burning the wood and then scraping away the charred portion renders the task far more easy, and the men of the Stone period 192 NUMBER OF PILES USED. appear to have avoided the use of large trees, except in making their canoes. Their piles were embedded in the mud from one to five feet, and must also have projected from four to six feet above the water level , which cannot have been very different from what it is at present. They must, therefore, have had a length of from fifteen to thirty feet, and they were from three to nine inches in diameter. The pointed extremity which entered into the mud still bears the marks of the fire and the rude cuts made by the stone hatchets. The piles belonging to the Bronze period, being prepared with metal axes, were much more regularly pointed, and the differences between the two have been ingeniously compared to those shown by lead pencils well and badly cut. Moreover, a cut by a stone axe is necessarily more or less concave, whereas those made with metal are flat. To drag the piles to the lake , and fix them firmly, must also have required much labour, especially when their number is considered. At Wangen alone M. Lohle has calculated that 50,000 piles were used ; but we must remember that these were probably not all planted at one time nor by one generation . Wangen, indeed , was certainly not built in a day, but Mould ft. was, no doubt, gradually enlarged as Pcat 23.ft. the population increased. Herodotus kne 24 Stonnes informs us that the Pæonians made the first platform at the public ex All Tiles pense, but that, subsequently, at every marriage and polygamy was per mitted ), the bridegroom was expected to add a certain number of piles to Ashe the common support. Fig. 163 repre Lake IS a In d sents a section taken at Robenhausen , Section at Niederwyl. and shows two series of piles, one over the other. The layer of ashes appears to indicate that the settlement was burnt down, and subsequently rebuilt. FIG. 163. Flool lop Rela 7 BE U PRE -HISTORIC RACES OF MEN . 179 1 to its molar teeth, the wide ramus, short coronoid process, feeble chin, and rounded, often inwardly bent, angle. It is true that similar lower jaws occur among the Bushmen, Tas manians, Melanesians and other low races, but Professor Rolleston affirms * that amongst Eskimos only do we find such jaws combined with the widely open orbit and vertically elon gated nasal cavity so characteristic of the long barrow race. The round barrows belong in many cases to the Bronze Age. The presence of metal, the forms of some of the stone implements, as, for instance, the tanged arrow - heads and the pierced stone axes, as well as the character of the pottery, justify the conclusion that they belong to a later period than the long barrows - one, moreover, at which Britain was occu pied by a round- headed race, among whom lived, however, probably in a subordinate position, representatives of the earlier long - headed people. I would particularly urge on those who may in future open any barrows 1. To record the sex of the person buried ; this is more satisfactorily to be determined from the form of the pelvis than from the skull. In this manner we may hope to deter mine the relative position, and the separate occupation ( if any) of the two sexes. 2. To observe the state of the teeth, from which we may derive information as to the nature of the food . 3. To preserve carefully any bones of quadrupeds that may be present, in order to ascertain the species, and, in the case of the ox and hog, to determine, if possible, whether they belong to wild or domesticated individuals. We may fairly hope that when thoroughly questioned the barrows will not only answer many of these interesting ques tions, but that they will also tell us many things which it would never occur to us to ask. It is evident, at least, that when a

• British Barrows. Greenwell and Rolleston , p. 718.

1 N 2 180 DESIRABILITY OF PRESERVING MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS . sufficient number shall have been examined, we shall know much more than we do yet about the social and domestic life of those early ages ; we shall know whether during the Stone Age they had domestic animals in the North, as would appear to have been the case in Switzerland ; we shall know in part what kind of clothes they wore, and by the remains found with female skeletons we shall even be able to ascertain, in some measure, the position occupied by woman with reference to man. If, however, we are to acquire all the information that can be derived from the burial mounds, it must be done quickly. Every year many are destroyed, and Abury itself, the grandest of megalithic monuments, was sacrificed for a paltry profit of a few pounds. Moreover, as population increases, and land grows more valuable, these ancient monuments become more and more liable to mutilation and destruction. Since the first edition of this work was published, an Act of Parliament has been passed for their protection, and an Inspector has been appointed. This is so far satisfactory. Unfortunately, however, the powers given under the Act are far from sufficient. I have suggested that we might justly insist on the preservation of these National monuments, and that if their owners do not care to preserve them , the Nation should have the option of purchase at a fair price. It is surely not only our right, but our duty, to protect them . These monuments are National heirlooms ; they do not belong to any one generation. They were erected by our forefathers, and we are bound to preserve them for those who will come after us. ( 181 ) CHAPTER VI. THE ANCIENT LAKE-HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND. N consequence of the extraordinary dryness and cold of of Switzerland did not receive their usual supplies, and the water in the lakes fell much below its ordinary level, so that, in some places, a broad strand was left uncovered along the margin, while in others shallow banks were converted into islands. The water level of this season was, indeed, the lowest upon record. The lowest level marked on the so - called stone of Stäfa was that of 1674 ; but in 1854 the water sank a foot lower still. In a small bay between Ober Meilen and Dollikon, on the Lake of Zurich, the inhabitants had taken advantage of the lowness of the water to increase their gardens, by building a wall along the new water - line, and slightly raising the level of the piece thus reclaimed by mud dredged from the lake. In the course of this dredging they found great numbers of piles, of deer - horns, and also some implements. M. Aeppli was the first to observe these specimens of human workman ship, which he justly supposed might throw some light on the history and condition of the early inhabitants of the Swiss valleys. He at once, therefore, called the attention of Dr. Keller to them, and that eminent antiquary soon satisfied himself as to their true nature, and proved that the early inhabitants of Switzerland constructed some, at least, of their dwellings above the surface of the water, and that they must 182 LAKE-DWELLINGS MENTIONED BY HERODOTUS. have lived in a manner very similar to that of the Pæonians, as described by Herodotus. * “ Their dwellings,” he says, “ are contrived after this manner : planks fitted on lofty piles are placed in the middle of the lake, with a narrow entrance from the main land by a single bridge. These piles, that support the planks, all the citizens anciently placed there at the public charge ; but afterwards they established a law to the following effect: whenever a man marries, for each wife he sinks three piles, bringing wood from a mountain called Orbelus : but every man has several wives. They live in the following manner : every man has a hut on the planks, in which he dwells, with a trap- door closely fitted in the planks, and leading down to the lake. They tie the young children with a cord round the foot, fearing lest they should fall into the lake beneath. To their horses and beasts of burden they give fish for fodder ; of which there is such an abundance, that when a man has opened his trap door, he lets down an empty basket by a cord into the lake, and, after waiting a short time, draws it up full of fish .” At the Newcastle meeting of the British Association in 1863, Lord Lovaine described a Lake-dwelling observed by him in the South of Scotland ; and in the " Natural History Review , ” for July, 1863, I had already mentioned one in the North, which, however, had not at that time been thoroughly examined. Sir Charles Bunbury has recorded (Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xii. 1856) some similar remains found near Thetford, which have been described at greater length by Mr. Alfred Newton, in an interesting paper “ On the Zoology of Ancient Europe. ” In his fifth memoir on the Pfahlbauten, t Dr. Keller has described a Lake- dwelling at Peschiera, on the L. di Garda ; and we are indebted to

• Terpsichore, v. 14.

+ Mitteilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich , 1863. PILE- DWELLINGS IN OTHER PARTS OF EUROPE. 183 MM . B. Gastaldi, * P. Strobel and L. Pigorini, for a description of ruins of a similar nature which have been found in Northern Italy. Dr. Lisch has described several Pile -dwellings in Mecklenburg, and M. Boucher de Perthes, in his celebrated work, “ Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes, " mentions certain remains found in the peat near Abbeville, which appear to have been the ruins of Lake-dwellings ; an observa tion which is of special interest, as an additional argument for referring the Swiss Lake -dwellings to the period of the peat in the Somme valley, and therefore to an epoch long subsequent to that of the drift -hatchets. This inference is entirely in accordance with the conclusions derived from the study of the stone implements themselves. But it is not necessary to go back to pre-historic times ; nor need we appeal to doubtful history or ancient remains for evidence of the curious habit of water- dwelling. Many savage or semi- savage tribes live in the same manner, even at the present day. I have been informed by a friend who lives at Salonica that the fishermen of Lake Prasias still inhabit wooden cottages built over the water, as in the time of Hero dotus. The city of Tcherkask also is partly built over the Don. Some of the Garos and Bogshas of Upper India, the Kanikars of Southern India, the pastoral tribes in parts of Sinde, dwell in habitations elevated eight or ten feet from the ground, to avoid the damp and the insects occasioned by itt Similar dwellings are extensively used in the northern parts of South America ; Venezuela, indeed, having been so called because the houses resemble those of Venice in being constructed over water. But it is in the East Indies that this habit pre Lombardia . Atti della Soc. Italiani di Scienze Naturali, 1863, vol. v

• Nuovi Cenni sugli oggetti di

alta Antichità trovati nelle Tor biere e nelle Marniere dell'Italia. See also Stoppani, Prima ricerca di Abitazioni lacustri nei Laghi di p. 154. + Burnes, Travels into Bokhara, vol. iii . p. 90. 18+ MODERN LAKE- DWELLINGS. vails most extensively. The city of Borneo is altogether built upon piles, and similar constructions have been described by various travellers in New Guinea, Celebes, Solo, Ceram , Mindanao, the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast, and else where. Dampier long ago mentioned similar dwellings con structed over the water ; and Dumont d'Urville, * quoted by M. Troyon, tells us that " Jadis toute la ville de Tondano était construite sur le lac, et l'on ne communiquait d'une maison à une autre qu'en bateau.” The Bishop of Labuan thus describes the dwellings of the Dyaks : “ They are built along the river- side, on an elevated platform twenty or thirty feet high, in a long row ; or rather it is a whole village in one row of some hundreds of feet long. The platforms are first framed with beams, and then crossed with laths about two inches wide and two inches apart, and in this way are well venti and nothing remains on the floors, but all the refuse falls through and goes below .” + In Ireland a number of more or less artificial islands called Crannoges” # ( fig. 162) are known historically to have been used as strongholds by the petty chiefs. They are composed of earth and stones, strengthened by piles, and have supplied the Irish archæologists with numerous weapons, implements, and bones. From the Crannoge at Dunshauglin, indeed, more than one hundred and fifty cart- loads of bones were obtained and used as manure ! These Lake-dwellings of Ireland, how ever, are referable to a much later period than those of Swit zerland, and are frequently mentioned in early history. Thus, according to Shirley, “ One Thomas Phettiplace, in his answer to an inquiry from the Government, as to what castles or forts O'Neil hath, and of what strength they be, states (May 15, 1567) : For castles, I think it be not unknown to your lated ;

• Voyage de l’Astrolabe, vol. v . p. 635.

+ Trans. of the Ethnol. Soc., New Series, vol. ii. p. 28. I See Wilde's Catalogue, vol. i . p. 220. IRISH CRANNOGES. 185 honours, he trusteth no point thereunto for his safety, as appeareth by the raising of the strongest castles of all his countreys, and that fortification which he only dependeth upon is in sartin ffreshwater loghes in his country, which from the sea there come neither ship nor boat to approach them : it is thought that there in the said fortified islands lyeth all his plate, which is much, and money, prisoners, and gages : which islands hath in wars to fore been attempted, and now of late again by the Lord Deputy there, Sir Harry Sydney, which for want of means for safe conducts upon the water it hath not prevailed."" FIG . 162 . Section of a Crannoge in Ardakillin Lough , Roscommon . Again, the map of the escheated territories, made for the Government, A.D. 1591, by Francis Jobson, or the “ Platt of the County of Monaghan ," contains rough sketches of the dwellings of the petty chiefs of Monaghan, which “ are in all cases surrounded by water. ” In the “ Annals of the Four Masters," and other records of early Irish history , we meet with numerous instances in which the Crannoges are men tioned, in some of which their position has not preserved them from robbery and destruction ; and we need not, there fore, be surprised to find that many of the Swiss Pfahlbauten appear to have been destroyed by fire. Not only in the Lake of Zurich, but also in Lakes Constance, Geneva, Neufchâtel, Bienne, Morat, Sempach, in fact in most of the large Swiss lakes, as well as in several of the smaller 186 NUMBERS OF LAKE VILLAGES. ones (Inkwyl, Pfeffikon , Moosseedorf, Luissel, etc.) , similar Lake -habitations have been discovered. In the larger lakes, indeed , not one, but many of these settlements existed ; thus, there are already on record, in Lake Bienne, twenty ; in the Lake of Geneva, twenty - four; in Lake Constance, thirty- two ; in Lake Neufchâtel, as many as forty -nine; on the whole more than two hundred ; and many others, doubtless, remain to be discovered. Of those already known, some belong to the Iron Age, some few even to Roman times; but the greater number appear to be divided in almost equal proportions between the age of Stone and that of Bronze. Though the architecture of this period was probably simple, still the weight to be sustained on the wooden platforms must have been considerable ; many of the piles are either bent or broken ; and to prevent their sinking too deeply into the soft mud, they were sometimes driven through boards which rested on the bottom. The dwellings of the Gauls are described as having been circular huts, built of wood and lined with mud. The inter stices appear to have been filled with moss. Some of the huts on the Pile -works were probably of a similar nature. This supposition is not a mere hypothesis, but many fragments of the clay used for the lining have been discovered. Their preservation is evidently due to the building having been destroyed by fire, which has hardened the clay, and enabled it to resist the action of the water. These fragments bear, on one side, the marks of interlaced branches, while on the other, which apparently formed the inner wall of the cabin , they are quite smooth. Some of those which have been found at Wangen are so large and so regular, that M. Troyon felt justi fied in concluding that the cabins were circular, and from ten to fifteen feet in diameter. It would be most interesting if we could construct a retrospective census for these early periods, and M. Troyon has made an attempt to do so. The 1 ATTEMPT TO MAKE A CENSUS. 187 settlement at Morges, which is one of the largest in the Lake of Geneva, is 1200 feet long and 150 broad, giving a surface of 180,000 square feet. Allowing the huts to have been fifteen feet in diameter, and supposing that they occupied half the surface, leaving the rest for gangways, he estimates the number of cabins at 311 ; and supposing again that, on an average, each was inhabited by four persons, he obtains for the whole a population of 1244. Starting from the same data, he assumes for the Lake of Neufchâtel a population of about 5000. Sixty eight villages belonging to the Bronze Age are supposed to have contained 42,500 persons ; while for the preceding epoch , by the same process of reasoning, he estimates the population at 31,875. So far as these calculations rest on the fragments of the clay walls, they must be regarded as altogether unsatisfactory, since Dr. Keller informs me that the largest pieces yet dis covered are only a foot in their greatest diameter. There is also good reason to believe that the huts were generally not circular, but rectangular. Nor am I inclined to attribute much value to the estimates of population based on the extent of the platforms. M. Troyon himself admits that his “ chiffres sont peut-être un peu élevés, eu égard aux habitations sur terre ferme, dont il ne peut être question dans ce calcul, et vu qu'on est encore bien loin de connaître tous les points des lacs qui ont été occupés ,” and, indeed, in Switzerland, since his book was written, the number of Lake villages discovered has already been more than doubled. Moreover, M. Troyon assumes that the Lake villages of the Bronze Age were con temporaneous, and that the same was the case with those belonging to the Stone Age. This also I should be disposed to question ; both these periods, but especially the Stone Age, in all probability extended over a long series of years ; and though in these matters it is of course necessary to speak with much caution, still if we are to make any assumption in the 188 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLATFORMS. case, it would seem safer to suppose that in each period scme of the villages had perished or been forsaken before others were built. We might feel surprised that a people so uncivilized should have constructed their houses with immense labour on the water, when it would have been so much more easy to have built them on dry land. But we have already seen how , even in historical times, such dwellings have served as simple and yet valuable fortifications. Still , though it is evident that the security thus given would amply compensate for much extra labour, it remains difficult to understand in what manner the piles were driven into the ground. In many cases, indeed, settlements of the Stone Age are characterized by what are called " steinbergs,” that is to say, artificial heaps of stones, etc. , evidently brought by the natives to serve as a support to the piles. A boat laden with stones, apparently for this purpose, was some years ago discovered in in the Lake of Neufchâtel. In fact, they found it easier to raise the bottom round the piles than to drive the piles into the bottom. On the other hand, some of these constructions, as, for instance, those at Inkwyl and Wauwyl, described respectively by M. Morlot and Col. Suter, more closely re semble the Irish Crannoge. We see , therefore, that, as Dr. Keller says, the Lake-dwellers followed two different systems in the construction of their dwellings, which he distinguishes as “ Pfahlbauten, ” or Pile - buildings, and “ Packwerkbauten ," or Crannoges : in the first of which the platforms were simply supported on piles ; in the second of which the support con sisted not of piles only, but of a solid mass of mud, stones, etc., with layers of horizontal and perpendicular stakes, the latter serving less as a support than to bind the mass firmly together. It is evident that the " Packwerkbau ” is a much simpler and ruder affair than the “ Pfahlbau," in which no small skill must have been required to connect the perpendi CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLATFORMS. 189 cular and horizontal piles firmly together. Still the “ Pack werkbauten " were not suitable for the larger lakes, as during storms they would have been injured by the waves, which must have passed harmlessly through the open work of the “ Pfahlbauten .” We find, therefore, that while the former method of construction prevailed only in small lakes or morasses, the latter was adopted in the larger lakes, and even sometimes, possibly, on dry land ; a custom which , however singular, exists at the present day, as, for instance, in the island of Borneo, and even in Switzerland itself. The antiquities found in the small Swiss lakes and peat bogs are more or less covered by a thick layer of peat, which perhaps at some future date will give us a clue to their age. On the contrary, in the large lakes no peat grows. At the entrance of the rivers, indeed, much mud and gravel is of course accumulated ; the Lake of Geneva, for instance, once no doubt extended for a considerable distance up the Valley of the Rhône. But the gravel and mud brought down by that river are deposited, as every one knows, near its entrance into the lake, and the water of the lake is elsewhere beautifully clear and pure. The lake itself is very deep, in parts as much as nine hundred and eighty feet; and the banks are generally steep, but round the margin there is, in most places, a fringe of shallow water, due, probably, to the erosive action of the waves, and known to the fishermen as the “ blancfond ,” because the lake is there of a pale greyish hue, when contrasted with the bright blue of the central deeper water. It is on this “ blancfond ,” and at a depth of sometimes as much as fifteen feet, that the Pfahlbauten were generally constructed. On calm days, when the surface of the water is unruffled, the piles are plainly visible. Few of them now project more than two feet from the bottom ; eaten away by the incessant action of the water, some of them " n'apparaissent plus que comme 190 LAKE - DWELLINGS OF DIFFERENT PERIODS. aiguilles,” which finally also disappear, and leave only a black disk at the surface of the mud. This, however, is the case principally in the Lake villages of the Stone Age. The more complete destruction of the piles belonging to the earlier period depends not only on their greater age, but on their occurrence in shallower water. The action of the waves being greatest near the surface, and diminishing gradually downwards, not only are those piles which occupy the deeper parts least liable to destruction, but in each the erosion takes place gradually from above, so that the upper end of the piles is often more regularly pointed even than the lower. Lying among them are fragments of bone, horn , pottery, and some times objects of bronze. Most of these are embedded in the mud or hidden under the stones, but others lie on the bottom yet uninjured ; so that when, for the first time, I saw them through the transparent water, a momentary feeling of doubt as to their age rose in my mind. So fresh are they and so unaltered, they look as if they were only things of yesterday, and it seems hard to believe that they can have remained there for centuries. The explanation of the difficulty is, how ever, to be found in the fact that the action of the most violent storms is perceptible only to a small depth. Except, therefore, near the mouths of rivers, or where there is much vegetation , which in the large lakes is rarely the case, the deposition of mud at depths greater than four feet is an extremely slow process, and objects which fall to the bottom in such situations will neither be covered over nor carried away. “ J'ai pêché,” says M. Troyon, “ sur l'emplacement en face du Moulin de Bevaix, les fragments d'un grand vase qui gisaient à peu de distance les uns des autres, et que j'ai pu réunir de manière à les remontre complétement. A la Tongue, près d'Hermance, j'ai trouvé les deux fragments d'un anneau support, distants de quelques pieds, qui, en les rapprochant ne laissent aucun interstice.” The upper parts of the objects also, which are DESCRIPTION OF THE REMAINS AT WAUWYL. 193 The pile -works of subsequent periods differ little from those of the Stone Age, so far at least as can be judged by the parts remaining, but the piles are less decayed, and project above the mud farther than is the case with those of the preceding epoch . Through the kindness of Col. Suter, I had an opportunity of examining the construction of the Lake-dwelling at Wauwyl, near Zofingen, in the canton of Lucerne. This apparently belonged to the Stone Age, no trace of metal having yet been discovered in it. It is situated in a peat moss, which was evidently at one time the bed of a shallow lake. By the gradual growth of peat, however, the level has been raised several feet, and the plain has recently been drained. We were assisted by six labourers, who dug out the peat, which we then carefully examined. I mention this, because the difference in the objects collected from different Pfahlbauten may probably be, in part at least, accounted for by the dif ferent ways in which the search has been made. The peat at Wauwyl varies in thickness from three to ten feet, and rests on a white bed consisting of broken fresh -water shells. This stratum , though only a few inches thick, is found in the old beds of many small lakes, and is frequently mentioned by the Swiss archæologists under the name of “ weissgrund.” It must not, however, be confounded with the “ blancfond” of the larger lakes. The piles go through the peat and the “weissgrund” into the solid ground below. It is not easy to obtain them whole, because the lower portions are much altered by time, and so thoroughly saturated by water that they are quite soft. Col. Suter, however, extracted two of them ; one was 14 ft . 6 in. in length, of which 4ft. was in the peat, and the remaining 10 ft. 6 in. in the sand beneath ; the other was only 8 ft. 6 in. long, 4ft. of which was in the peat, the other 4ft. 6 in. in the solid ground. The piles vary from three to five inches in dia 0 194 WEAPONS AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKEMEN . meter, and are always round, never having been squared. The lower part is very badly cut, so that it is difficult to understand how they can have been forced to so great a depth into the ground. In most of the Pfahlbauten the piles are scattered, more or less irregularly, over the whole extent of the settlement : at Wauwyl this is not the case , but they enclose, as it were, four quadrangular areas, the interiors of which are occupied by several platforms one over the other, the interstices being filled up by branches, leaves, and peat. The objects of anti quity are not scattered throughout the peat, but lie either on the layer of broken shells, which formed the then bottom of the lake, or in the lower part of the peat. It is, therefore, evident that almost the whole, if not the whole, of the peat has grown since the time at which this interesting ruin was inhabited. The upper part had, however, been removed before our arrival, so that the “ culturges chicht, ” the layer containing the objects of antiquity, was exposed ready for examination in the manner already described. Some of the piles still stand two or three feet above the level of the peat, but the greater number are broken off lower down. We stood on one of the upper platforms, which seems to have been the floor on which the huts were erected , and the beams of which are still perfectly preserved. It was at first a question in what manner the platforms at this place were supported ; whether they Swiss Stone Axe. lay like a raft on the surface of the FIG . 164 . AXES. KNIVES. 195 water, rising and sinking with it ; * or whether they were fixed, and rested on a sort of artificial island, formed by the clay, branches, etc. , which now occupy the interspaces between the different platforms. Subsequent observations, however, confirmed as they have been by discoveries elsewhere, as, for instance, at Inkwyl and Niederwyl, have decided the question in favour of the latter hypothesis. During my visit at Wauwyl we obtained four small stone axes, one arrow - head, four flint flakes, fifteen rude stone ham mers, eight whetstones, thirty -three slingstones, eight instru ments of bone, and two of wood, besides numerous bones, and a great quantity of broken pottery . Col. Suter regarded this as a fair average day's work. Altogether about 500 instru ments of stone and bone had been discovered at Wauwyl; at Moosseedorf more than 3300 ; at Wangen no less than 5800, while M. Troyon estimated that those at Concise must have amounted to 25,000, and these numbers have since been largely increased. The axe was pre-eminently the implement of antiquity. It was used in war and in the chase, as well as for domestic purposes, and great numbers have been found, especially at Wangen ( Lake of Constance) and Concise (Lake of Neuf châtel). With a few exceptions, they are small, especially when compared with the magnificent specimens from Den mark ; in length they varied from one to six inches, while the cutting edge had generally a width of from fifteen to twenty lines. Flint was sometimes used, and nephrite or jade in a few cases, but serpentine and diorite were the principal mate rials. Most of the larger settlements were evidently manu facturing places, and many spoilt pieces and half - finished specimens have been found. After having chosen a stone,

• Dwellings of this character sion to Sumatra , p. 395. Squier,

occur in the East and in S. America . American Naturalist, vol . iv. p. 18 . See, for instance , Anderson's Mis 02 196 SAWS. SPINDLE -WHORLS. FLAKES. the first step was to reduce it by blows with a hammer to a suitable size. Then grooves were made artificially, which must have been a very tedious and difficult operation, when flint knives, sand, and water were the only available instru ments. Having carried the grooves to the required depth, the projecting portions were removed by a skilful blow with a hammer, and the implement was then sharpened and polished on blocks of sandstone. The axes appear to have been fastened into the bandles by means of bitumen , obtained probably either from the Val de Travers near Neufchâtel or from the Perte du Rhône. The stone knives may be considered as of two sorts. Some differ from the axes principally in having their width greater than their length . In other cases flint flakes were set in wooden handles, and fastened, like the axes, by means of bitumen. Saws also ( fig. 126) were made in a similar manner, but with their edges somewhat rudely dentated ; we do not find in Switzerland any of the semi-lunar stone implements which are frequent in Denmark . The arrow -heads were made of flint, or in some cases of rock crystal, and were of the usual forms. Spindle - whorls of rude earthenware ( fig. 165) were abundant in some of the Lake villages even of the Stone Age. The presence of these whorls indicates a knowledge of weaving, which indeed is proved by even more conclusive evidence. At Locray, a spindle-whorl was found actually attached to the spindle, which had thread still wound round it. There are also found rounded stones, pierced with one or sometimes two holes. The use of these is uncertain , but they may perhaps have been used to sink fishing -lines. The flint flakes offer no peculiari ties ; the Swiss specimens are, how ever, of small size. Corn - crushers, Spindle Whorl (Stone Age ). which are round balls of hard stone, FIG. 165 . ARROW -HEADS. IMPLEMENTS OF BONE AND WOOD. 197 two or three inches in diameter, occur even in the villages of the Stone Age. The list of objects hitherto found at Wauwyl is as follows : 43 . Stone axes, principally of serpen tine . Small flint arrow - heads Flint flakes Corn - crushers Rude stones used as hammers, common (say) Whetstones Slingstones, etc. 36 200 16 . Not all collected . 20 26 85 In all about . 426 articles of stone. The flint, of which the flakes and arrow -heads were formed, must have come from a distance, and the best pieces in all probability were obtained from France. Visits may have been made to the French quarries, just as Catlin tells us that the American tribes, from far and near, visited the red pipe stone quarry of Coteau des Prairies. A few fragments of Mediterranean coral have been found at Concise, and of Baltic amber at Meilen . Some archæologists have argued from these facts, that there must have been a certain amount of commerce even in the Stone Age. As, however, both these settlements appear to have belonged to the transitional period between the age of Stone and that of Bronze, it would be safer to refer both the amber and the coral to the later period. Like other savages, the Lake-dwellers made the most of any animal they could catch. They ate the flesh , used the skin for clothing, picked every fragment of marrow out of the bones, and then, in many cases, fashioned the bones themselves into weapons. The larger and more compact ones, as well as horns of the deer, served as hammers, and were used as 198 POTTERY. handles for hatchets. In some cases, pieces of bone were worked to an edge, but they are neither hard nor sharp enough to cut well. Bone awls are numerous, and may have been used in preparing skins for clothes. Fig. 128 (p. 109) repre sents a chisel or scraper of bone, from Wangen. One purpose for which these were used was no doubt to scrape off the hair, in dressing skins. A few objects made of wood have also been found at Wauwyl and elsewhere ; but these, even if originally numerous, would be difficult to distinguish from the surrounding peat, especially as this contains so many branches of trees and other fragments of wood ; and it would also be very difficult to extract them FIG . 166 . -MM Piece of Pottery . - Lake of Zurich . entire. Perhaps, therefore, implements of wood may have been much more varied and common than the collections would appear to indicate. Tinder has been found in several of the Lake villages, and was no doubt used in obtaining fire. The pottery of the Stone Age presents nearly the same characters in all the settlements. Very rude and coarse, it is generally found in broken pieces, and comparatively few entire vessels have been obtained. There is no evidence that the potter's wheel was known, and the baking is very imperfect, DRESS. 199 having apparently taken place in an open fire. The material is also very rude, and generally contains numerous grains of quartz. The form is frequently cylindrical, but several of the jars are rounded at the base, and without feet. A curious character is the frequent presence of a row of depressions which do not completely penetrate the thickness of the vessel ; but the commonest decorations are simple lines or furrows, made sometimes by a sharp instrument, sometimes by the finger-nail ( see fig. 166) , and occasionally produced by pressing a cord on the soft clay. Curved lines are rare ; no represen tation of any animal has yet been met with ; and the vase found at Wangen, a restored figure of which has been given both by Dr. Keller and by M. Troyon, is almost the only instance in which any attempt has been made to represent a plant. In this case the design is even ruder than might be inferred from the above-mentioned figures. * In some of the Bronze Age villages rings of pottery are found, which were evidently intended to serve as supports for these earthenware tumblers, but none of them have yet been met with in any of the Stone Age villages. Possibly the earthenware during the Stone Age rested on the soft earth, and tables were only intro duced in the Bronze Age, when by means of metallic imple ments it became so much easier to cut wood, and particularly to make boards. Many of the vessels had small projections, which were pierced in such a manner that strings might be passed through them, and which may, therefore, have served for suspension. Some of the vessels, also, are pierced by small holes at different levels; it has been suggested that these may have been used in the preparation of curds, the small holes being intended to permit the escape of the milk. The orna ments on the pottery belonging to this age are of a very rude and simple character. Sometimes a row of knobs runs round

• In Lee's second edition of Keller's Lake Dwellings, pl. xv. , a figure is given of the actual fragments.

200 THE FAUNA OF THE LAKE- DWELLINGS. the vase, just below the lip ; this style of ornamentation is common on the pottery found by M. Gilliéron at the Pont de Thiéle. Although there can be no doubt that the skins of animals supplied the ancient Lakemen with their principal articles of clothing, still in several of the settlements, and especially at Wangen and Robenhausen, both of which belong to the Stone Age, pieces of rude fabric ( fig. 168) have been found in some FIG . 168 . Piece of Tissue from Robenhausen , abundance. They consist either of flax fibres or straw . The presence of spindle -whorls has been already mentioned. For our knowledge of the animal remains from the Pile works we are principally indebted to Prof. Rütimeyer. The bones are in a very fragmentary condition, and have been broken open for the sake of the marrow. There is also the same absence of certain bones and parts of bones, so that it is impossible to re-construct a perfect skeleton even of the commonest animal. The total number of species amounts to about seventy, of which ten are fishes, four reptiles, twenty- six birds, and the remainder quadrupeds. Of the latter, six species may be considered as having been domesticated ; namely, the dog, MOOSSEEDORF. 201 pig, horse, goat, sheep, and at least two varieties of oxen. The bones very seldom occur in a natural condition ; but those of domestic and wild animals are mixed together, and the state in which they are found, the marks of knives upon them, and their having been almost always broken open for the sake of their marrow, are all evidences of human interference. Two species, the one wild, the other domestic, are especially numerous — the stag and the ox. Indeed, the remains of these two equal those of all the others together. It is, however, an interesting fact, that in the older settlements, as at Moossee dorf, Wauwyl, and Robenhausen, the stag exceeds the ox in the number of specimens indicated , while the reverse is the case in the more modern settlements of the western lakes, as, for instance, those at Wangen and Meilen. Next to these in order of abundance is the hog. Less numerous again, and generally represented by single speci mens where the preceding occur in numbers, are the roe, the goat, and the sheep, which latter is most abundant in the later settlements. With these rank the fox and the marten . Foxes are occasionally eaten by the Esquimaux. * Captain Lyon seems to have taken rather a fancy to them , and Franklin assures us that fat fox is better than lean venison.I They also appear, whether from choice or necessity, to have been eaten during the Stone period. This conclusion is de rived from the fact that the bones often present the marks of knives, and have been opened for the sake of the marrow . While, however, the fox is very frequent in the Pile - works of the Stone epoch, it has not yet been found in any settlement belonging to the Bronze period. Oddly enough, the dog is rarer than the fox, at least as far as the observations yet go, in the Lake- dwellings of the Stone period, though more com

• Crantz, History of Greenland,

vol. i. p. 73. Lyon's Journal, p. 77. I Franklin, vol. iii. pp. 219-239. 202 THE FAUNA. 1 mon than the horse ; and of other species but few specimens have been met with, though in some localities the beaver, the badger, and the hedgehog appear in some numbers. The bear and the wolf, as well as the urus, the bison, and the elk, seem to have occasionally been captured ; it is probable that the latter species were taken in concealed pits. From the small lake at Moosseedorf, M. Rütimeyer has identified the following list :-Of the dog, three specimens ; fox, four specimens ; beaver, five specimens ; roe, six speci mens ; goat and sheep, ten specimens ; cow , sixteen speci mens ; hog, twenty specimens ; stag, twenty specimens. It is certainly very striking to find two wild species represented by the greatest number of speciinens, and particularly so, since this is no exceptional case ; but the whole sum of the wild exceeds that of the domesticated individuals, a result, moreover, which holds good in other settlements of this epoch. Not only does this indicate a great antiquity, but also that the population must have been sometimes subjected to great privations, partly from the unavoidable uncertainty of supplies so obtained, partly because it is improbable that foxes would have been eaten except under the pressure of hunger. The bones of the stag and the wild boar often indicate animals of an unusual magnitude, while, on the other hand, the fox appears to have been somewhat smaller than at present. The dogs varied less than they do now; in fact they all belong to one variety, which was of middle size, and appears to have resembled our present beagles. ( M. Rütimeyer describes it as “ resembling the Jagdhund” and the “ Wachtelhund." ) The sheep of the Stone period differed from the ordinary form in its small size, fine legs, and short goat - like horns ; particulars in which it is nearly resembled by some northern and moun tain varieties at the present day, as, for instance, by the small sheep of the Shetlands, Orkneys, Welsh hills, and parts of the Alps. At Wauwyl, however, M. Rütimeyer found traces THE FAUNA. 203 of an individual with large horns. Our knowledge of the wild species of sheep is so deficient, that M. Rütimeyer does LIST OF SPECIES . Moosseedorf . Robenhausen . Wauwyl Wangen . .Meilen Concise . Bienne . 2 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 Ursus Arctos 2 Meles vulgaris 3 Mustela Foida 4 Martes 5 Putorius. 6 Erminea . 7 Lutra vulgaris 8 Canis Lupus...... 9 familiaris ( palustris ) 10 Vulpes 11 Felis Catus ( ferus) 12 Erinaceus europæus. 13 Castor Fiber ... 14 Sciurus europæus. 15 Mus sylvaticus. 16 Lepus timidus 17 Sus Scrofa ferus 18 Palustris 19 Scrofa domesticus 20 Equus Caballus 21 E. Asinus ..... 22 Cervus Alces 23 Elaphus Capreolus 25 Capra Ibex 26 Hircus 27 Ovis Aries 28 Antilope rupicapra 29 Bos primigenius 30 Bison 31 Taurus primigenius 32 Taurus brachyceros 33 Taurus frontosus ܕܝܙܗ ܟܬܗ ܟܬܟܬ ܪܟܬ ܕܝܢܢܕܟܢܬܢܙܟܘܗܟܬܢܙܟܚ: i NON erg:: :NO ::: -ܟܬܟܬܬܗܟܝܩܘܒܗܢܙܟܬܟܬ ܝܚܙ;:;.: ܪܟܬܙܒܝ ܗܝܚܙܟܬ ܢܙܝܝܙܕ ܟܨܢܝܕ ܝܙܢܕ ܝܺܟܬܢܙܗܬܟܘ.:

COON 1Nom::O NNNomܝܙܗ ܟܬܢܕܘܟܗ ܢܚܙܘܟܬܝܙ!;ܚ:܃;

1 2 1 24 34 34 9 not venture to express any opinion concerning the origin of the domestic varieties, but his present impression is that they will eventually be traced up to several wild races. In his first memoir, Prof. Rütimeyer gives an interesting table, which, with some additions which I owe to his kind 204 BIRDS. courtesy, is here subjoined, the relative frequency being indi cated by numerals : 1 denotes a single individual ; 2 indicates that the remains of several individuals have been met with ; 3 the species which are common ; 4 those which are very common ; and lastly, 5 those which are present in great number. The almost entire absence of the hare is doubtless owing to the curious prejudice which was and is entertained by many races against the flesh of this animal. It was never eaten by the ancient Britons, and is avoided by the Lapps at the present day. According to Burton, * the Somal Arabs will not touch it, and M. Schlegel also states that the pre judice against it existed among the ancient Chinese.f The Namaquas ( S. Africa) do not eat it for fear of becoming timid. Perhaps for this reason it was, among the Hottentots, forbidden to men, but permitted to women . It was regarded as unclean by the Jews, being erroneously supposed to chew the cud. According to Crantz, the Greenlanders, if in want, will eat foxes rather than hares, nor do its remains occur in the Danish shell-mounds. It appears, however, to have been eaten in Paläolithic times.) The birds which have been discovered are : Aquila fulva. The golden eagle. At Robenhausen . Aquila haliætus. A single bone found at Moosseedorf is rather doubtfully referred to this species by M. Rütimeyer. Falco milvus. Robenhausen.

• First Footsteps, p. 155.

+ Notes and Queries on China, Japan, Hongkong, May, 1868. I Le Vaillant, Voyages dans l'Af rique, vol. iv. p. 187. $ History of Greenland, p. 73. || Boyd Dawkins. Geol. Jour. 1876, p. 247. MOUSE. CAT. ASS. 205 Falco palumbarius. Wauwyl, Moosseedorf. Falco nisus. Moosseedorf. Falco buteo. Moosseedorf, Robenhausen. Strix aluco. Concise. Strix otus. Moosseedorf. Strix bubo. Wangen. Sturnus vulgaris. Robenhausen. Corvus corone. Corvus corax. Cinclus aquaticus. Columba palumbus. Moosseedorf. Tetrao bonasia. Tetrao lagopus. Moosseedorf. Ciconia alba. Not unfrequent at Moosseedorf and Robenhausen, Ardea cinerea. Robenhausen . Grus cinerea. Fulica atra. Larus. Two sp . Mergus. Mergus merganser. Bienne. Cygnus olor. Robenhausen. Anser segetum . Anas boschas. Robenhausen, Moosseedorf, Wauwyl. Anas querquedula. Podiceps minor. Robenhausen. The reptiles and fishes are represented by about ten of our commonest species. The common mouse and our two house-rats, as well as the domestic cat, are absent from the Lake-habitations of Switzer land, as also from the Kjökkenmöddings of Denmark ; the same is the case with the common fowl, which seems, more over, to have been unknown to Homer and Hesiod ; Prof. Rütimeyer attributes to a later period a single bone of the 206 HORSE. BOAR. latter bird which was found at Morges, a settlement belonging to the Bronze period. The earliest remains of the ass mentioned by Prof. Rüti meyer are those found at Chavannes and Noville, which, however, were not connected with Pfahlbauten, and belonged to post- Roman times. In the Bible, the ass is first mentioned in the time of Abraham, who had “ sheep, and oxen, and he asses, and men -servants, and maid - servants, and she -asses, and camels. " * It will be observed that in this enumeration no mention is made of horses. Laban, again, had sheep, and goats, and cattle, and camels, and asses, but apparently no horses. Again, the present which Jacob sent to Esau con sisted of two hundred she - goats and twenty he- goats, two hundred ewes and twenty rams, thirty milch camels with their colts, forty kine and ten bulls, twenty she- asses and ten foals.t Indeed, no mention whatever is made of horses until the children of Israel went into Egypt ; and from the copious and interesting details of their pastoral life, we may feel sure that horses would have been alluded to if the Hebrews had possessed them. As regards Egypt, the horse is not repre sented on any of the monuments anterior to the 18th dynasty, after which, however, it appears to have become abundant in that country. As regards the Swiss Lake villages, it is singular that though remains of the horse have been found in all the Pile works, they are so rare that their presence may almost be considered accidental: thus, Wangen has only produced a single tooth ; Moosseedorf, a metatarsal bone, which has been polished on one side ; Robenhausen, a single os naviculare tarsi ; and Wauwyl, only a few bones, which may all have belonged to a single individual. On the other hand, when we come to the Bronze period, we find at Nidau numerous bones of this species ; so that, as far as these slight indications

• Gen. xii. 16. + Gen. xxxiii. 14.

SUS PALUSTRIS. 207 go, the horse, even if present in the Stone Age, seems to have been rarer than at subsequent periods. All the remains of this animal belonged apparently to the domestic horse (Equus caballus), while those which occur in the Drift gravel beds and in caves fall into two well-marked races, named by Prof. Owen, E. fossilis and E. spelæus. “ The genealogy of the domestic hog ,” says Mr. Boyd Daw kins, * " has been ascertained by MM. Rütimeyer, Nathusius, and Schütz, with great accuracy, and Dr. Darwin has summed the evidence with judicial impartiality.t It is traced, by these observers, to two distinct strains, the one being the wild boar, which is found throughout the temperate and hot regions of Europe, Asia , and in North Africa ; and ( the other) that which is termed by Nathusius the Sus Indica, of Pallas, and which is known commonly as the small, short-legged , and short-headed pig of Siam and China. " up FIG. 169 . WW Part of the Vertebra of a Cow. M. Rütimeyer, in a letter with which he has favoured me,

• Palæontographical Soc. 1878, + Variations under Domestica vol. xxxii. p. 13. tion, vol. i. ch. i .

208 SUS PALUSTRIS. sayshe is now convinced that the Sus palustris " was imported from the East, and stands in nearest relation to Sus vittatus FIG. 170. WW Part of the corresponding Vertebra of the Bison. of East Asia, the stock from which all Asiatic, most African and Southern European (Roman and Greek) races are derived, " the Northern European race being, on the contrary, derived from the wild boar. Our domestic hog first makes its appearance in the later Pile -works. Prof. Rütimeyer does not, however, believe that it was tamed by the inhabitants of Switzerland, but is rather disposed to look upon it as having been introduced during the Bronze Age, and the more so as he also finds at Concise traces of a variety of the ox ( B. trochoceros) which does not occur in the earlier Pile -works. The discovery of dung among the remains of the Pfahl bauten sufficiently proves that the Lake -dwellers had domes tic animals, but there are also other indications from which we may draw the same conclusion. In endeavouring to ascertain whether any given bones COMPARISON OF THE BONES BELONGING TO OXEN. 209 belonged to a wild or domesticated animal, we must be guided by the following considerations : the number of individuals represented ; the relative proportions of young and old ; the absence or presence of very old individuals, at least in the case of species that serve for food ; the traces of long, though indirect, selection, in diminishing the size of any natural weapons which might be injurious to man ; the direct action of man during the life of the animal; and, finally, the texture and condition of the bones. Applying these considerations to the Sus palustris from Moosseedorf, Prof. Rütimeyer concludes that there is no evidence that any of them belonged to domesticated speci mens. Prof. Rütimeyer has also paid great attention to the texture and condition of the bones themselves, and believes that he can, in many cases, froin these alone distinguish the species, and even determine whether the bone belonged to a wild or a domesticated animal. In wild animals the bones are of a firmer and closer tex ture ; there is an indescribable, but to the accustomed eye very characteristic, sculpturing of the external surface, pro duced by the sharper and more numerous impressions of vessels, and the greater roughness of the surfaces for the attachment of muscles. There is also an exaggeration of all projections and ridges, and a diminution of all indifferent surfaces. The contrast thus produced will be seen from figs. 169 and 170, the first of which represents a portion of a vertebra belonging to a domestic cow, the second the corre sponding surface of the same bone from the bison. In con sidering the remains of oxen, these distinctions have proved of the greatest importance. By their assistance Prof. Rüti meyer has convinced himself that, besides the two wild species of bos, namely, the urus ( B. primigenius) and the aurochs P 210 ABSENCE OF EXTINCT SPECIES. 2binereirens apoltol cour annalle ( B. bison or Bison Europeus), four principal races of domestic oxen occur in the Lake villages. The first of these, the Primigenius race, closely resembles the Urus or Bos primigenius, and was no doubt descended from it. It occurs in all the earlier Pile- works, and in the present day is best represented by the wild cattle of Chilling ham, and the great oxen of Friesland, Jutland, and Holstein. The second, or Trochoceros race, has not hitherto been found in any of the Stone Age villages. Rütimeyer regards it as scarcely distinguishable from the urus, and observes that its peculiarities are principally, though not exclusively, developed in the female sex. The third, or Frontosus race, occurs but sparingly in the older Pfahlbauten ; becomes more frequent in the Bronze Age villages, and prevails at the present day in northern Switzer land. Prof. Rütimeyer considers this variety also to be derived from the urus, and remarks that while the wild cattle of Chil lingham are true to the primigenius form, some of the Lyme Park cattle approach to the frontosus type. He has, however, never seen a skull of this type belonging to an undoubtedly wild animal. The fourth is the Longifrons or Brachyceros race. The name Brachyceros, by which it was at first known, must be aban doned, having been previously applied by Dr. Gray to an African ox. This variety is extremely abundant in all the Pfahlbauten . Prof. Rütimeyer regards it as descended, not from the urus, but from a second and smaller species, perhaps from Bos indicus. He remarks, however, that if it be derived from the urus, it is at least a more distinct, and must be an older variety than any of the preceding. Prof. Rütimeyer admits that we have no evidence that B. longifrons ever existed in a wild state in Central Europe.

• Ar. für Anthropologie, 1866, p. 219.

iront arbits leeren scritical high pisictions li ABSENCE OF EXTINCT SPECIES. 211 M. de Quatrefages * considers all our domestic oxen to be descendants of the urus ; while Mr. Darwint regards B. longi frons and B. frontosus as the modern representatives of wild ancestors, specifically distinct from B. primigenius; and con cludes therefore that our “ domestic cattle are almost certainly the descendants of more than one wild form .” Mr. Boyd Dawkins has shown that, as far as this country is concerned, we have no conclusive evidence of more than two species of wild oxen, namely, the urus and the bison. The smaller varieties appear to have been introduced as domesticated animals, and probably do not go back beyond the Neolithic period. According to Nilsson, on the contrary, both the Bos frontosus and B. longifrons inhabited Sweden as wild races. My own impression is that the urus was domesticated in Europe ; but also that some at least of the early settlers brought domestic cattle with them, which may very probably have belonged to a distinct wild race. Further evidence, however, is much needed on this interesting subject. Making allowance then for the marine animals, such as seals, fish, oysters, cockles, whelks, etc., which we could not expect to find so far away from the sea, the fauna indicated by the remains found in the Swiss lakes agrees remarkably with that which characterizes the Danish Kjökkenmöddings, so far as wild animals are concerned , and belongs evidently to a far later age than that of the celebrated stone hatchets, which were first made known to us by the genius and perse verance of M. Boucher de Perthes. Instead of the elephant and rhinoceros, we find in the Neo lithic or second Stone period — in that, namely, of the Kjök kenmöddings and “ Pfahlbauten ” —the urus and bison, the

• Rev. des Cours Scientifiques, I Boyd Dawkins, Geol. Jour.

1868, p. 563. 1867, p. 182. † Animals and Plants under § Ann, and Mag. of Nat. His. Domestication, vol. i . p. 81 . 1849, pp. 349–351. P 2 212 AUROCHS. ELK. IBEX . elk and the red deer, already installed as monarchs of the forest. Even the reindeer is altogether absent. The red deer, on the contrary, and the boar, appear to have been very frequent, and to have formed a most important article of food for the Lake-dwellers. The urus, or great fossil ox, is now altogether extinct, at least as a wild species. * It is mentioned by Cæsar, who describes it as being little smaller than an elephant. (Hi sunt magnitudine paulo infra elephantos specie et colore et figurâ tauri. ) According to Herberstein, it still existed in Germany during the sixteenth century, soon after which, however, it must have become extinct. The aurochs, or European bison, seems to have disappeared from Western Europe at about the same period as the urus . There is no historical record of its existence in England or Scandinavia. In Switzerland we cannot trace it later than the tenth century ; but it is mentioned in the “ Niebelungen Lied, ” of the twelfth century, as occurring in the Forest of Worms; and in Prussia the last was killed in the year 1775. At one period, indeed, it appears to have inhabited almost the whole of Europe, much of Asia, and part even of America ; but at present it is confined in Europe to the imperial forests in Lithuania, where it is preserved by the Emperor of Russia ; while, according to Nordmann and Von Baer, it still exists in some parts of Western Asia. We have no notice of the existence of the elk in Switzer land during the historical period, but it is mentioned by Cæsar as existing in the great Hercynian forest; and even in the twelfth century it was to be met with in Sclavonia and Hun gary , according to Albertus Magnus and Gesner. In Saxony, the death of the last elk is recorded as having occurred in 1746. At present it inhabits Prussia and Lithuania, Finland

• Prof. Rütimeyer, as I have al- Park are unmistakeable, though ready mentioned, considers that the dwarfish, descendants of the B.

celebrated wild cattle of Tankerville primigenius. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE FAUNA. 213 and Russia, Scandinavia and Siberia, as far as the shores of the Amoor. The ibex survived in the Swiss Alps somewhat longer than the elk. It has lingered longest in the West. In Glarus the last one perished in 1550, though near Chiavenna it existed until the commencement of the seventeenth century , and in the Tyrol until the second half of the eighteenth ; while a few still exist in the neighbourhood of Mont Iséran, where they are protected by the King of Italy. The extermination of the bear, like that of the ibex, seems to have begun in the East, and is not yet complete, since this animal still occurs in the Jura and the Grisons, whence it occasionally visits the Valais and the south - eastern parts of Switzerland. The fox, the otter, and the different species of weasel, are still the common carnivora of Switzerland, and the wild cat, badger and wolf still occur in the Jura and the Alps, the latter in cold winters venturing even into the plains. The beaver, on the contrary , has at last disappeared from Swit zerland. It had long been very rare, but some survived until the beginning of the present century in Lucerne and Valais. A few still exist in France near the mouth of the Rhone. Red deer were abundant in the Jura and the Black Forest in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, though they do not appear to have been so large as those which lived in earlier times . The last was shot in the canton of Basle, at the close of the eighteenth century, while in western Switzerland and Valais they lingered somewhat longer. The roe-deer still occurs in some places. It appears, therefore, that the animals of the Swiss Pile works belong to the fauna which has occupied Europe from the commencement of the Palæolithic period down to the present time. While, however, we must regard the fauna of the Stone Age as belonging to the same great zoological epoch as that 214 GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE FAUNA. of the river drift gravels on the one hand, and the present time on the other, we cannot forget that the immense period which has elapsed since the end of the tertiary period has produced great changes in the fauna of Europe. In this post tertiary era the Pile- works occupy, so to say, the middle posi tion. Distinguished from the present fauna of Switzerland by the possession of the urus, the bison, the elk, the stag, and the wild boar, as well as by the more general distribution of the beaver, the bear, the ibex, etc., their fauna differs from that of the drift gravels in the absence of the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the musk ox, the cave hyæna, and the reindeer. Prof. Rütimeyer thinks that from similar considerations alone, even if we had no other evidence, we might carry this division farther; and if we take the settlements at Moossee dorf, Wauwyl, Robenhausen, and Nidau, which have been the most carefully studied in this respect, it certainly appears that the three former, which belong to the Stone Age, offer a marked contrast to the latter, which is the locality whence the largest number of bronze objects has as yet been obtained. It is of course unnecessary to point out the interest and importance of such a distinction , which accords so well with that indicated by the study of the weapons and the state of preservation of the piles. Thus, the urus has only occurred at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Robenhausen, Wangen, and Concise ; the aurochs only at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, and Robenhausen ; the bear only at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Robenhausen, Wangen, and Concise. A glance at the table given at page 203 will show that several other species have as yet only occurred at Moosseedorf and Robenhausen ; a fact, however, which indicates, perhaps, rather the richness than the antiquity of these localities. Possibly we may consider the presence of these larger species as an indication of their greater abundance in the oldest period ; but we must not forget that not only the bear and the elk , but also the aurochs and the urus appear COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT LAKE VILLAGES.. 215 at a comparatively late period. On the other hand, the abun dance of wild animals, and the fact that at Moosseedorf and Wauwyl the fox was more abundant than the dog, while else where the reverse is the case, certainly speak in favour of the greater antiquity of these two settlements. The evidence derived from the distribution of the domestic animals is more satisfactory. The sheep occurs even at Moosseedorf, though not so numerous as at Nidau. On the other hand, the horse is frequent at Nidau, while at Moossee dorf only a single bone of this animal was discovered, in a different condition from that of the other bones, and probably more recent. Finally, the domestic hog of the present race is absent from all the Pile-works of the Stone period, excepting the one at Wauwyl ; and becomes frequent only at Nidau. The following table shows the proportions of wild and tame Wauwyl. Moosseedorf. Nidau . 2 2 2 2 2 WILD ANIMALS. Brown Bear Badger Marten Pine Marten Polecat Wolf Fox Wild Cat Beaver Elk . Urus Bison Stag Roe Deer Wild Boar 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 2 2 1

conco QWWAIo

Icleii

Marsh Boar * . DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Domestic Boar Horse.... ? 1 Ox 5 Goat Sheep .. Dog ܗܟܬ܀ ܟܬܢܢ 4 2 3

• Considered by Prof. Rütimeyer

to have been at first wild , but do. mesticated at Nidau and in the later Pfahlbauten . 216 THE FLORA OF THE PFAHLBAUTEN . animals at Wauwyl and Moosseedorf, as representing the Age of Stone ; and at Nidau, as perhaps the best illustration of that of Bronze. 1 represents a single individual ; 2, several ; 3, the species which are common ; 4, those which are very common ; and 5, those which are present in large numbers. If succeeding investigations confirm the conclusions thus indicated, we may infer that the domestic animals, which were comparatively rare in the Stone period, became more frequent after the introduction of bronze ; a change which indicates and perhaps produced an alteration of habits on the part of the inhabitants. Rare, indeed, as they may have been, oxen, horses, sheep, and goats could not be successfully kept through the winter in the climate of Switzerland without store of provisions and some sort of shelter. A pastoral people, therefore, must have reached a higher grade than a mere nation of hunters. We know, moreover, in another way, that at this period agriculture was not entirely unknown. This is proved in the most unex pected manner, by the discovery of carbonized cereals at . various points. Wheat is most common, having been dis covered at Meilen, Moosseedorf, and Wangen. At the latter place, indeed, many bushels of it were found, the grains being united in large thick lumps. In other cases the grains are free, and without chaff, resembling our present wheat in size and form , while more rarely they are still in the ear. Ears of the Hordeum hexastichon L. (the six -rowed barley ) are somewhat numerous. This species differs from the H. vulgare L. in the number of rows, and in the smaller size of the grains. According to De Candolle, it was the species generally culti vated by the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. In the ears from Wangen, each row has generally ten or eleven grains, which, however, are smaller and shorter than those now grown. Three varieties of wheat were cultivated by the Lake dwellers, who also possessed two kinds of barley, and two of GRAIN . FRUITS . 217 millet. Of these the most ancient and most important were the small six-rowed barley and small “ Lake -dwellers ” wheat. The discovery of Egyptian wheat (Triticum turgidum) at Wangen and Robenhausen is particularly interesting. Oats were cultivated during the Bronze Age, but are absent from all the Stone Age villages. Rye also was unknown. Wheat and millet only seem to have been used for making bread. Prof. Heer thinks the barley was probably roasted. In six -rowed barley the husks adhere very closely to the grain, and it would have been difficult to separate them ; when roasted, however, they could be easily detached from one another. Still more unexpected was the discovery of bread, or rather cakes, for their texture is so solid that leaven appears not to have been used. They were flat and round, from an inch to fifteen lines in thickness, and, to judge from one specimen, had a diameter of four or five inches. In other cases the grains seem to have been roasted, coarsely ground between stones, and then either stored up in large earthenware pots, or eaten after being slightly moistened . Grain treated in a similar manner is even now eaten in Germany and Switzerland. In what way the ground was prepared for the cultivation of corn we know not, as no implements have as yet been dis covered which can with certainty be regarded as agricultural. Carbonized apples have been found at Wangen, sometimes whole, sometimes cut into two, or more rarely into four pieces, and evidently dried and put aside for winter use. They have occurred not only at Wangen, but also at Robenhausen in Lake Pfeffikon, and at Concise in Lake Neufchâtel. They are small, and resemble generally those which still grow wild in the Swiss forests ; at Robenhausen, however, specimens have occurred which are of larger size and were probably cultivated. No trace of the vine, the walnut, the cherry, or the damson has yet been met with, but stones of the wild plum and the Prunus padus have been found. Seeds of the 218 TRAPA NATANS. FLAX . raspberry and blackberry, and shells of the hazel-nut and beech -nut occur plentifully in the mud, but those of the strawberry are rare. Peas have been found at Moosseedorf, but beans do not appear until the Bronze Age. From all this, therefore, it is evident that the nourishment of the dwellers in the Pile-works consisted of corn and wild fruits, of fish, and the flesh of wild and domestic animals. Milk also was doubtless an important article of their diet. Altogether 115 species of plants have been determined. The wild species are almost entirely the same as those now living; the Silene cretica, however, a South European weed, which was doubtless introduced originally and accidentally with the cereals, and which has been found at Robenhausen, does not now inhabit Switzerland ; and the Trapa natans, which was used as food by the inhabitants of Moosseedorf and Robenhausen, was supposed to be extinct in Switzerland, but is now known to occur in one locality. I subjoin a table which I have compiled from Dr. Heer's memoir, and which shows the more interesting species and varieties. Neither hemp, oats, nor rye have yet been found. Small pieces of twine and bits of matting made of flax may have been part of some article of clothing. For this purpose also there can be little doubt that the skins of animals were used. Fragments of leather have been met with, and some of the stone implements seem well adapted to assist in their prepa ration, while the bone pins, and needles made from the teeth of boars, may have served to fasten them together. Dr. Heer, from whose very interesting memoir * the above facts are borrowed, calls particular attention to the fact that, while the remains of wild species found in the Pfahlbauten agree in the most minute particulars with those still living in Switzerland, the cultivated plants, on the contrary, differ

• Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten .

ANCIENT AGRICULTURE. 219 STONE AGE, TRANSITION. BRONZE AGE. Wangen . .Moosseedorf Robenhausen . Montelier . Parma . Peter's Island

• i

身* ...

1 Hordeum hexastichon sanctum 2 densum . 3 distichum 4 Triticum vulgare antiquorum 5 com pactum muticum 6 Triticum turgidum (Egyptian wheat) 7 Triticum spelta.. 8 dicoccum 9 monococcum 10 Secale cereale 11 Avena sativa ( oats) 12 Panicum miliaceum 13 Setaria italica 14 Silene cretica ..... 15 Centaurea cyanus 16 Pastinaca sativa 17 Faba vulgaris 18 Pisum sativum 19 Ervum leus 20 Pyrus malus ( small crab -apple ) 21 Trapa natans .. 22 Linum angustifolium ...... ...

*

* :::::

from all existing varieties, and invariably have smaller seeds or fruits. Man has evidently in the course of time effected considerable improvements. It is also very interesting to observe how the evidence derived from the Swiss Lake-dwel lings agrees with that contained in the most ancient writings which we possess. Thus flax is mentioned in the Pentateuch and in Homer ; it was also largely used by the ancient Egyp tians, while hemp seems to have been unknown until a later period. So also wheat and barley, but neither oats nor rye, are mentioned in Exodus or by Homer. Even in the time of David, when Barzillai the Gileaditet “ brought beds, and 1 Only one ear, subsequently lost.

• According to the best Hebrew scholars, the word translated “ rye ”

in Exodus ix. 32, really means spelt. + 2 Sam . xviii. 28. 220 SCARCITY OF HUMAN REMAINS. basins, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched corn, and beans, and lentiles, and parched pulse, and honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of kine, " it will be observed that neither oats nor rye are mentioned. Flax also is alluded to nine times in the Old Testament, and linen thirteen times, but hemp not once. To what race of men the Swiss Lake-dwellings are ascrib able we have as yet no direct evidence. Human bones are very rare in the Pile -works, and may probably be referred to accidents, especially as we find that those of children are most numerous. M. Desor, indeed, states that not a single human skeleton has yet been found in any of the stations belonging to the Stone Age ; and Dr. Keller, in his fifth report, informs us that all the Lake villages taken together have not yet produced more than half- a -dozen . One mature skull from Meilen has been described by Professor His, who considers that it does not differ much from the present Swiss type. While his work was in the press, Prof. Rüti meyer received from Col. Schwab four more skulls, two of which were obtained at Nidau, one at Sutz, and one at Biel. Another skull shown to me by Professor Desor, and found at Auvernier, completes the number mentioned by Dr. Keller. All these settlements, however, appear to have belonged to the Bronze Age, nor has it yet been possible certainly to refer any of the ancient tumuli found in Switzerland to the earlier period. Passing now to the Lake - habitations belonging to the Bronze Age, we find that they are less generally distributed than those of the earlier period. They have as yet been found principally on the Lakes of Geneva, Luissel, Neufchâtel, Morat, Bienne, and Sempach ; scarcely any in eastern Switzerland. It has been supposed from this that the Age of Stone lasted longer in the east than in the west, and that flint and serpen tine were in use on Lake Constance long after bronze had BRONZE AGE LAKE VILLAGES . 221 replaced them on the western lakes. We can , however, hardly suppose that the inhabitants of Inkwyl and Moosseedorf in Berne, who imported flint from France, can have been ignorant of the neighbouring civilization on the Lake of Bienne. More over, one settlement of the Bronze Age has been found on the Lake of Constance; but as the question now stands, Pile-works of the Metallic period are almost peculiar to western and central Switzerland. The constructions of the Bronze Age are more solidly built, but do not otherwise appear to have differed materially from those of the Stone Age. They are often, however, situated farther from the land and in deeper water, partly no doubt on account of the greater facility of working timber, but partly also, perhaps, because more pro tection was needed as the means of attack were improved. The principal objects of bronze are swords, daggers, axes, spear heads, knives, fish - hooks, sickles, pins, rings, and bracelets. The number of these articles which have been discovered is already very great, the collection of Col. Schwab alone con taining no less than 4346 objects of metal. They are classified in the table in p. 46, which gives an idea of the relative pro portions in which they occur. Many of them are really beautiful, and as bronze must have been at that early period of considerable value, it is difficult to understand how so many can have been left uncared for and forgotten, along the shallow margins of the Swiss lakes. “ Il est évident, ” says Prof. Desor, “ que ce ne sont pas de rebuts qui se seraient perdus, sans qu'on s'en inquiétât. Ils ne sont pas tombés à l'eau par hasard, non plus que cette quantité de vases qui sont accumulés sur certain points, ni les jattes à provisions qu'on retire intactes. ” On the whole he is inclined to think that in some of these cases at least, we have “ de simples magasins destinés aux ustensiles et aux provisions, et qui auraient été détruits par l'incendie, comme semble l'indiquer la trace du feu que montrent fréquemment 222 THE WORSHIP OF LAKES. les poutres aussi bien que les vases en terre. On expliquerait ainsi comment il se fait que les objets en bronze sont presque tous. neufs, que les vases sont entiers et réunis sur un seul point.” Col. Schwab, however, than whom no man has had more experience in such matters, while agreeing that compa ratively little is ever found except in such Lake villages as show traces of fire, expresses himself decidedly, and I think with reason, against the “ bazaar ” theory. It has been suggested that the early inhabitants of Switzer land may have worshipped the lakes, and that the beautiful bracelets, etc. , may have been offerings to the gods. In fact, it appears from ancient writers that among the Gauls, Germans, and other nations, many lakes were regarded as sacred. Accord ing to Cicero, * Justin, † and Strabo , there was a lake near Tou louse in which the neighbouring tribes used to deposit offerings of gold and silver. Tacitus, Pliny, and Virgil also mention the existence of sacred lakes. Again, so late as the sixth century, Gregory of Tours tells us (De Glor. Confes. chap. ii. ) that on Mount Helanus there was a lake which was the object of popular worship. Every year the inhabitants of the neighbour hood brought to it offerings of clothes, skins, cheese, cakes, etc. Traces of a similar superstition may still be found lingering in the remote parts of Scotland and Ireland; in the former country I have myself seen a sacred spring surrounded by the offerings of the neighbouring peasantry, who seemed to consider pence and halfpence as the most appropriate and agreeable sacrifice to the Spirit of the Waters. Neither the coarse, broken pottery, the castaway fragments of bones, nor the traces of habitations, can, however, be accounted for in this manner.S The pottery of the Bronze period is more varied and more skilfully made than that of the Stone Age, but the potter's

• De Nat. Deor. lib. iii. xxx.

+ Just. xxxii , iii. I Geog. vol . iv. § See also Wylie, “ On Lake dwellings of the Early Periods, " Archæol. vol. xxxviii . p . 181 . TIIE POTTERY OF THE BRONZE AGE. 223 wheel does not seem to have been in use. Rings of earthen ware are common, and appear to have been used as supports for the round-bottomed vases. The ornaments are of the same general character as those on the objects of bronze. Many of the large urns appear to have been used as store- places for the grain, etc., which was collected during the summer for winter's use. In the absence, perhaps, of boxes and cupboards, even ornaments and instruments seem to have been kept in large jars. Some beautiful bracelets were found with several sickles in a jar at Cortaillod. Pieces of pottery, distorted by fire, during the process of baking, have, according to M. Troyon, been found in many of the Lake villages ; whence he concludes that the pottery was manufactured on the spot. Colonel Schwab has found at Nidau more than twenty crescents made of earthenware, with the convex side flattened , to serve as a foot. They are compressed at the sides, some times plain, sometimes ornamented, from ten to twelve inches wide, and six to eight in height. Dr. Keller was at first inclined to regard them as emblems of moon worship, but it is more probable that they were pillows. * Though this seems at first very unlikely, and they must, one would think, have been very uncomfortable, still we know that several barbarous races at the present day use wooden pillows or neck - rests of the same kind, as, for instance, the Fijians, who, having enor mous heads of hair, sacrifice comfort to vanity, and use a mere wooden bar as a pillow. The very long bronze pins found with these “ crescents ” indicate that during the Bronze Age the hair was worn very long and was carefully arranged. M. Troyon is of opinion that the inhabitants of Switzerland during the Bronze Age were of a different race from those who had lived there during the earlier period, and he agrees with some of the Scandinavian archæologists in regarding them as the true “ Celts, and in attributing to them the habit of

• Vogt's Lectures on Man, p. 368.

224 INHABITANTS OF THE LAKE VILLAGES . burning their dead. It would be very desirable to have some statistics, in order that we might appreciate the value of the evidence to be derived from the Swiss tumuli. M. Troyon relies on the fact that many of the Lake villages were de stroyed by fire, and that when, as appears to have been the case at several places, they were rebuilt during the Bronze Age, this was done, not exactly on the same spot, but farther away from the bank. Dr. Keller, on the other hand, considers that the primitive population did not differ, either in disposi tion ( anlage ), mode of life, or industry, from that which was acquainted with the use of bronze ; and that the whole pheno mena of the Lake villages, from their commencement to their conclusion , indicate clearly a gradual and peaceable develop ment. The number of instances in which Lake villages had been destroyed by fire has been, he considers, exaggerated. Of the settlements on the Lakes of Bienne and Neufchâtel, amounting in all to more than seventy , only a quarter have, according to Col. Schwab, shown any traces of combustion ; a proportion which is, perhaps, not greater than might have been expected, remembering that the huts were built of wood, and in all probability covered by thatch. Moreover, if these con flagrations had resulted from the attacks of enemies, we ought surely to have found numerous remains of the slain, whereas all the Lake villages together have not as yet supplied us with the remains of more than half- a - dozen human skeletons. It must, I think, be confessed that the arguments used by M. Troyon fail to prove that the introduction of bronze was accompanied by an entire change of population. The con struction of Lake-dwellings is a habit so unusual, that the continuance of similar habitations during the Bronze Age seems to me a strong argument against any such hypothesis. Towards the close of the Bronze Age the Lake villages appear to have gradually become less numerous. During the Stone Age they were spread over the whole country. Bronze CHARACTER OF THE OBJECTS FOUND IN LAKE VILLAGES. 225 Age settlements are very rare in the east of Switzerland, and the Iron Age is represented only on the Lakes of Bienne and Neufchâtel. In these settlements not only has a new sub stance made its appearance, but the forms of the implements are different. We have, indeed, copies of the bronze axes made in iron , just as we found before that some of the earlier bronze celts resembled the stone axes in form ; but these are exceptional cases. The swords have larger handles, and are more richly ornamented ; the knives have straight edges ; the sickles are larger ; the pottery is more skilfully made, and is of the kind generally known as Roman ; coins occur, the per sonal ornaments are more varied, and glass for the first time makes its appearance. Bronze also is present ; but in the first place it is no longer used for weapons, and in the second it is worked in a different manner, being hammered, * while, as already mentioned, all the objects of the Bronze Age are cast. A field of battle at Tiefenau, near Berne (see p. 8) , is re markable for the great number of iron weapons and imple ments which have been found on it. Pieces of chariots, about a hundred swords, fragments of coat of mail, lance -heads, rings, fibulæ , ornaments, utensils, pieces of pottery and of glass, accompanied by more than thirty Gaulish and Massaliote coins of a date anterior to our era , enable us to refer this battle - field to the Roman period. About forty Roman coins have also been found at the small island on the Lake of Bienne. After this period we find no more evidences of Lake-habita tions on a large scale. Here and there, indeed, a few fisher men may have lingered on the half-destroyed platforms, but the wants and habits of the people had changed , and the age of the Swiss Pile -works was at an end. We have, however, traced them through the ages of Stone and Bronze down to the beginning of the Iron period. We

• See Desor, Les Constructions lacustres du Lac de Neuchatel, p. 27.

226 ANTIQUITY OF LAKE VILLAGES. have seen evidences of a gradual progress in civilization , and improvement in the arts, an increase in the number of domestic animals, and proofs at last of the existence of an extended commerce. We found the country inhabited only by rude savages, and we leave it the seat of a powerful nation. Changes so important as these are not effected in a day ; the progress of the human mind is but slow ; and the gradual additions to human knowledge and power, like the rings in trees, enable us to form some idea how distant must be the date of their commencement. So varied, however, are the conditions of the human mind, so much are all nations affected by the influence of others, that when we attempt to express our impressions, so to say, in terms of years, we are baffled by the complexity of the problem. Some attempts have, indeed, been made to obtain a more definite chronology, and they will be alluded to in a later chapter. Though we must not conceal from ourselves the imperfection of the archæological record, still we need not despair of eventually obtaining some approximate chronology. Our knowlege of primitive antiquity has made an enormous stride in the last ten years, and we may fairly look forward with hope to the future. The Swiss archæologists are continuing their labours, and they may rest assured that we in England watch with interest the result of their investigations. Few things, indeed, can be more interesting than the spectacle of an ancient and long forgotten people thus rising, as it were, from the waters of oblivion, to take that place which properly belongs to it in the history of the human race. ( 227 ) CHAPTER VII. THE DANISH KJÖKKENMÖDDINGS, OR SHELL-MOUNDS. ENMARK occupies a larger space in the history than on the map of Europe ; the nation is greater than the country. Though with the growth of physical power in sur rounding populations, she has lost much of her influence in political councils, and has been recently deprived of a great part of her ancient possessions, still the Danes of to -day are no unworthy representatives of their ancestors. Many a larger nation might envy them the position they hold in science and art, and few have contributed more to the progress of human knowledge. Copenhagen may well be proud both of her museums and of her professors, and I would especially point to the celebrated Museum of Northern Antiquities, as being most characteristic and unique. For the formation of such a collection Denmark offers great opportunities. The whole country appears to have been, at one time, thickly studded with tumuli ; where the land has not been brought into cultivation, many of them are often in sight at once, and even in the more fertile and thickly popu lated parts, the plough is often diverted from its course by one of these ancient burial-places. Fortunately, the stones of which they are constructed are so large and so hard, that their destruction and removal is a laborious and expensive undertaking. While, however, on the one hand, land grows gradually more valuable, and the stones themselves are more and more coveted for building or other purposes; on the other, the conservative traditions, the feeling of superstitious reve Q 2 228 DANISH TUMULI. rence for the dead, which have so long protected them from desecration, is gradually becoming weaker ; and it is esti mated that not a day passes without witnessing the destruc tion of one or more of these tumuli, and the loss of some, perhaps almost irrecoverable, link in the history of the human race. Many of these barrows, indeed, contain in themselves a small collection of antiquities, and the whole country may even be considered as a museum on a great scale. The peat bogs, which occupy so large an area, may almost be said to swarm with antiquities, and Professor Steenstrup estimates that, on an average, every column of peat three feet square contains some specimen of ancient workmanship. All these advantages and opportunities, however, might have been thrown away, but for the genius and perseverance of Pro fessor Thomsen , who may fairly be said to have created the Museum over which he so long and so worthily presided. In addition to the objects collected from the tumuli and the peats bogs, and to those which have been found from time to time scattered at random in the soil, the Museum of Northern Antiquities contains an immense collection of spe cimens from some very interesting shell-mounds, which are known at Denmark under the name of “ Kjökkenmöddings, ” and were long supposed to be raised beaches, like those which are found at so many points along our own shores. True raised beaches, however, necessarily contain a variety of species ; the individuals are of different ages, and the shells are, of course, mixed with a considerable quantity of sand and gravel. But it was observed, in the first instance, I believe, by Professor Steenstrup, that in these supposed beaches, the shells belonged entirely to full -grown, or to nearly full -grown, individuals ; that they consisted of four species which do not live together, nor require the same conditions, and would not, therefore, be found together alone in a natural deposit; and, KJÖKKENMÖDDINGS, OR SHELL - MOUNDS. 229 thirdly, that the stratum contained scarcely any gravel, but consisted almost entirely of shells. The discovery of rude flint implements, and of bones still bearing the marks of knives, confirmed the supposition that these beds were not natural formations, and it subsequently became evident that they were, in fact, the sites of ancient villages; the primitive population having lived on the shore and fed principally on shell -fish, but partly also on the pro ceeds of the chase. In many places hearths were discovered consisting of flat stones, arranged in such a manner as to form small platforms, and bearing all the marks of fire. The shells and bones not available for food gradually accumulated round the tents and huts, until they formed deposits generally from three to five feet, but sometimes as much as ten feet in thick ness, and in some cases more than three hundred yards in length, with a breadth of from one hundred to two hundred feet. The name Kjökkenmödding, applied to these mounds, is derived from Kjökken, “ kitchen ," and mödding (correspond ing to our local word midding) , “ a refuse heap," and it was, of course, evident that a careful examination of these accumu lations would throw much light on the manners and civiliza tion of the then population. Under these circumstances a Committee was formed , con sisting of Professor Steenstrup, the celebrated author of the treatise " On the Alternation of Generations, " Professor Forch hammer, the father of Danish Geology, and Professor Worsaae, the well-known archæologist: a happy combination, promising the best results to biology, geology, and archæology. Much was naturally expected from the labours of such a triumvirate, and the most sanguine hopes have been fulfilled . More than fifty of the deposits have been carefully examined , many thousand specimens have been collected, ticketed, and depo sited in the Museum at Copenhagen, and the general results 230 DESCRIPTION OF THE SHELL - MOUNDS. have been embodied in six Reports, presented to the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen. * It is from these Reports, and from the excellent Memoir by M. Morlot, that the following information has principally been derived. Being, however, anxious to present to my readers a complete and accurate account of these interesting shell mounds, I have more than once visited Denmark ; first in 1861 , with Professor Busk, and again in the summer of 1863. On both these occasions, through the kindness of Professor Thom sen and Herr K. Herbst, every facility has been afforded me of examining the large collections made in different Kjökken möddings, in addition to which I had the great advantage of visiting several of the shell -mounds under the guidance of Professor Steenstrup himself— especially one at Havelse in 1861, and those at Meilgaard and Fannerup in 1863. Mr. Busk and I also visited by ourselves oue at Bilidt, on the Isefjord, close to Fredericksund ; but this is one of the places at which it would seem that the inhabitants cooked their dinners actually on the shore itself, so that the shells and bones are much mixed up with sand and gravel ; and we were not very successful in our search for flint implements. At Havelse, on the contrary, the settlement was on rather higher ground, and, though close to the shore, quite beyond the reach of the waves ; the shells and bones are, therefore, almost unmixed with extraneous substances. At this place the Kjökkenmödding is of small extent, and is in the form of an irregular ring, enclosing a space on which the ancient dwelling or dwellings probably stood. In other cases, where the deposit is of greater extent, as, for instance, in the cele

• Untersögelser i geologisk-anti

quarisk Retning af G. Forchham mer, J. Steenstrup, og J. Worsaae. M. Morlot also has published an excellent abstract of the Reports in the Mém. de la Société Vaudoise, t. vi. 1860. DESCRIPTION OF THE SHELL -MOUNDS. 231 brated shell -mound at Meilgaard, the surface is undulating, the greater thickness of the shelly stratum in some places apparently indicating the arrangement of the dwellings. When the shell-mound at Havelse was previously visited by Professor Steenstrup, the shells were being removed to serve as manure, and the mound, presenting a perpendicular section , was in a very favourable condition for examination. The small pit thus formed had, however, been filled in, so that we were obliged to make a fresh excavation. In two or three hours we obtained about a hundred fragments of bone, many rude flakes, slingstones, and flint fragments, together with nine rude axes of the ordinary “ shell-mound" type ( figs. 108–110) , several of which, however, were picked up on the surface. Our visit to Meilgaard in 1863 was even more successful. This, which is one of the largest and most interesting shell mounds hitherto discovered, is situated not far from the sea coast, near Grenaa in north- east Jutland, in a beautiful beech forest called “ Aigt,” or “ Aglskov," on the property of M. Olsen, who, with a praiseworthy devotion to science, has given orders that the Kjökkenmödding should not be destroyed, although the materials of which it consists are well adapted for the improvement of the soil , and for other purposes, to which, indeed, they had already been in part applied before the true nature of the deposit was discovered. Arriving at his house, without invitation or notice, we were received by M. Olsen and his family with kindness and hospitality. M. Olsen immediately sent two workmen to clear away the rubbish which had fallen in since the last archæological visit, so that when we reached the spot we found a fresh wall of the shell mound ready for examination. In the middle, this Kjökken mödding has a thickness of about ten feet, from which, how ever, it slopes away in all directions ; round the principal mound are several smaller ones, of the same nature. Over the shells a thin layer of mould has formed itself, on which 232 DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHELL - MOUNDS. trees grow . A good section of such a Kjökkenmödding can hardly fail to strike with astonishment any one who sees it for the first time, and it is difficult to convey in words an exact idea of the appearance which it presents. The whole thick ness consists of shells, oysters being at Meilgaard by far the most numerous, with here and there a few bones, and still more rarely stone implements or fragments of pottery. Except ing just at the top and bottom, the mass is quite unmixed with sand and gravel ; and, in fact, contains nothing but what has been in some way or other subservient to the use of man. The only exceptions which I could see were a few , very few , rough flint pebbles, which were probably dredged up with the oysters. While we were in this neighbourhood, we visited another Kjökkenmödding at Fannerup on the Kolindsund, which was even in historical times an arm of the sea, but is now a fresh-water lake. Other similar deposits have been discovered at various points along the Danish coast. Generally it is evident that deposits of this nature were scattered here and there over the whole shore, but that they were never formed inland. The whole country was more intersected by fjords during the Stone period even than it is now. Under these circumstances it is evident that a nation which subsisted principally on marine mollusca would never form any large inlaud settlements. In some instances, indeed, Kjökkenmöd dings have been found as far as eight miles from the present coast, but in these cases there is good reason for supposing that the land has encroached on the sea. On the other hand, in those parts were Kjökkenmöddings do not occur, their absence is no doubt occasioned by the waves having to a certain extent eaten away the shore : an explanation which accounts for their being so much more frequent on the borders of the inland fjords than on the coast itself ; and which seerns to deprive us of all hope of finding any similar remains on our eastern and south-eastern shores. Shell-mounds, although probably SHELL -MOUNDS IN SCOTLAND . 233 ! belonging to a later date, have, however, actually been found on our coasts . They were observed by Dr. Gordon , of Birnie , on the shores of the Moray Firth . I have had the advantage Fig . 171. of visiting these shell -mounds with him . The largest of the Scotch Kjökkenmöddings is on Loch Spynie. We did not find any implements or pottery in it , although we searched for several hours

but

a labourer, who had been employed in carting it away for manure , had previously found some fragments of rude pottery and a bronze pin ( fig. 171 ) . Loch Spynie has been partially drained, and is shut out from the sea by a great accumulation of shingle , so that the water is now perfectly fresh . From ancient records it appears that the shingle barrier was probably completed , and the lake shut out from the sea , in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. On the other hand , I have submitted the bronze pin figured here to Mr. Franks, who gives it as his opinion that it is probably not older than 800 or 900 A.D. If, therefore , it really belongs to the shell-mound , and there seems no reason to doubt the statement of the men who found it , we thus get an approximate date for the accumulation of the mound itself. At St. Valéry , close to the mouth of the Somme, Mr. Evans, Mr. Prestwich , and I found a large accumulation of shells , from which I obtained several flint flakes and some pieces of rude pottery. Mr. Pengelly and Mr. Spence Bate have recently described some shell -mounds in Cornwall and Devon shire . Similar reniains have been observed in various a Scotch parts of the world , as , for instance, in Australia , by mound. Dampier ,

• in Tierra del Fuego by Mr. Darwin

, t in the Malay Peninsula by Mr. Earle, in the Andaman Islands * Pinkerton's Travels, vol. ii . p. 473. + Journal, p. 234. 1 Ethnological Soc. Trans., New Ser. vol. ii. p. 119. Bronze 1 Pin from 234 SHELL-MOUNDS IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 1 by Dr. Stoliczka,* in Japan , t and in both North † and South America. The fact that the majority of the Danish shell-mounds are found at a height of only a few feet above the sea appears to prove that there has been no considerable subsidence of the land since their formation, while, on the other hand, it clearly shows that there can have been no elevation. In certain cases, however, where the shore is steep, they have been found at a considerable height. It might indeed be supposed that where, as at Bilidt, the materials of the Kjökkenmödding were rudely interstratified with sand and gravel, the land must have sunk ; but if for any length of time such a deposit was sub jected to the action of the waves, all traces of it would be obliterated , and it is, therefore, probable that an explanation is rather to be found in the fact that the action of waves and storms may have been greater at that time than it is now. At present the tides only affect the Kattegat to the extent of about a foot and a half, and the configuration of the land protects it very much from the action of the winds. On the other hand, the tides on the west coast of Jutland rise about nine feet, and the winds have been known to produce differ ences of level amounting to twenty -nine feet ; and as we know that Jutland was anciently an archipelago, and the Baltic was more open to the German Ocean than it is now, we can easily understand that the fluctuations of level may have been greater, and we can thus explain how the waves may have risen over the Kjökkenmödding at Bilidt (which is after all not much more than ten feet above the water ), with out resorting to the hypothesis of a subsidence and subsequent elevation of the coast.

• Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, Jan. Naturalist, vol. ii. Nos. 8, 9, and

1870. 11. Foster, Pre-historic Races + Morse, Mem. of Univ. of To- the United States, p . 156. kio, vol. i. $ Brett's Indian Tribes of Guiana. I H. Wyman, The American Agassiz, Journey in Brazil. FAUNA OF THE SHELL -MOUNDS. 235 In the Lake -habitations of the Stone Age in Switzerland, grains of wheat and barley, and even pieces of bread , or rather biscuit, have been found. It does not, however, appear that the men of the Kjökkenmöddings had any knowledge of agri culture, no traces of grain of any sort having been hitherto discovered. The only vegetable remains found in them have been burnt pieces of wood, and some charred substance, referred by M. Forchhammer to the Zostera marina, a sea plant which was, perhaps, used in the production of salt. The four species which are the most abundant in the shell mounds are : The oyster, Ostrea edulis, L. The cockle, Cardium edule, L. The mussel, Mytilus edulis, L., and The periwinkle, Littorina littorea , L. all four of which are still used as food for man. Other species occur more rarely, namely , Nassa reticulata , L. Buccinum undatum , L. Venus pullastra, Mont. Helix nemoralis, Müll. Venus aurea, Gm. Trigonella plana, Da. C. Littorina obtusata, L. Helix strigella, Müll., and Carocolla lapicida, L. It is remarkable that the specimens of the first seven species are well developed, and decidedly larger than any now found in the neighbourhood. This is especially the case with the Cardium edule and Littorina littorea, while the oyster has entirely disappeared, and even in the Kattegat itself occurs only in a few places ; a result which may, perhaps, be partly owing to the quantities caught by fishermen . Some oysters 236 FISH. BIRDS. MAMMALS. were, however, still living in the Isefjord at the beginning of this century, and their destruction cannot be altogether ascribed to the fishermen, as great numbers of dead shells are still present ; but in this case it is attributed to the abundance of starfishes, which are very destructive to oysters. On the whole, their disappearance, especially when taken in connection with the dwarf size of the other species, is evidently attribut able in a great measure to the smaller proportion of salt in the water. Of Crustacea, only a few fragments of crabs have hitherto been found. The remains of vertebrata are very numerous and extremely interesting. In order to form an idea of the number of bones, and of the relative proportions belonging to different animals, Professor Steenstrup dug out from three different parts of the shell-mound at Havelse, square pillars with sides three feet in length, and carefully collected the bones therein contained . In the first pillar he found 175 bones of mammals and 35 of birds ; in the second pillar he found 121 of mammals and 9 of birds; in the third, 309 of mammals and 10 of birds. The pillars, however, were not exactly comparable, because their cubic contents depended on the thickness of the shell-mound at the place where they were taken , and varied between seventeen and twenty cubic feet. On the whole, Professor Steenstrup estimates that there were from ten to twelve bones in each cubic foot. It will be seen, therefore, that the number of bones is very great. Indeed, from the mound at Havelse alone the Committee obtained in one summer 3500 bones of mammals, and more than 200 of birds, besides many hundred of fishes, which latter, indeed, are almost innumerable. The most common species are Clupea harengus, L. (the herring ), Gadus callarias, L. (the dorse), Pleuronectes limanda, L. (the dab), and Muræna anguilla, L. ( the eel ) . BIRDS. MAMMALS. 237 The remains of birds are highly interesting and instructive. The domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) is entirely absent. The two domestic swallows of Denmark ( Hirundo rustica and H. urbica ), the sparrow and the stork, are also missing. On the other hand, fine specimens of the capercailzie ( Tetrao urogal lus), which feeds principally on the buds of the pine, show that, as we know already from the remains found in the peat, the country was at one time covered with pine forests . Aquatic birds, however, are the most frequent, especially several species of ducks and geese. The wild swan ( Cygnus musicus), which only visits Denmark in winter, is also fre quently found; but perhaps the most interesting of the birds whose remains have been identified, is the Great Auk ( Alca impennis, L.), a species which is now almost, if not altogether, extinct. Of Mammalia, by far the most common are The stag ( Cervus elephas, L.) The roedeer ( Cervus capreolus, L.), and The wild boar ( Sus scrofa, L.). Indeed, Professor Steenstrup estimates that these three species form ninety -seven per cent of the whole ; the others are The urus ( Bos urus, L) The dog (Canis familiaris, L.) The fox ( Canis vulpes, L.) The wolf (Canis lupus, L.) The marten (Martes sp.) The otter ( Lutra vulgaris, Exl. ) The porpoise ( Delphinus phocæna, L.) The seal ( Phoca sp .) The water- rat ( Hypudæus amphibius, L. and Hypudæus agrestis, L.) The beaver (Castor fiber, L.) The lynx ( Felis lynx, L.) 238 CONDITION OF THE BONES. The wild cat ( Felis catus, L.) The hedgehog ( Erinaceus europaeus, L.) The bear ( Ursus arctos, L.) The mouse ( Mus flavicollis, Mel.). There are also traces of a smaller species of ox. The Lithu anian aurochs ( Bison europæus) has been found, though rarely, in the peat bogs, but not yet in the Kjökkenmöddings. The musk ox (Ovibus moschatus) and the domestic ox ( Bos taurus ), as well as the reindeer, the elk, the hare, the sheep, and the domestic hog, are all absent. * Professor Steenstrup does not agree with Prof. Rütimeyer that the domestic hog of ancient Europe was directly derived from the wild boar, but rather that it was introduced from the east ; and the skulls which he showed me in support of this belief certainly exhibited very great differences between the two races. The sheep, the horse, and the reindeer are entirely absent, the domestic cat was not known in Europe until about the ninth century, and the bones of the urus are probably those of wild specimens, so that the dogt appears to have been the only domestic animal of the period ; and though it may fairly be asked whether the bones may not have belonged to a race of wild dogs, the question admits of a satisfactory answer. Among the remains of birds, the long bones which form about one- fifth of the skeleton, are, in the Kjökkenmöddings, about twenty times as numerous as the others, and are almost always imperfect, the shaft only remaining. In the same manner it would be impossible to re- construct a perfect skele ton of the quadrupeds, certain bones and parts of bones being always absent. In the case of the ox, for instance, the missing

• It is a curious fact that, as + From the marks of knives on Prof. Steenstrup informs me, the the bones, it seems evident that the

bones from the Kjökkenmöddings dog was then, as it is still among of Jutland indicate, as a general several savage tribes, an article of rule, larger and more powerful ani- food. mals than those of the Islands. PREVALENCE OF CERTAIN BONES. 239 parts are the heads of the long bones ( though while the shaft only of the femur is found, in the humerus one end is gene rally perfect), the back bone except the first two vertebræ, the spinous processes, and often the ribs, and the bones of the skull except the lower jaw and the portion round the eyes. It occurred to Professor Steenstrup that these curious results might, perhaps, be referred to dogs; and, on trying the experi ment, he ascertained that the bones which are absent from the Kjökkenmöddings are precisely those which dogs eat, and those which are present are the parts which are hard and solid and do not contain much nourishment. Prof. Steenstrup has since published a diagram of a skeleton, tinted in such a manner as to show at a glance which of the bones occur in the Kjökkenmöddings, and points out that it coincides exactly with one given by M. Flourens to illustrate those portions of the skeleton which are first formed. Although a glance at the longitudinal section of a long bone, as, for instance, of a femur, and a comparison of the open cancellated tissue of the two ends with the solid , close texture of the shaft, at once justifies and accounts for the selection made by the dogs, it is interesting thus to ascertain that their predilections were the same in primæval times as at present. Moreover, we may in this manner explain the prevalence of some bones in fossil strata. I have already mentioned that of the skull, the hard parts round the eye and the lower jaw are the only parts left; now the preponderance of lower jaws in a fossil state is well known. Dr. Falconer indeed has pointed out “ that in the smaller mammalia, unless the bone be complete, and, supposing it to be a long bone, with both its articular surfaces perfect, it is almost hopeless, or at any rate very discouraging, to attempt to make out the creature that yielded it ; whereas the smallest fragment of a jaw, with a minute tooth in it, speaks volumes of evidence at the first glance.” “ This ,” he suggests, “ is one 240 HABITS OF THE MOUND - BUILDERS. great reason why we hear so much of jaw remains, and so little of other bones." No doubt it is so ; but these observations, made by Prof. Steenstrup, afford a farther explanation of the fact, and it is to be regretted that the parts of the long bones which are most important to the palæontologist are also those which are preferred by beasts of prey. In every case the bones which contained marrow are split open in the manner best adapted for its extraction ; this peculiarity, which is in itself satisfactory proof of the presence of man , has not yet been observed in bones from the true tertiary strata . The Kjökkenmöddings were not mere summer quarters ; the ancient fishermen resided on these spots for at least two thirds, if not the whole of the year. This we learn from an examination of the bones of the wild animals, as it is often possible to determine, within very narrow limits, the time of year at which they are killed. For instance, the remains of the wild swan (Cygnus musicus) are very common, and this bird is only a winter visitor, leaving the Danish coast in March, and returning in November. It might naturally have been hoped that the remains of young birds would have sup plied evidence as to the spring and early summer, but unfor tunately, as has been already explained, no such bones are to be found. It is therefore fortunate that among the mammalia two periodical phenomena occur ; namely, the shedding and reproduction of stags' antlers, which, with slight variations according to age, have a fixed season ; and, secondly, the birth and growth of the young. These and similar phenomena render it highly probable that the “ mould - builders” resided on the Danish coast all the year round, though I am disposed to think that, like the Fuegians, who lead, even now, a very similar life, they frequently moved from spot to spot. This appears to me to be indicated not only by the condition of the deserted hearths, but by the colour of the flint flakes, etc.; FLINT IMPLEMENTS FROM THE SHELL-MOUNDS. 241 for while many of these retain the usual dull bluish black FIG . 172. Awl. FIG . 174. FIG . 175. FIG . 173. Lance - heads. colour which is characteristic of newly - broken flints, and R 212 FLINT IMPLEMENTS FROM THE SHELL-MOUNDS. which remains unaltered as long as they are surrounded by carbonate of lime, others are whitened, as is usual with those which have been exposed for any length of time. Perhaps, therefore, these were lying on the surface during some period of desertion, and covered over only when the place was again inhabited . The flint implements found in the Kjökkenmöddings re semble those which are characteristic of the “ coast - finds." They may be classed as flakes (figs. 82—96) ; “ shell -mound " axes, which, as we have already observed, present a peculiar form ( figs. 108–110, and pl. 1 , figs. 8, 9) ; awls ( fig. 172) , sling stones or net- weights (pl. 1 , fig. 12) , and rude lance -heads ( figs. 173—175) . With these occur other forms, which, though very rude, are evidently artificial, such as fig. 176, which FIG. 176. Rude Flint Implement. appears to have been a kind of axe, and others of which the sharp edges were evidently used for cutting purposes. In the two days which we spent at Meilgaard, we found the following objects : “ Shell-mound " axes . 19 Flint flakes 139 Bone pins, etc. 6 Horns . 6 Pottery, only 4 pieces . ABSENCE OF POLISHED FLINT IMPLEMENTS. 243 Stone hammer : Slingstones, about . 1 20 195 Of the three “ pillars” of material just alluded to (p. 236) , the first contained seven flint flakes, two axes, one worked piece of horn, three worked pieces of bone, and some pottery ; in the second were sixteen flint flakes, one axe, and seven slingstones ; in the third, four flint flakes, two flint axes, and a pointed bone. In short, without appearing to be richer than other Kjökkenmöddings, Meilgaard and Havelse have each produced already more than a thousand of these rude relics, though but a small portion of the mound has in either case been hitherto removed. We need not, therefore, wonder at the number of axes found in the valley of the Somme, where so much larger a mass of material has been examined . None of the large polished axes have yet been found in the Kjökkenmöddings ; but a fragment of one which was discovered at Havelse, and which had been worked up into a scraper, shows that they were not altogether unknown. A very few carefully formed weapons have been found, but the implements generally are very rude, and of the same types as those which have been already described as characteristic of the “ Coast - finds.” Small pieces of very coarse pottery have also been discovered, and many of the bones from the Kjökkenmöddings bear evident marks of a sharp instrument ; several of the pieces found by us were in this condition, and had been fashioned into rude pins. The observations of Arctic travellers prove that even if human bones had been found in the shell-mounds, this would not of itself be any evidence of cannibalism ; but the absence of such remains satisfactorily shows that the primitive popu lation of the North were free from this practice. On the other hand, the tumuli have supplied us with numerous skeletons R 2 244 FOOD OF THE SHELL -MOUND BUILDERS. which probably belong to the Stone Age. The skulls are very round, and in many respects resemble those of the Lapps, but have a more projecting ridge over the eye. One curious peculiarity is, that their front teeth do not overlap as ours do, but meet one another, as do those of the Greenlanders of the present day. This evidently indicates a peculiar manner of eating Much as still remains to be made out respecting the men of the Stone period, the facts already ascertained, like a few strokes by a clever draughtsman, supply us with the elements of an outline sketch. Carrying our imagination back into the past, we see before us on the low shores of the Danish Archipelago a race of small men, with heavy overhanging brows, round heads, and faces probably much like those of the present Laplanders. As they must evidently have had some protection from the weather, it is most probable that they lived in tents made of skins. The total absence of metal in the Kjökkenmöddings indicates that they had not yet any weapons except those made of wood, stone, horn , and bone. Their principal food must have consisted of shell - fish , but they were able to catch fish , and often varied their diet by game caught in hunting. It is , perhaps, not uncharitable to conclude that, when their hunters were unusually successful, the whole community gorged itself with food, as is the case with many savage races at the present time. It is evident that marrow was considered a great delicacy, for every single bone which contained any was split open in the manner best adapted to extract the precious morsel. We have already seen that the mound- builders were regular settlers, and not mere summer visitors ; and on the whole they seem to have lived in very much the same manner as the Tierra del Fuegians, who dwell on the coast, feed princi pally on shell-fish, and have the dog as their only domestic animal. A very good account of them is given in Darwin's THE FUEGIANS. 245 Journal (p. 234) , from which I extract the following passages, which give us a vivid and probably correct idea of what might have been seen on the Danish shores, long, long ago. “ The inhabitants, living chiefly upon shell-fish, are obliged con stantly to change their place of residence ; but they return at intervals to the same spots, as is evident from the pile of old shells, which must often amount to some tons in weight. These heaps can be distinguished at a long distance by the bright green colour of certain plants which invariably grow on them . ..... The Fuegian wigwam resembles, in size and dimensions, a haycock . It merely consists of a few broken branches stuck in the ground, and very imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass and rushes. The whole cannot be so much as the work of an hour, and it is only used for a few days. . . . . . At a subsequent period, the Beagle anchored for a couple of days under Wollaston Island, which is a short way to the northward. While going on shore, we pulled alongside a canoe with six Fuegians. These were the most abject and miserable creatures I anywhere beheld. On the east coast, the natives, as we have seen, have guanoco cloaks, and on the west, they possess sealskins. Amongst the central tribes the men generally possess an otter-skin, or some small scrap about as large as a pocket-kandkerchief, which is barely sufficient to cover their backs as low down as their loins. It is laced across the breast by strings, and according as the wind blows, it is shifted from side to side. But these Fuegians in the canoe were quite naked, and even one full grown woman was absolutely so. It was raining heavily, and the fresh water, together with the spray, trickled down her body. ..... These poor wretcheswere stunted in their growth , their hideous faces bedaubed with white paint, their skins filthy and greasy , their hair entangled, their voices discordant, their gestures violent and without dignity. Viewing such men, one can hardly make oneself believe they are fellow - creatures 246 THE RELATION OF THE SHELL -MOUNDS and inhabitants of the same world. .. .. At night, five or six human beings, naked, and scarcely protected from the wind and rain of this tempestuous climate, sleep on the wet ground coiled up like animals. Whenever it is low water, they must rise to pick shell - fish from the rocks ; and the women , winter and summer, either dive to collect sea eggs, or sit patiently in their canoes, and, with a baited hair line, jerk out small fish. If a seal is killed, or the floating carcase of a putrid whale discovered, it is a feast; such miserable food is assisted by a few tasteless berries and fungi. Nor are they exempt from famine, and, as a consequence, cannibalism accompanied by parricide. ” In this latter respect, however, the advantage appears to be all on the side of the ancients, whom we have no right to accuse of cannibalism . If the absence of cereal remains justifies us, as it appears to do, in concluding that they had no knowledge of agricul ture, they must certainly have sometimes suffered from periods of great scarcity, indications of which may, perhaps, be seen in the bones of the fox, wolf, and other carnivora, which would hardly have been eaten from choice; on the other hand, they were blessed in the ignorance of spirituous liquors, and saved thereby from what is at present the greatest scourge of Northern Europe. Prof. Worsaae has proposed to divide the Stone Age into two divisions, the first of which he again subdivides. His classification stands as follows : The Older Stone Age. 1. The stone implements found in the drift, and in caves with remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, hyæna, and other extinct animals. 2. The Kjökkenmöddings and coast - finds. The Later Stone Age. Characterized by the beautifully worked stone implements and large tumuli. TO THE TUMULI. 247 The shell- mounds and coast- finds, according to Professor Worsaae, are characterized by very rough flint implements ( figs. 108–110, 172—176) , and are the remains of a much ruder and more barbarous people than that which constructed the large Stone Age tumuli, and made the beautiful weapons, etc., found in them. He does not altogether deny that a few well- worked implements, and fragments of such, have been found in the Kjökkenmöddings, but he considers that some of these at least may be altogether more recent than the shell mounds in which they are reported to have been found, and, at any rate, that their presence is altogether exceptional. At Meilgaard, for instance, the researches undertaken under the superintendence of the late king in June, 1861, produced more than five hundred flint flakes and other rude implements, but not a single specimen with a trace of polishing, or in any way resembling the flint implements found in the tumuli. On the other hand, these rude implements are said to be wanting in the tumuli, where they are replaced by instru ments of a different character and more skilful workinanship. Moreover, while it is admitted on all hands that the shell mound makers had no domestic animal but the dog, and no knowledge of agriculture, Prof. Worsaae considers that during the later Stone Age the inhabitants of Denmark certainly possessed tame cattle and horses, and had in all probability some knowledge of agriculture. Prof. Steenstrup is of an entirely different opinion, and considers that the Kjökkenmöddings and Stone Age tumuli were contemporaneous. He denies altogether that remains of tame oxen or horses have been found in tumuli of the Stone Age, except in a very few instances, and in these he main tains that the fragments which have occurred are evidently not coeval with the mounds themselves, and that in all probability they have been introduced by foxes. He admits that the stone implements from the shell-mounds and coast- finds are 248 THE RELATION OF THE SHELL -MOUNDS TO THE TUMULI. altogether different from , and much ruder than , those from the tumuli ; he considers the two classes as representing, not two different degrees, but two different phases of one single condition of civilization . The tumuli are the burial-places of chiefs, the Kjökkenmöddings are the refuse beaps of fishermen . The first contained all that skill could contrive, affection offer, or wealth command ; the second, those things only which art could not make available, which were thrown away as useless, or accidentally lost. In order, therefore, to compare these two classes of objects, we must take, not the ordinary rude specimens which are so numerous in the shell -mounds, but the few better - made implements which , fortunately for science and for us, were lost among the oyster- shells, or which had been broken , and therefore thrown away. These, though few in number, are, in Professor Steenstrup's opinion, quite as numerous as could have been expected under the circum stances. Moreover, the long flint flakes, which are so common in the Kjökkenmöddings, are sufficient evidence that great skill in the treatment of flint had already been attained. Some of the flakes found in the Kjokkenmöddings are equal to any from the tumuli; several of those which we found at Meilgaard were more than five, and one was more than six inches in length ; while I have in my possession a giant flake from Fannerup ( figs. 82-84) , given to me by Professor Steen strup, which has a length of eight inches and three quarters. As regards the rude, more or less triangular " axes ” ( figs. 108–110 ) which are so characteristic of the Kjökkenmöddings and coast - finds, Professor Steenstrup, as we have already seen declines to compare them with the polished axes of the tumuli, because in his opinion they were not intended for the same purposes. In addition to the direct evidence derived from the discovery of some few well -made flint axes of the tumulus type, Professor Steenstrup relies much on the indirect evidence derivable from the other contents of the shell- mounds. THE OPINIONS OF MESSRS. STEENSTRUP AND WORSAAE. 249 Thus the frequent remains of large and full- grown animals--- for instance, of the seal and the wild ox-are in his opinion sufficient evidence that the shell-mound builders must have had weapons more useful and destructive than any which Prof. Worsaae will concede to them ; moreover, he considers that many of the cuts which are so common on the bones found in the shell -heaps must have been made by polished implements, and are too smooth to be the marks of flint lakes, according to the suggestion of Professor Worsaae. Finally, Professor Steenstrup, though not attributing so much weight as Professor Worsaae to the absence of the ruder implements from the tumuli, even if this had been the case , disputes the fact on the ground that these implements would not until recently have been recognized and collected, and that they have, in fact, been found whenever they were looked for. After having carefully considered the evidence on both sides, I find myself, as might naturally be expected, unable altogether to agree with either. The small rude axes seem to me even less well adapted to the purpose suggested by Prof. Steenstrup, than for those which have generally been attributed to them . There are, no doubt, some which could never have been used for cutting, but these may have been failures, owing to some want of skill on the part of the manufacturer, or some flaw in the flint itself. Others appear to me, as to Prof. Worsaae, serviceable, though rude ; and well adapted for some purpose ( possibly for oyster dredging or chopping wood) which required a strong, rather than a sharp edge. They also very closely resemble in form some of the adzes used by the South Sea Islanders, one of which I have figured for comparison (see p. 103). They seem to me, however, as to Prof. Steenstrup, to differ in character from the well - made and generally polished axes, and not to be ruder implements of the same type. Although the carefully formed knives, axes, lance -heads, etc., would not 250 ANTIQUITY OF THE SHELL-MOUNDS. be likely to abound in the Kjökkenmöddings, any more than works of art or objects of value in modern dust-heaps ; still I confess I should have expected that fragments of these instruments, recognizable to us, though useless to their original owners, would have been more numerous than, in reality, they appear to be. In addition to the five hundred rude implements described by Prof. Worsaae as having been found at Meilgaard during the king's visit, I myself obtained a hundred and forty flint flakes, with about fifty other implements, in the visit to this celebrated locality which I made last year under the guidance of Prof. Steenstrup. To these, again, must be added many which had previously been collected by M. Olsen, and the members of the Kjökkenmödding Committee ; and yet among so large a number of instruments of various kinds there is only one which in any respect resembles the well - worked implements of the tumuli. So, again, at Havelse only a single fragment of a polished axe has been found among more than a thousand objects of the ruder kind. It might, however, fairly be urged that in such a comparison neither the flakes nor " slingstones" ought to be brought into consideration in this case; and if we were to count the axes only, the numbers would be greatly diminished . Moreover, the alleged absence of rude implements in the Stone Age barrows has been satisfactorily explained by Pro fessor Steenstrup. In this country it might be argued, from the statements of so intelligent an antiquary as Sir R. Colt Hoare, that rude implements were never, or very rarely, found in tumuli; but the more recent researches of Mr. Bateman , Mr. Greenwell, and other archæologists, have shown that this is very far from being the case, and have made it evident that the ruder implements of stone were overlooked by the earlier archæologists. In the tumuli examined by Mr. Bateman, he obtained many flint flakes, etc. , quite as rude as those which ANTIQUITY OF THE SHELL - MOUNDS. 251 are found in the shell -mounds. So far as I am aware, however, none of the small triangular axes, which are so characteristic of the shell -mounds, have yet been met with in the tumuli. Nor, on the other hand, has a single specimen resembling those which are characteristic of the Palæolithic Age yet been found in the shell- mounds. Finally, as regards the supposed remains of domestic animals (other than the dog) in Stone Age tumuli , the evidence brought forward by Professor Worsaae seems to me inconclusive, which, however, is of the less consequence, as the point will certainly be determined ere long, now that attention has specially been directed to it. On the whole, the evidence appears to show that the Danish shell -mounds represent a definite period in the history of that country, and are probably referable to the early part of the Neolithic Age, when the art of polishing flint implements was known, but before it had reached its greatest development. It is, however, as yet, impossible to affix even an approxi mate date in years to the formation of the Kjökkenmöddings. Their accumulation, indeed, must evidently have occupied a considerable period, and it is of course highly probable that some are much older than others. They must all, however, be of very considerable antiquity. We know that the country has long been covered by beech forests, and yet it appears that during the Bronze Age beeches were absent, or only represented by stragglers, while the whole country was covered with oaks. This change implies a great lapse of time, even if we suppose that but a few generations of oaks succeeded one another. We know also that the oaks had been preceded by pines, and that the country was inhabited even then. Again, the immense number of objects belonging to the Bronze Age, which have been already found in Denmark, and the great number of tumuli, appear to justify the Danish archæologists in assigning to this period a great lapse of time. 252 ANTIQUITY OF THE SHELL - MOUNDS. This argument applies with peculiar force to the remains of the Stone period : for a country, the inhabitants of which live by hunting and fishing, can never be thickly populated ; and, on the whole, the conclusion is forced upon us, that the country must have been inhabited for a lengthened period, although none of the Danish remains yet discovered belong to a time as ancient as some of those which have been found in other parts of Europe, and which will be described in sub sequent chapters. T ( 253 ) CHAPTER VIII. NORTH AMERICAN ARCHÆOLOGY. OURUR knowledge of North American Archæology is derived mainly from the valuable researches of Mr. Caleb At water, contained in the first volume of the Archæologia Ame ricana, and from four excellent memoirs published under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution :-1. Ancient Monu ments of the Mississippi Valley, comprising the Results of extensive Original Surveys and Explorations, by E. G. Squier, A.M., and E. H. Davis, M.D. 2. Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York, comprising the Results of Original Surveys and Explorations, with an illustrative Appendix, by E. G. Squier, A.M. 3. The Antiquities of Wisconsin, as surveyed and described by J. A. Lapham. 4. The Archæology of the United States, or Sketches, Historical and Biographical, of the Progress of Information and Opinion respecting Vestiges of Antiquity in the United States ; by Samuel F. Haven. Nor must I omit to mention Schoolcraft's History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States. * The memoir by Messrs. Squier and Davis, occupying more than three hundred pages, is chiefly descriptive of ancient fortifications, enclosures, temples, and mounds, and of the different implements, ornaments, etc. , which have been ob

• Among more recent works on of the Southern Indians; Foster's the subject, I may specially refer Pre - historic Races of the United

to Bancroft's Native Races of the States ; Abbott's Stone Age in New Pacific States ; Jones's Antiquities Jersey. ! 254 BIBLIOGRAPHY. tained from them . It is embellished with forty -eight plates, and two hundred and seven woodcuts. In his second work, Mr. Squier confines himself to the anti quities of the State of New York. Within these limits, how ever, he describes many ancient monuments of various kinds, and he feels “ warranted in estimating the number which originally existed in the State at from two hundred to two hundred and fifty. ” He comes to the conclusion, “ little anti cipated ,” he says, “ when I started on my trip of exploration,” that the earth works of Western New York were erected by the Iroquois, or their western neighbours, and do not possess any very great antiquity. The systematic exploration of the ancient remains in the State of Wisconsin , described in the memoir by Mr. Lapham , was undertaken on behalf of the American Antiquarian Society, by which the necessary funds were provided. The cost of the publication, however, which from the great number of engrav ings (fifty - five plates, besides sixty - one wood engravings) was considerable, was defrayed by the Smithsonian Institution, and the work is included in the seventh volume of “ Contri butions.” Mr. Haven's work is well described in the title , and forms an interesting introduction to the study of North American Archæology. He gives us comparatively few observations or opinions of his own ; but after a careful examination of what others have written, he comes to the conclusion that the ancient earthworks of the United States “ differ less in kind than in degree from other remains concerning which history has not been entirely silent. They are more numerous, more concentrated, and in some particulars on a larger scale of labour, than the works which approach them on their several borders, and with whose various characters they are blended . Their numbers may be the result of frequent changes of resi dence by a comparatively limited population, in accordance CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIQUITIES. 255 with a superstitious trait of the Indian nature, leading to the abandonment of places where any great calamity has been suffered ; but they appear rather to indicate a country thickly inhabited for a period long enough to admit of the progressive enlargement and extension of its movements.” Although Mr. Schoolcraft's book is more especially devoted to the present, or recent, condition and habits of the Indian tribes, still he gives us much archæological information, and I shall have occasion frequently to quote from his elaborate work . The antiquities themselves fall into two great divisions : Implements ( including ornaments) and Earthworks. The earthworks have been again divided by the American archæ ologists into seven classes : -1, Defensive enclosures ; 2, Sacred and miscellaneous enclosures ; 3, Sepulchral mounds ; 4, Sacrificial mounds ; 5, Temple mounds; 6, “ Animal ” mounds ; and 7, Miscellaneous mounds. These classes I shall treat separately, and we can then better consider the " mound-builders" themselves. The simple weapons of bone and stone, found in America, closely resemble those which occur in other countries. The flakes, hatchets, axes, arrow- heads, and bone implements are, for instance, very similar to those which occur in the Swiss Lakes, if only we make allowance for the differences of mate rial. In addition to the simple forms, which may almost be said to be ubiquitous, there are some, however, which are more complicated. In many cases they are perforated, as for instance those figured by Messrs. Squier and Davis. * The perforated axes found in Europe are generally considered to belong to the Metallic Age ; but as far as America is concerned , we have not yet any evidence as to the relative antiquity of the perforated and imperforated types.

• Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. By E. S. Squier and

E. H. Davis. 256 IMPLEMENTS. FIG. 177. At the time of the discovery of America, iron was absolutely unknown to the natives, with the exception, perhaps, of a tribe near the mouth of the La Plata, who had arrows tipped with this metal, which they are supposed to have obtained from masses of native iron. The powerful nations of Central America were, however, in an age of Bronze, while the North Americans were in a condition of which we find in Europe but scanty traces - namely, in an age of Copper. Silver is the only other metal which has been found in the ancient tumuli, and that but in very small quantities. It occurs sparingly in a native form with the copper of Lake Superior, whence, in all probability, it was derived . It does not appear to have been ever smelted. From the large quantity of galena which is found in the mounds, Messrs. Squier and Davis are disposed to think that lead must have been used to a certain extent by the North American tribes ; the metal itself, however, has not, I believe, yet been found. Copper, on the other hand, both wrought and unwrought, occurs frequently in the tumuli. It is interesting to observe that the copper arrow- or spear-heads ( fig. 177) resemble the American type of stone arrow -heads. The axes have a striking resemblance to those simple European forms which contain the minimum quantity of tin, and as in them the socket, when there is one, is made by flattening the copper and turning over the edge ( fig. 178) ; and some Copper Arrow - head. of the Mexican paintings give us interesting evidence as to the manner in which they were handled and used. These, however, were of bronze, and had, therefore, been fused ; but the Indian axes, which are of pure metallic copper, appear in all cases to have been worked in a cold state, which is remarkable, because, as Messrs. Squier and THE USE OF COPPER. 257 Davis have pointed out, “ the fires upon the altar were suf ficiently intense to melt down the copper implements and ornaments deposited upon them . The hint thus afforded does not seem to have been seized upon .” Mr. Perkins, indeed, who has devoted much attention to these implements, is of opinion that some of them were cast ; and this view has also been adopted by Mr. Foster and Professor Butler. Mr. Evans has also called attention to a passage in which De Champlain, the founder of Quebec, tells us that in 1610 he met a party of Algonquins, one of whom met him on his barque, and after conver sation , “ tira d'une sac une pièce de cuivre de la longueur d'un pied qu'il me donna, lequel estoit fort beau et bien franc, me donnant à entendre qu'il en avoit en quantité là où il l'avoit pris, qui c'etoit sur le bort d'une rivière proche d'une grand lac et qu'ils le prenoient par morceaux, et le faisant fondre le mettoient en lames, et avec des pierres le rendoient uny. " * Mr. Foster gives a platet show ing what he considers to be the mark left by the line of junction between the two halves of the mould. Dr. Schmidt has, however, given strong reasons for doubting this conclusion, and certainly the marks shown on the above-mentioned figures have rather the appearance of weathering. On the whole, though it would seem that they sometimes at any rate softened the metal by heat, we have Spear-head. not, I think, at present any sufficient evidence that the Red skins were acquainted with the art of casting. This is the more surprising, because, as Schoolcraft tells us, “ in almost FIG. 178. Copper

• Les Voyages du Sieur de Cham I Ar. fur. Anthropologie, 1878 ,

plain . Paris, 1613. + Pre -historic Racesof the United States, p. 259. S

• P. 65.

§ Indian Tribes, p. 97. 258 ANCIENT COPPER MINES, all the works lately opened there are heaps of coals and ashes, showing that fire had much to do with their operations.” Thus, though they were acquainted with metal, they did not know how to use it ; and, as Professor Dana has well observed in a letter with which he has favoured me, they may in one sense be said to have been in an age of Stone, since they used the copper, not as metal, but as stone. This intermediate condition between an age of Stone and one of Metal is most interesting In the neighbourhood of Lake Superior, and in some other still more northern localities, copper is found native in large quantities, and the Indians had therefore nothing to do but to break off pieces and hammer them into the required shape. Hearne's celebrated journey to the mouth of the Coppermine River, under the auspices of the Hudson's Bay Company, was undertaken in order to examine the locality whence the natives of that district obtained the metal. In this case it occurred in lumps actually on the surface, and the Indians seem to have picked up what they could , without attempting anything that could be called mining. Round Lake Superior, however, the case is very different. A short account of the ancient copper mines is given by Messrs. Squier and Davis in the work already so often cited, by Mr. Squier in “ The Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York,” by Mr. Lapham ,* and by Mr. Schoolcraft ; t while the same subject is treated at considerable length by Professor.Wilson . The works appear to have been first discovered in 1847 by the agent of the Minnesota Mining Company. His observa tions have brought to light ancient excavations of great extent, frequently from twenty-five to thirty feet deep, and scattered over an area of several miles. Mr. Knapp, the agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, counted three hundred and ninety - five annular rings on a hemlock- tree, which grew

• 1. c. p. 74. + 1.c. p. 95.

ANCIENT COPPER MINES. 259 on one of the mounds of earth thrown out of an ancient mine. Mr. Foster also notes the great size and age of a pine stump, which must have grown, flourished and died since the works were deserted ; and Mr. C. Whittesley not only refers to living trees upwards of three hundred years old, now flourishing in the gathered soil of the abandoned trenches, but adds, ' On the same spot there are the decayed trunks of a preceding generation or generations of trees that have arrived at matur ity, and fallen down from old age. ' According to the same writer, in a communication made to the American Association , at the Montreal meeting in 1857, these ancient works extend over a tract from 100 to 150 miles in length, along the southern shore of the lake.” In another excavation was found a detached mass of native copper, weighing upwards of six tons. It rested on an arti ficial cradle of black oak, partly preserved by immersion in water. Various implements and tools of the same metal were found with it. The commonest of these are the stone mauls or hammers, of which from one place ten cart-loads were obtained. With these were stone axes of large size, made of greenstone, and shaped to receive withe - handles. Some large round greenstone masses, that had apparently been used for sledges, were also found. " * Wooden implements are so perishable that we could not expect many of them to have been found. Two or three wooden bowls, a trough, and some shovels with long handles, are all that appear to be recorded. It has often been stated that the Indians possessed some method, at present unknown, by which they were enabled to harden the copper. This, however, from examinations insti tuted by Professor Wilson, seems to be an error. Some copper implements, which he submitted to Professor Crofts, were found to be no harder than the native copper from Lake

• Prof. W. W. Mather in a letter to Mr. Squier, 1. c. p. 184.

S 2 260 POTTERY. Superior. “ The structure of the metal was also highly lami nated, as if the instrument had been brought to its present shape by hammering out a solid mass of copper. " Before the introduction of metallic vessels, the art of the potter was more important even than it is at present. Ac cordingly, the sites of all ancient habitations are generally marked by numerous fragments of pottery ; this is as true of the ancient Indian settlements, as of the Celtic towns of England, or the lake villages of Switzerland. These frag ments, however, would generally be those of rude household vessels, and it is principally from the tumuli that we obtain those better-made urns and cups from which the state of the art may fairly be inferred. In North America the art of the potter certainly attained to a considerable degree of perfection ; some of the vases found in the tumuli are said to rival, “ in elegance of model, delicacy, and finish ,” the best Peruvian specimens. The material used is a fine clay : in the more delicate specimens, pure ; in the coarser ones, mixed with pounded quartz. The art of glazing and the use of the potter's wheel appear not to have been known, though that “ simple approximation to a potter's wheel may have existed ,” which consists of " a stick of wood grasped in the hand by the middle, and turned round inside a wall of elay formed by the other hand, or by another workman.” Among the most characteristic specimens of ancient Ameri can pottery are the pipes. Some of these are simple bowls, smaller indeed, but otherwise not unlike a common every day pipe, from which they differ in having generally no stem, the mouth having apparently been applied direct to the bowl. Many are highly ornamented, others are spirited representa tions of monsters or of animals, such as the beaver, otter, wild cat, elk, bear, wolf, panther, raccoon, opossum, squirrel, manatee, eagle, hawk, heron, owl, buzzard, raven, swallow , parroquet,

• Squier and Davis, 1 c. p. 195.

ORNAMENTS. 261 duck, grouse, and many others. The most interesting of these, perhaps, is the manatee or lamantin, of which seven represen tations have been found in the mounds of Ohio. These are no mere rude sculptures, about which there might easily be a mistake, but we are assured that “ the truncated head, thick semicircular snout, peculiar nostrils, tumid, furrowed upper lip, singular feet or fins and remarkable moustaches, are all distinctly marked, and render the recognition of the animal complete. ” * This curious animal is not at present found nearer than the shores of Florida, a thousand miles away. The ornaments which have been found in the mounds consist of beads, shells, necklaces, pendants, plates of mica, bracelets, gorgets, etc. The number of beads is sometimes quite surprising. Thus the celebrated Grave Creek mound contained between three and four thousand shell -beads, besides about two hundred and fifty ornaments of mica, several brace lets of copper, and various articles carved in stone. The beads are generally made of shell, but are sometimes cut out of bone or teeth ; in form they are generally round or oblong ; sóme times the shell of the Unio is cut and strung so as to “ exhibit the convex surface and pearly nacre of the shell. ” The neck laces are often made of beads or shells, but sometimes of teeth. The ornaments of mica are thin plates of various forms, each of which has a small hole. The bracelets are of copper,, and generally encircle the arms of the skeletons, besides being frequent on the “ altars. " They are simple rings “ hammered out with more or less skill , and so bent that the ends approach, or lap over, each other. ” The so- called “ gorgets ” are thin plates of copper, always with two holes, and probably there fore worn as badges of authority. The earthworks are most abundant in the central parts of the United States. They decrease in number as we approach

• Squier and Davis, 1.c. p. 252.

262 FORTIFICATIONS. EARTHWORKS. the Atlantic, and are very scarce in British America and on the west of the Rocky Mountains. The works belonging to this class “ usually occupy strong natural positions,” and as a fair specimen of them we may take the Bourneville Enclosure in Ross County, Ohio, which consists of a wall of stone, which is carried round the hill a little below the brow ; but at some places it rises, so as to cut off the narrow spurs, and extends across the neck that connects the hill with the range beyond. It must not, however, be understood that anything like a true wall now exists ; the present appearance is rather what might have been “ expected from the falling outwards of a wall of stones, placed, as this was, upon the declivity of a hill.” Where it is most distinct it is from fifteen to twenty feet wide, by three or four in height. The area thus enclosed is about one hundred and forty acres, and the wall is two miles and a quarter in length. The stones themselves vary much in size, and Messrs. Squier and Davis suggest that the wall may originally have been about eight feet high, with an equal base. At present, trees of the largest size are growing upon it. On a similar work known as “ Fort Hill, ” Highland County, Ohio , Messrs. Squier and Davis found a splendid chestnut tree, which they suppose to be six hundred years old . “ If,” they say, “ to this we add the probable period intervening from the time of the building of this work to its abandonment, and the subsequent period up to its invasion by the forest, we are led irresistibly to the conclusion that it has an antiquity of at least one thousand years. But when we notice, all around us, the crumbling trunks of trees, half hidden in the accumulating soil, we are induced to fix on an antiquity still more remote. ” The enclosure known as “ Clark's Work,” in Ross County , Ohio, is one of the largest and most interesting. It consists of a parallelogram , two thousand eight hundred feet by ENCLOSURES. 263 eighteen hundred, and enclosing about one hundred and eleven acres. To the right of this, the principal work is a perfect square, containing an area of about sixteen acres. Each side is eight hundred and fifty feet in length, and in the middle of each is a gateway thirty feet wide, covered by a small mound. Within the area of the great work are several smaller mounds and enclosures, and it is estimated that not less than three millions of cubic feet of earth were used in this great undertaking. Yet from the peculiarly mottled character of the earth forming these mounds, it would appear to have been brought in bags or small parcels. * It has also been observed that water is almost invariably found within or close to these enclosures. It is remarkable that there is not a single case in which counter- works occur near any of the ancient North American fortifications. Col. Whittlesey + draws from this fact the con clusion that the period during which the mound - builders turned “ their attention to military affairs was probably short, and, when their preparations were made, they may have with drawn farther south without a vigorous defence.” I should rather infer that the warfare of the mound - builders, like that of the more modern Red Indians, consisted, not of persevering sieges, but of sudden attacks and surprises. If the purpose for which the works belonging to the first class were erected is very evident, the same cannot be said for those which we have now to mention. That they were not intended for defence is inferred by Messrs. Squier and Davis from their small size, from the ditch being inside the embankment, and from their position, which is often com pletely commanded by neighbouring heights. Dr. Wilson also (vol. i. p . 324) follows Sir R. C. Hoare in considering the position of the ditch as being a distinguish

• Whittlesey, On the Weapons and Character of the Mound- builders.

Mem. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. vol . i. pt. iv. p. 473. † 1. c. p. 479. 264 SACRED ENCLOSURES. ing mark between military and religious works. But Catlin expressly tells us that in a Mandan village, which he describes, the ditch was on the inner side of the embankment, and the warriors were thus sheltered while they shot their arrows through the stockade. We see, therefore, that in America, at least, this is no reliable guide. While, however, the defensive earthworks occupy hill tops and other situations most easy to defend, the so -called sacred enclosures are generally found on “ the broad and level river bottoms, seldom occurring upon the table- lands or where the surface of the ground is undulating or broken.” They are usually square or circular in form ; a circular enclosure being often combined with one or two squares. Occasionally they are isolated, but more frequently in groups. The greater number of the circles are of small size, with a nearly uniform diameter of two hundred and fifty or three hundred feet, and the ditch is invariably inside the wall. Some of the circles, however, are much larger, enclosing fifty acres or more. The squares or other rectangular works never have a ditch, and the earth of which they are composed appears to have been taken up evenly from the surface, or from large pits in the neighbourhood. They vary much in size ; five or six of them , however, are “ exact squares, each side measuring one thousand and eighty feet - a coincidence which could not pos sibly be accidental, and which must possess some significance." The circles also, in spite of their great size, are so nearly round, that the American archæologists consider themselves justified in concluding that the mound - builders must have had some standard of measurement, and some means of de termining angles. The most remarkable group is that near Newark, in the Scioto Valley, which covers an area of four square miles ! A plan of these gigantic works is given by Messrs. Squier and Davis, and another, from a later survey, by Mr. Wilson. EARTHWORKS OF THE SCIOTO VALLEY . 265 They consist of an octagon, with an area of fifty, a square occupying twenty acres, and two large circles occupying re spectively thirty and twenty acres. From the octagon an avenue formed by parallel walls extends southwards for two miles and a half ; there are two other avenues which are rather more than a mile in length, one of them connecting the octagon with the square. Besides these, there are various other embankments and small circles, the greater number about eighty feet in diameter, but some few much larger. The walls of these small circles, as well as those of the avenues and of the irregular portions of the works generally, are very slight, and for the most part about four feet in height. The other embankments are much more considerable ; the walls of the large circle are even now twelve feet high, with a base of fifty feet, and an interior ditch seven feet deep and thirty - five in width . At the gate way, however, they are still more imposing ; the walls being sixteen feet high, and the ditch thirteen feet deep. The whole area is covered with “ gigantic trees of a primitive forest ;" and, say Messrs. Squier and Davis, “ in entering the ancient avenue for the first time, the visitor does not fail to experience a sensation of awe, such as he might feel in passing the portals of an Egyptian temple, or gazing upon the silent ruins of Petra of the Desert ." The city of Circleville takes its name from one of these embankments, which, however, is no more remarkable than many others. It consists of a square and a circle, touching one another; the sides of the square being about nine hundred feet in length, and the circle a little more than a thousand feet in diameter. The square had eight doorways, one at each angle, and one in the middle of each side, every doorway being protected by a mound. The circle was peculiar in having a double embankment. This work, alas ! has been entirely destroyed ; and many others have also disappeared, or are 266 AZTALAN. being gradually obliterated by the plough. Under these cir cumstances, we read with pleasure that “ the Directors of the Ohio Land Company, when they took possession of the country at the mouth of the Muskingum River, in 1788, adopted immediate measures for the preservation of these monuments. To their credit be it said, one of their earliest official acts was the passage of a resolution, which is entered upon the Journal of their proceedings, reserving the two truncated pyramids and the great mound, with a few acres attached to each, as public squares. ” Such enlightened conduct deserves the thanks of archæologists, and I sincerely hope that the Com pany has prospered. Both as being the only example of an enclosure yet observed in Wisconsin, and also as having in many respects a great resemblance to a fortified town, the ruins of Aztalan are well worthy of attention. They are situated on the west branch of Rock River, and were discovered in 1836 by N. F. Hyer, Esq. , who surveyed them roughly, and published a brief description, with a figure, in the “ Milwaukie Advertiser. ” In “ Silliman's American Journal,” No. XLIV. , is a paper on the subject by Mr. Taylor, from which was derived the plan and the short account given by Messrs. Squier and Davis. The most complete description is contained in Mr. Lapham's “Antiquities of Wisconsin.” + The name “ Aztalan ” was given to this place by Mr. Hyer, because the Aztecs had a tradition that they originally came from a country to the north, which they called Aztalan. It is said to be derived from two Mexi can words, Atl, ' water, ' and Au, ' near.' “ The main feature of these works is an enclosure of earth (not brick, as has been erroneously stated ), extending around three sides of an irregu lar parallelogram ; ” the river " forming the fourth side on the east. The space thus enclosed contains seventeen acres and two-thirds. The corners are not rectangular, and the embank

• l. c. p. 131 . + P. 41.

VITRIFIED WALLS. 267 ment or ridge is not straight. ” “ The ridge forming the enclosure is 631 feet long at the north end, 1419 feet long on the west side, and 700 feet on the south side ; making a total length of wall of 2750 feet. The ridge or wall is about 22 feet wide, and from one foot to five in height. The wall of earth is enlarged on the outside, at nearly regular distances, by mounds of the same material. They are called buttresses, or bastions ; but it is quite clear they were never intended for either" the one or the other. They vary from sixty -one to ninety - five feet apart, the mean distance being eighty- two feet. Near the south-west angle are two outworks, constructed in the same manner as the main embankment. In many places the earth forming the walls appears to have been burnt. “ Irregular masses of hard reddish clay, full of cavities, bear distinct impressions of straw , or rather wild hay, with which they had been mixed before burning.” “ This is the only foundation for calling these ‘ brick walls. ' The ' bricks' were never made into any regular form , and it is even doubtful whether the burning did not take place in the wall after it was built. " These walls niust therefore pre sent some faint resemblance to the celebrated vitrified forts of Scotland, and to fortifications of a similar character which have recently been observed in France and Germany. Some of the mounds or buttresses, though forming part of an enclo sure, were also used for sepulchral purposes, as was proved by their containing skeletons in a sitting posture, with fragments of pottery. The highest point inside the enclosure is at the south -west corner, and is “ occupied by a square truncated mound, which presents the appearance of a pyramid, rising by successive steps like the gigantic structures of Mexico. ” “ At the north-west angle of the enclosure is another rectangular, truncated, pyramidal elevation, of sixty- five feet level area at the top, with remains of its graded way, or . 268 MODERN EARTHWORKS. sloping ascent, at the south -west corner, leading also towards a ridge that extends in the direction of the river." Within the enclosure are some ridges about two feet high, and connected with them are several rings, or circles, which are supposed to be the remains of mud houses. Nearly the whole interior of the enclosure appears to have been either excavated or thrown up into mounds and ridges ; the pits and irregular excavations being quite numerous over much of the space not occupied by mounds. " These excavations and ridges are, in all probability, the ruins of houses. Some years ago a skeleton was found in one of the mounds, wrapped apparently in cloth of open texture, “ like the coarsest linen fabric ; " but the threads were so rotten as to make it quite uncertain of what material they were made. The last Indian occupants of this interesting locality had no tradition as to the history or the purpose of these earth works. Among the Northern tribes of existing Indians, there do not appear to be any earthworks corresponding to these so called sacred enclosures. “ No sooner, however, do we pass to the southward, and arrive among the Creeks, Natchez, and affiliated Floridian tribes, than we discover traces of structures which , if they do not entirely correspond with the regular earthworks of the West, nevertheless seem to be somewhat analogous to them . ” * These tribes, indeed, appear to have been more civilized than those of the North, since they were agricultural in their habits, lived in considerable towns, and had a systematized religion , so that, in fact, they must have occupied a position intermediate, as well econo mically as geographically, between the powerful monarchies of Central America and the hunting tribes of the North . The “ structures ” to which Mr. Squier alludes are described

• Squier, l. c. p. 136.

CHUNK YARDS. 269 by him , both in his “ Second Memoir," and also in the “ Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ” ( p. 120). The “ Chunk Yards, " now or lately in use among the Creeks, and which have only recently been abandoned among the Cherokees, are rectangular areas, generally occupying the centre of the town, closed at the sides, but with an opening at each end. They are sometimes from six to nine hundred feet in length , being largest in the older towns. The area is levelled and slightly sunk, being surrounded by a low bank formed of the earth thus obtained . In the centre is a low mound, on which stands the Chunk Pole, to the top of which is some object which serves as a mark to shoot at. Near each corner, at one end, is a small pole, about twelve feet high ; these are called the “ slave posts,” because in the " good old times " captives condemned to the torture were fastened to them . The name Chunk Yard " seems to be derived from an Indian game called “ Chunke,” which was played in them . At one end of, and just outside, this area stands generally a circular eminence, with a flat top, upon which is elevated the Great Council House. At the other end is a flat-topped, square eminence, about as high as the circular one just men tioned ; " upon this stands the public square.” These and other accounts given by early travellers among the Indians certainly throw much light on the circular and square enclosures ; some of which, though classed by Messrs. Squier and Davis under this head, seem to me to be the slight fortifications which surrounded villages, and were un doubtedly crowned by stockades. We have already seen that the position of the ditch is in reality no argument against this view ; nor does the position of the works seem conclu sive, if we suppose that they were intended less to stand a regular siege than to guard against a sudden attack. The Sepulchral mounds are very numerous in the central parts of the United States. “ To say that they are innumer 270 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS. able, in the ordinary sense of the term, would be no exag geration. They may literally be numbered by thousands and tens of thousands." They are usually from six to eight feet in height ; generally stand outside the enclosures ; are often isolated , but often also in groups ; they are usually round, but sometimes elliptical or pear-shaped. They cover gene rally a single interment, often of burnt bones. Occasionally there is a stone cist, but urn burial also prevailed to a con siderable extent, especially in the South. The corpse, if not burnt, was generally buried in a contracted position. Implements both of stone and metal occur frequently ; but while personal ornaments, such as bracelets, perforated plates of copper, beads of bone, shell or metal, and similar objects, are very common, weapons are but rarely found ; a fact which, in the opinion of Dr. Wilson, “indicates a totally different condition of society and mode of thought " from those of the present Indian. Certain small tumuli found in America have been regarded as the remains of mud huts. Mr. Dille * has examined and described some small tumuli observed by him in Missouri. He dug into several, but never succeeded in finding anything except coal, charcoal, and a few pieces of pottery, whence he concluded that they were the remains of mud houses.f The Mandans, Minatarees, and some other tribes, even until lately, built their huts of earth , resting on a framework of wood. On the other hand, there are some tumuli to which it would seem that this explanation is quite inexplicable, and which are full of human remains. This was long supposed to be the case with the great Grave Creek Mound, which indeed was positively stated by Atwater to be full of human remains. This has turned out to be an error, but the state

• Smithsonian Contributions, vol. i . p. 136 .

+ Archæologia Americana, vol. i. p. 223. I See also Lapham , 1. c. p. 80. SO- CALLED SACRIFICIAL MOUNDS. 271 ment is not the less true as regards other mounds. In con junction with them may be mentioned the “ bone pits,” many of which are described by Mr. Squier. * “ One of these pits, discovered some years ago in the town of Cambria, Niagara County, was estimated to contain the bones of several thousand individuals. Another which I visited in the town of Clarence, Erie County, contained not less than four hundred skeletons.” A tumulus described by Mr.Jefferson in his " Notes on Virginia ," was estimated to contain the skeletons of a thousand indivi duals, but in this case the number was perhaps exaggerated. The description given by various old writers of the solemn “Festival of the Dead ” satisfactorily explains these large collections of bones. It seems that every eight or ten years the Indians used to meet at some place previously chosen , that they dug up their dead, collected the bones together, and laid them in one common burial-place, depositing with them fine skins and other valuable articles. Several of these ossuaries are described by Schoolcraft.t The so-called “Sacrificial Mounds ” are, says Dr. Wilson , “ a class of ancient monuments altogether peculiar to the New World, and highly illustrative of the rites and customs of the ancient races of the mounds. This remarkable class of mound has been very carefully explored, and their most noticeable characteristics are, their almost invariable occur rence within enclosures ; their regular construction in uniform layers of gravel, earth, and sand, disposed alternately in strata conformable to the shape of the mound ; and their covering, a symmetrical altar of burnt clay or stone, on which are deposited numerous relics , in all instances exhibiting traces, more or less abundant, of their having been exposed to the action of fire. ” The so-called “ altar ” is a basin, or table of burnt clay, carefully moulded into a symmetrical form , but

• 1. c. pp. 25, 56, 57, 68, 71, 73, 106, 107. Squier and Davis, 1. c.

p. 118, etc. + l . c. p. 102. 272 TEMPLE MOUNDS. varying much both in shape and size. In previous editions of this work, I ventured to suggest that these mounds were sepulchral, rather than sacrificial, and subsequent investiga tions have confirmed this. For instance, Mr. Putnam, from a more recent exploration in one of the very mounds explored by Messrs. Squier and Davis, has satisfied himself that these so-called altars are really “ burnt burial- chambers.” * Another class of mounds, called by Messrs. Squier and Davis “ Temple Mounds,” are pyramidal structures, truncated, and generally having graded avenues to their tops. In some instances they are terraced , or have successive stages. But whatever their form , whether round, oval, octangular, square, or oblong, they have invariably flat or level tops, of greater or lesser area. " These mounds much resemble the Teocallis of Mexico, and had probably a similar origin . They are rare in the North, though examples occur even as far as Lake Superior, but become more and more numerous as we pass down the Mississippi, and especially on approaching the Gulf, where they constitute the most numerous and important por tion of the ancient remains. Some of the largest, however, are situated in the North. One of the most remarkable is at Cahokia, in Illinois. This gigantic mound is stated to be seven hundred feet long, five hundred feet wide at the base, and ninety feet in height. Its solid contents have been roughly estimated at twenty millions of cubic feet. Probably, however, these mounds were not used as temples only, but also as sites for dwellings, especially for those of the chiefs. We are told that among the Natchez Indians “ the temples and the dwellings of the chiefs were raised upon mounds, and for every new chief a new mound and dwelling were constructed.” Again, Garcilasso de la Vega, in his History of Florida, quoted by Mr. Haven't says, “ The town and house

• Rep. of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum, p. 407.

+ 1. c. p. 57. ANIMAL MOUNDS. 273 of the Cacique of Osachile are similar to those of all other caciques in Florida, and, therefore, it seems best to give one description that will apply generally to all the capitals, and all the houses of the chiefs in Florida. I say, then, that the Indians endeavour to place their towns upon elevated places ; but because such situations are rare in Florida, or that they find a difficulty in procuring suitable materials for building, they raise eminences in this manner. They choose a place, to which they bring a quantity of earth, which they elevate into a kind of platform two or three pikes in height ( from eighteen to twenty- five feet ), of which the flat top is capable of holding ten or twelve, fifteen or twenty houses, to lodge the cacique, his family, and suite . " * Not the least remarkable of the American antiquities are the Animal Mounds, which are principally, though not ex clusively, found in Wisconsin. In this district “ thousands of examples occur of gigantic basso - relievos of men, beasts, birds, and reptiles, all wrought with persevering labour on the surface of the soil, " while enclosures and works of defence are almost entirely wanting, the " ancient city of Aztalan being, as is supposed, the only example of the former class. The “ Animal Mounds” were discovered by Mr. Lapham in 1836, and described in the newspapers of the day, but the first account of them in any scientific journal was that by Mr. R. C. Taylor, in the American Journal of Science and Art, for April, 1838. In 1843, a longer memoir, by Mr. S. Taylor, appeared in the same journal. Professor J. Locke gave some account of them in a Report on the Mineral Lands of the United States, ” presented to Congress in 1840. Messrs. Squier and Davis devoted to the same subject a part of their work on the " Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ;" and the seventh volume of the Smithsonian Con

• See also Schoolcraft, 1. c. vol. iii. p. 47.

T 274 ANIMAL MOUNDS. tributions contains the work, by Mr. Lapham, which gives the most complete account of these interesting remains. Mr. Lapham adds a map, showing the distribution of these curious earthworks. They appear to be most numerous in the southern counties of Wisconsin ; and extend from the Missis sippi to Lake Michigan, following generally the course of the river, and being especially numerous along the great Indian trail, or war -path, from Lake Michigan, near Milwaukie, to the Mississippi, above the Prairie du Chien. This, however, does not prove any connection between the present Indians and the mounds ; the same line has been adopted as the route of the United States' military road, and may have been in use for an indefinite period . The mounds themselves not only represent animals, such as men, buffaloes, elks, bears, otters, wolves, raccoons, birds, serpents, lizards, turtles, and frogs, but also some inanimate objects, if at least the American archæologists are right in regarding some of them as crosses, tobacco-pipes, etc. Many of the representations are spirited and correct, but others, probably through the action of time, are less definite ; one, for instance, near the village of Muscoda, may be either “ a bird, a bow and arrow, or the human figure. ” Their height varies from one to four feet, sometimes, however, rising to six feet ; and as a “ regular elevation of six inches can be readily traced upon the level prairies ” of the West, their outlines are generally distinctly defined where they occupy favourable positions. It seems probable that many of the details have disappeared under the action of rain and vegetation. At present a “ man " consists generally of a head and body, two long arms and two short legs, no other details being visible. The “ birds” differ from the “ men ” principally in the absence of legs. The so-called “ lizards,” which are among the most common forms, have a head, two legs, and a long tail ; the ANIMAL MOUNDS. 275 side view being represented, as is, indeed, the case with most of the quadrupeds. One mound has been supposed to repre sent a mastodon, but the similarity is, I think, far from con clusive. * No remains of the mastodon or of any extinct animals have been found in any of the mounds. One remarkable group in Dale County, close to the great Indian war - path, consists of a man with extended arms, seven more or less elongated mounds, one tumulus and six quadrupeds. The length of the human figure is one hundred and twenty- five feet, and it is one hundred and forty feet from the extremity of one arm to that of the other. The quadrupeds vary from ninety to one hundred and twenty -six feet in length. At Waukesha are a number of mounds, tumuli, and animals, including several “ lizards,” a very fine “ bird, ” and a mag nificent “ turtle. ” “ This, when first observed, was a very fine specimen of the art of mound-building, with its graceful curves, the feet projecting back and forward, and the tail, with its gradual slope, so acutely pointed, that it was im possible to ascertain precisely where it terminated. The body was fifty -six feet in length, and the tail two hundred and fifty ; the height six feet. ” This group of mounds is now, alas, covered with buildings : “ A dwelling-house stands on the body of the turtle, and a Catholic church is built upon the tail." “ But,” says Mr. Lapham , " the most remarkable collection of lizards and turtles yet discovered is on the school section about a mile and a half south - east from the village of Pew aukee. This consists of seven turtles, two lizards, four ob long mounds, and one of the remarkable excavations before alluded to . One of the turtle mounds, partially obliterated by the road, has a length of four hundred and fifty feet, being nearly double the usual dimensions. Three of them

• M’Lean . The Mound - builders.

T2 276 ANIMAL MOUNDS. are remarkable for their curved tails, a feature here first observed . " In several places a very curious variation occurs. The animals, with the usual form and size, are represented, not in relief, but intaglio ; not by a mound, but by an excavation. The few “ Animal Mounds” which have been observed out of Wisconsin differ in many respects from the ordinary type. Near Granville, in Ohio, on a higher spur of land, is an earth work, known in the neighbourhood as the “ Alligator.” It has a head and body, four sprawling legs, and a curled tail. The total length is two hundred and fifty feet; the breadth of the body forty feet, and the length of the legs thirty -six feet. “ The head, shoulders and rump are more elevated than the other parts of the body, an attempt having evidently been made to preserve the proportions of the object copied .” The average height is four feet, at the shoulders six . Even more remarkable is the great serpent in Adams County, Ohio. It is situated on a high spur of land, which rises a hundred and fifty feet above Brush Creek . ' Conforming to the curve of the hill, and occupying its very summit, is the serpent, its head resting near the point, and its body winding back for seven hundred feet, in graceful undulations, terminating in a triple coil at the tail. The entire length, if extended, would be not less than one thousand feet. The work is clearly and boldly defined, the embankment being upwards of five feet in height, by thirty feet base at the centre of the body, but diminishing somewhat toward the head and tail . The neck of the serpent is stretched out, and slightly curved, and its mouth is opened wide, as if in the act of swallowing or ejecting an oval figure, which rests partially within the dis tended jaws. This oval is formed by an embankment of earth, without any perceptible opening, four feet in height, and is per fectly regular in outline, its transverse and conjugate diameters being one hundred and sixty, and eighty feet respectively.” ROCK CARVINGS. 277 When, why, or by whom these remarkable works were erected, as yet we know not. The present Indians, though they look upon them with reverence, can throw no light upon their origin. Nor do the contents of the mounds themselves assist us in this inquiry. Several of them have been opened, and, in making the streets of Milwaukie, many of the mounds have been entirely removed ; but the only result has been to show that they are not sepulchral, and that, excepting by accident, they contain no implements or ornaments. Under these circumstances speculation would be useless ; we can but wait, and hope that time and perseverance may solve the problem , and explain the nature of these remarkable and mysterious monuments. There is one class of objects which I have not yet mentioned, and which yet ought not to be left entirely unnoticed. The most remarkable of these is the celebrated Dighton Rock, on the east bank of the Taunton River. Its history, and the various conclusions which have been derived from it, are very amusingly given by Dr. Wilson. * In 1783, the Rev. Ezra Stiles, D.D., President of Yale College, appealed to this rock, inscribed , as he believed, with Phænician characters, for a proof that the Indians were descended from Canaan, and were therefore accursed. Count de Gebelin regarded the inscription as Carthaginian. In the eighth volume of the Archæologia,” Colonel Vallency endeavours to prove that it is Siberian ; while certain Danish antiquaries regard it as Runic, and thonght that they could read the name “ Thorfinn ," “ with an exact, though by no means so manifest, enumeration of the associates who, according to the Saga, accompanied Karlsefne's expedition to Vinland, in A.D. 1007.” Finally, Mr. Schoolcraft submitted a copy of it to Chingwauk, an intelligent Indian chief, who “ interpreted it as the record of

• Pre-historic Man, vol. ii. p. 172.

278 WAMPUM. an Indian triumph over some rival native tribe, " but without offering any opinion as to its antiquity. In the “ Grave Creek Mound” is said to have been found a small oval disk of white sandstone, on which were engraved twenty -two letters. Mr. Schoolcraft, who has especially studied this relic, finally concludes, after corresponding with many American and European archæologists, according to Dr. Wil son, * that of these twenty - two letters, four corresponded “ with ancient Greek, four with the Etruscan, five with the old Northern Runes, six with the ancient Gaelic, seven with the old Erse, ten with the Phænician, fourteen with the Anglo Saxon, and sixteen with the Celtiberic ; besides which possibly equivalents may be found in the old Hebrew . It thus appears that this ingenious little stone is even more accommodating than the Dighton Rock, in adapting itself to all conceivable theories of ante - Columbian colonization . ” A stone of such doubtful character could prove little under any circumstances ; and the authenticity is, I think, more than doubtful. One or two other equally unsatisfactory cases are upon record, but upon the whole we may safely assert that there is no reason to suppose that the nations of America had deve loped for themselves any thing corresponding to an alphabet. The art of picture- writing, which they shared with the Aztecs and the Quipa of the Peruvians, was supplemented among the North American Indians by the “ wampum .” This curious substitute for writing consisted of variously-coloured beads, generally worked upon leather. One very interesting example is the belt of wampum “ delivered by the Lenni Lenape Sachems to the founder of Pennsylvania, at the Great Treaty, under the elm- tree at Shachamox in 1682.” It is still pre served in the collection of the Historical Society at Phila delphia, and consists of “ eighteen strings of wampum formed

• Pre- historic Man, vol. ii. p. 180.

THE MOUND - BUILDERS. 279 of white and violet beads worked upon leather thongs, ” the whole forming a belt twenty - eight inches long, and two-and a- half broad . “ On this, five patterns are worked in violet beads on a white ground, and in the centre Penn is repre sented taking the hand of the Indian Sachem . ” The numerous beads found in some of the tumuli were perhaps in a similar manner intended to commemorate the actions and virtues of the dead. Just as the wigwam of the recent Mandan consisted of an outer layer of earth supported on a wooden framework, so also, in the ancient sepulchral tumuli, the body was protected only by beams and planks ; when therefore these latter decayed, the earth sank in and crushed the skeleton within . Partly from this cause, and partly from the habit of burying in ancient tumuli, which makes it sometimes difficult to distinguish the primary from secondary interments, it happens that from so many thousand tumuli we have very few well -preserved skulls which indisputably belong to the ancient race. These are decidedly brachycephalic; but it is evident that we must not attempt to build much upon so slight a basis. No proof of a knowledge of letters , no trace of a burnt brick , have yet been discovered ; and so far as we may judge from their arms, ornaments, and pottery, the mound -builders closely reseinbled some at least of the recent Indian tribes, and the earthworks agree in form with, if they differ in magnitude from , those still, or until lately in use. Yet this very magni tude is sufficient to show that, at some early period, the great river valleys of the United States must have been more densely populated than they were when first discovered by Europeans. The immense number of small earthworks, and the mounds, “ which may be counted by thousands and tens of thousands," might indeed be supposed to indicate either a long time or a great population ; but in other cases we have no such alter native. The Newark constructions ; the mound near Florence 280 EVIDENCE OF ANCIENT POPULATION. in Alabama, which is forty - five feet in height by four hundred and forty feet in circunference at the base, with a level area at the summit of one hundred and fifty feet in circumference ; the still greater mound on the Etowah river, also in Alabama, which has a height of more than seventy - five feet, with a circumference of twelve hundred feet at the base, and one hundred and forty at the summit ; the embankments at the mouth of the Scioto river, which are estimated to be twenty miles in length ; the great mound at Selserstown, Mississippi, which covers six acres of ground ; and the truncated pyramid at Cahokia, to which we have already alluded ; these works, and many others which might have been quoted, indicate a population both large and stationary ; for which hunting cannot have supplied enough food , as it has been estimated that in a forest country each hunter requires an area of not less than 50,000 acres for his support ; and which must, there fore, have derived its support, in a great measure, from agri culture. “ There is not ,” say Messrs. Squier and Davis, “ and there was not in the sixteenth century, a single tribe of Indians (north of the semi- civilized nations) between the Atlantic and the Pacific, which had means of subsistence sufficient to enable them to apply, for such purposes, the unproductive labour necessary for the work ; nor was there any in such a social state as to compel the labour of the people to be thus applied.” We know also that many, if not most of the Indian tribes, at that time still cultivated the ground to a certain extent, and there is some evidence that, even within historic times, this was more the case than at present. Thus De Nonville esti mates the amount of Indian corn destroyed by him in four Seneca villages at 1,200,000 quarters. Mr. Lapham * has brought forward some ingenious reasons for thinking that the forests of Wisconsin were at no very distant period much less general than at present. In the first

• l. c. p. 90.

TRACES OF ANCIENT AGRICULTURE . 281 place, the largest trees are probably not more than five hundred years old ; and large tracts are now covered with “ young trees, where there are no traces of antecedent growth .” Every year many trees are blown down, and frequent storms pass through the forest, throwing down nearly everything before them. Mr. Lapham gives a map of these windfalls in one district; they are very conspicuous, firstly, because the trees, having a certain quantity of earth entangled among their roots, continue to vegetate for several years ; and secondly, because even when the trees themselves have died and rotted away, the earth so torn up forms little mounds, which are often mistaken by the inexperienced for Indian graves. “ From the paucity of these little tree -mounds,' we infer that no very great antiquity can be assigned to the dense forests of Wisconsin, for during a long period of time, with no material change of climate, we would expect to find great numbers of these little monuments of ancient storms scattered everywhere over the ground .” But there is other more direct evidence of ancient agricul ture. In many places the ground is covered with small mammillary elevations, which are known as Indian corn -hills. “ They are without order of arrangement, being scattered over the ground with the greatest irregularity. That these hillocks were formed in the manner indicated by their name, is inferred from the present custom of the Indians. The corn is planted in the same spot each successive year, and the soil is gradually brought up to the size of a little hill by the annual additions. " * But Mr. Lapham has also found traces of an earlier and more systematic cultivation. These consist “ of low parallel ridges, as if corn had been planted in drills. They average four feet in width, twenty - five of them having been counted in the space of a hundred feet ; and the depth of the walk between

• Lapham , 1.c. p. 19. See also

Cheney, “ On Ancient Monuments in Western New York ,” in the 13th Report of the Regents of the Uni versity of the State of New York, 1860, p. 40. 282 ANTIQUITY OF THE REMAINS. them is about six inches. These appearances, which are here denominated ' ancient garden-beds, ' indicate an earlier and more perfect system of cultivation than that which now pre vails ; for the present Indians do not appear to possess the ideas of taste and order necessary to enable them to arrange objects in consecutive rows. Traces of this kind of cultivation, though not very abundant, are found in several other parts of the State (Wisconsin ). The garden-beds are of various sizes, covering, generally, from twenty to one hundred acres. Some of them are reported to embrace even three hundred acres. As a general fact, they exist in the richest soil, as it is found in the prairies and bun oak plains. In the latter case, trees of the largest kind are scattered over them . ” In the “ Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ,” it is stated that no earthwork has ever been found on the first or lowest terrace of any of the great rivers, and that “this observation is confirmed by all who have given attention to the subject.” If true, this would indeed have indicated a great antiquity, but in his subsequent work Mr. Squier informs us that “ they occur indiscriminately upon the first and upon the superior terraces, as also upon the islands of the lakes and rivers. ” Messrs. Squier and Davis * are of opinion that the decayed state of the skeletons found in the mounds may enable us to form " some approximate estimate of their remote anti quity, ” especially when we consider that the earth round them “ is wonderfully compact and dry, and that the conditions for their preservation are exceedingly favourable . ” “ In the bar rows of the ancient Britons,” they add, " entire well-preserved skeletons are found, although possessing an undoubted anti quity of at least eighteen hundred years.” Dr. Wilsont also relies much on this fact, which, in his opinion, " furnishes a stronger evidence of their great antiquity than any of the proofs that have been derived either from the age of a subse

• l. c. p. 168. + 1. c. vol. i. p. 359.

CONDITION OF THE BONES. 283 quent forest growth, or the changes wrought on the river terraces where they most abound. ” It is true that the bones in Stone Age graves are often extremely well preserved ; but it is equally true that those in Saxon barrows have in many cases entirely perished. In fact, the condition of ancient bones depends so much on the circumstances in which they have been placed, that we must not attribute much importance to this argument. The evidence derived from the forests is more to be relied on. Thus Captain Peck * observed near the Ontonagon river, and at a depth of twenty- five feet, some stone mauls and other implements in contact with a vein of copper. Above these was the fallen trunk of a large cedar, and “ over all grew a hemlock-tree, the roots of which spread entirely above the fallen tree, ” and indicated, in his estimation, a growth of not less than three centuries, to which must then be added the age of the cedar, which indicates a still “ longer succession of centuries, subsequent to that protracted period during which the deserted trench was slowly filled up with accumulations of many winters ." The late President Harrison , in an address to the Historical Society of Ohio, made some very interesting remarks on this subject, which are quoted by Messrs. Squier and Davis.t " The process,” he says, “ by which nature restores the forest to its original state, after being once cleared, is extremely slow . The rich lands of the west are, indeed, soon covered again, but the character of the growth is entirely different, and continues so for a long period. In several places upon the Ohio, and upon the farm which I occupy, clearings were made in the first settlement of the country, and subsequently abandoned and suffered to grow up. Some of these new forests are now of fifty years' growth, but they have made so little progress towards attaining the appearance of the

• Wilson , I. c. vol. i. p. 256 . † l. c . p. 306.

284 AMERICAN FORESTS. immediately contiguous forest, as to induce any man of reflection to determine that at least ten times fifty years must elapse before their complete assimilation be effected. We find in the ancient works all that variety of trees which give such unrivalled beauty to our forests, in natural pro portions. The first growth of the same kind of land, once cleared and then abandoned to nature, on the contrary, is nearly homogeneous, often stinted to one or two, at most three kinds of timber. If the ground has been cultivated, the yellow locust will quickly spring up ; if not cultivated, the black and white walnut will be the prevailing growth. Of what immense age, then, must be the works so often referred to, covered as they are by at least the second growth, after the primitive forest state was regained ! " * We obtain another indication of antiquity in the " garden beds,” which we have already described. This system of cultivation has long been replaced by the irregular “ corn hills ; ” and yet, according to Mr. Lapham, f the garden- beds are much more recent than some of the mounds, across which they sometimes extend in the same manner as over the adjoining grounds. If, therefore, these mounds belong to the same area as those which are covered with wood, we get thus indications of three periods : the first, that of the mounds themselves ; the second, that of the garden-beds ; and the third, that of the forests. But American agriculture was not imported from abroad ; it resulted from , and in return rendered possible, the gradual development of American semi-civilization. This is proved by the fact that the grains of the Old World were entirely absent, and that American agriculture was founded on the maize, an American plant. Thus, therefore, we appear to have indications of four long periods : 1. That in which, from an original barbarism , the Ameri

• See also Arch. Amer. , vol. i . p. 306. † 1. c . p. 19.

INDICATIONS OF FOUR PERIODS. 285 can tribes developed a knowledge of agriculture and a power of combination. 2. That in which for the first time mounds were erected , and other great works undertaken. 3. The age of the “ garden - beds, ” which occupy some at least of the mounds. Hence it is probable that these par ticular “ garden -beds” were not in use until after the mounds had lost their sacred character in the eyes of the occupants of the soil ; for it can hardly be supposed that works executed with so much care would be thus desecrated by their builders. 4. The period in which man relapsed into partial barbarisin , and the spots which had been first forest, then, perhaps, sacred monuments, and thirdly, cultivated ground, relapsed into forest once more. But even if we attribute to these changes all the importance which has ever been claimed for them, they will not require an antiquity of more than three thousand years. I do not, of course, deny that the period may have been, and in all probability was, very much greater. There are, moreover, other observations, which appear to indicate a very much higher antiquity. Dr. A. C. Koch * records the case of a mastodon found in Gasconade County, Missouri, which had apparently been stoned to death by the Indians, and then partially consumed by fire. The same writer mentions a second case in which several stone arrow - heads were found mingled with the bones of a mastodon. These statements, however, are not generally ac cepted by geologists, and the evidence in support of them is, to say the least, very doubtful. In the valley of the Mississippi, Dr. Dickeson, of Natchez, found the os innominatum of a man with some bones of the Mastodon ohicticus, which had fallen from the side of a cliff

• Trans. of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1857, p. 61 .

286 MAN AND THE MASTODON . undermined by a rivulet. This case, however, is also open to doubt, and Sir C. Lyell was of opinion that this bone might have been derived from one of the Indian graves, which are very numerous in this locality. Dr. Usher, on the contrary, * regards it as "an undoubted fossil,” belonging to the same period as the remains of the mastodon with which it was discovered Count Pourtalis records the discovery of some human bones in a calcareous conglomerate, estimated by Agassiz to be ten thousand years old, though it must be added that this calculation has been disputed by the Count himself. The so - called “ Calaveras" skull was found in the county so named by Mr. Mattison, who assures us that he took it with his own hands from a bed of gravel 130 feet from the surface and under four layers of lava. The antiquity of this skull has been much questioned, but Mr. Whitney seems to feel no doubt on the subject. He maintainst that the chemi cal condition proves that it is of considerable antiquity, and not a mere modern skull, as some have supposed. Of course if it really belonged to the bed in which Mr. Mattison sup poses that it was found, it must be of great antiquity, but we do not know enough of the locality to be able to form even the vaguest idea of its age. Dr. Douler obtained from an excavation near New Orleans some charcoal and a human skeleton, to which he was inclined to attribute an antiquity of no less than fifty thousand years. The plain on which the city of New Orleans is built, and which rises only about ten feet above the sea level, consists of alluvial soil, which has been proved by borings to have a depth of more than five hundred feet, and which contains several successive layers of cypresses. The river banks show similar remains of ancient forests, and Messrs. Dickeson and

• Dr. Usher, in Nott and Glid- + Whitney, Auriferous Gravels don's Types of Mankind, p. 344. of the Sierra Nevada, p. 271 .

ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA. 287 Brown have found remains of no less than ten cypress forests at different levels below the present surface. These trees are not unfrequently as much as ten feet in diameter, and there are from 95 to 120 rings in an inch. The human skeleton above referred to was found at a depth of sixteen feet, and beneath the roots of a cypress-tree belonging to the fourth forest level below the surface. * Dr. Andrews, indeed, in a letter cited by Mr. Southall , t questions this calculation . He maintains that the accretion of river mud in the region of the lower Mississippi is very rapid, and points out as a proof of this that trunks of trees may be seen standing in the banks of the river, showing that the accretion must have been rapid enough to cover them before they had had time to decay. Whether, however, we accept Dr. Douler's calculation or not, it is obvious that, if the statements are trustworthy, this skeleton certainly must carry back the existence of man in America to a very early period. In another case a piece of a wicker basket is said to have been found in Louisiana, in association with elephants' re mains. Lastly, implements curiously resembling the Palæo lithic implements of Western Europe, have been found by Mr. Jones at a depth of nine feet in the gravel of the Chatta hoochee valley, g and by Mr. Abbott in the drift gravels of New Jersey. || On the whole, then, the evidence certainly seems to indi cate that Man has inhabited America for a considerable period , and it is even probable, though there may not as yet be any absolute proof, that he co - existed there with the mammoth and mastodon.

• Dr. Usher, in Nott and Glid don's Types of Mankind, p. 338.

+ Recent Origin of Man, p. 472. I Desnoyers, Cong. Int. d'An thropologie, p. 98. § Jones, Ant. of the Southern Indians, p. 294. || Rep. of the Peabody Museum , 1878. ( 288 ) CHAPTER IX. QUATERNARY MAMMALIA . IMN addition to those still existing, the fauna of Northern Europe during the Palæolithic period comprised several species of mammalia which have either become entirely ex tinct, or very much restricted in their geographical distribu tion, since the appearance of man in Europe. The principal of these are Ursus spelæus (the cave- bear). U. priscus. Hyæna spelca (the cave-hyæna) . Felis spelca (the cave- lion). Elephas primigenius ( the mammoth ). E. antiquus. Rhinoceros tichorhinus ( the hairy rhinoceros). R. leptorhinus, Cuv. R. hemitachus. Hippopotamus major ( the hippopotamus). Ovibos moschatus ( the musk ox). Megaceros hibernicus ( the Irisk elk). E. fossilis ( the wild horse) . Gulo luscus ( the glutton ). Cervus tarandus (the reindeer). Bison Europeus (the aurochs). Bos primigenius ( the urus). Besides many smaller, but very interesting, species. The first ten of these have been regarded, until lately, as altogether extinct, but recent researches have induced many SUCCESSION OF SPECIES. 289 naturalists to regard some of them as the direct ancestors of species still existing in other parts of the world, so that the Irish elk, the elephants, and the three species of rhinoceros are perhaps the only ones which have left no descendants. Most of the smaller species now inhabiting Europe already existed in quaternary times, from which we may conclude that the changes which have taken place were due to a gradual change of circumstances, rather than to any sudden cataclysm , or general destruction of life : it is also very im probable that the extinction of the different species was simultaneous ; and, acting on this idea, M. Lartet has at tempted * to construct a palæontological chronology. He considers that we may establish four divisions, namely, the age of the cave-bear, of the mammoth and rhinoceros, of the reindeer, and of the aurochs. It is evident, I think, that the appearance of these mammalia in Europe was not simul taneous, and that their disappearance has been successive. The evidence is very strong that in Central and Western Europe the aurochs survived the reindeer, and that the rein deer, on the other hand, lived on to a later period than the mammoth or the woolly -haired rhinoceros. But the chrono logical distinction between these two species and the cave bear does not appear to be so well established. Admitting that the cave-bear has not yet been found in the river gravels of the Somme valley, we must remember that the animal was essentially a cave-dweller, and that its absence is, perhaps, to be attributed rather to the absence of caves than to the extinction of the species. Moreover, the bones found in the gravel are very much broken , and are seldom in such a condi tion as to enable the palæontologist to distinguish the remains of U. spelæus from those of other large bears. There is as yet no evidence that the cave-bear existed in Europe before the commencement of the quaternary period,

• Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1861, p. 217.

290 THE CAVE-BEAR. when it appears to have been abundant in Central Europe and in the southern parts of Russia. It has not yet been found in Siberia , * it is doubtful whether it has been dis covered north of the Baltic, nor has it yet been found in Spain or in Ireland. In Italy, on the contrary, it has been met with, and in one instance apparently in association with a polished stone implement, and even pottery.t M. Regnoli has been so good as to forward me a cast of the specimen on which this statement rests ; it belongs to the cave- bear, but I can hardly regard it as being undoubtedly contempo raneous with the pottery and stone axe which were found near it. In Northern Europe no such case has yet been met with , but it is of course possible that in Italy the cave-bear may have survived to a more recent period than in the region north of the Alps. No trace of it has yet been found by Mr. Busk and Dr. Falconer among the numerous remains from Gibraltar, nor has it yet been met with in Siberia . The late Dr. Falconer referred to this species the leg bones of a bear found in Brixham Cave, above a fint implement. Mr. Busk, however, who has carefully examined these bones, and detached them more completely from the matrix in which they were imbedded than was the case when they were examined by Dr. Falconer, is of opinion that there is no suffi cient reason for referring them to Ursus spelaus rather than to one of the other large species of fossil bear. It has been stated that remains of the cave - bear have occurred in the river gravels at Ilford and Gray's Thurrocks. In the opinion, however, both of Mr. Busk and Mr. Boyd Dawkins, we have no clear case of the remains of this species being found in river- drift gravels. In fact, as materials for comparison have increased, it has proved more and more

• Brandt, Bull . de l'Acad. Imp.

de St. Petersburgh, 1870, vol. vii. + Richerche Paleoetnologiche nelle Alpi Apuane. Nota del Dott. pt. 3 . C. Regnoli. THE CAVE - BEAR. 291 difficult to separate Ursus spelmus from other large species of bear. The jaws and teeth are characteristic, but the other portions of the skeleton are scarcely distinguishable, especially when they are so much fractured, as is generally the case with those found in gravel deposits. Vogt, indeed, has expressed the opinion that every gradation may be traced between this species and our common brown bear ( Ursus Arctos), and Brandt leans to the same opinion. * Mr. Boyd Dawkins also says that “ those who have compared the French, German, and British specimens gradually realize the fact that the fossil remains of the bears form a graduated series, in which all the variations that at first sight appear specific vanish away. ” + Whether, however, the cave - bear will eventually be regarded as belonging to the same species as the brown bear or not, it will still remain a well- charac terized variety, and one which has never yet been certainly met with in the peat mosses, in the tumuli of Western Europe, in the Danish shell-mounds, the Swiss lake - villages, or, in short, associated with Neolithic remains. Mr. Busk, whose views have more recently been supported by Dr. Leith Adams and Mr. Boyd Dawkins, has made the very interesting observation that some remains of bear found in our British caves and gravels are identical with the corre sponding bones of U. Ferox, or grizzly bear of the Rocky Mountains. The cave-hyena, like the preceding species, is in Europe characteristic of the Palæolithic age ; by some authorities it is now regarded as scarcely distinguishable from the Hyæna crocuta, or spotted hyæna of Southern Africa. Felis spelæa, the cave - lion, attained a somewhat larger size than the lion of the present day, and possessed in an exaggerated degree the characters by which that species is

• Zoogeographische und Palæon- + Pleistocene Mammalia, Palæ tologische Beiträge, 1867, p . 220. ontographical Soc. vol. xviii. p. xxii.

U 2 292 THE CAVE - HYÆNA . THE CAVE - LION . distinguishable from the tiger. It has hitherto been regarded as a distinct species, but Messrs. Dawkins and Sanford now consider * it as only a large variety of the lion. It has not yet been found in Scotland, Ireland, Scandinavia, Denmark, or Prussia. It occurs, however, in France, Germany, Italy, and Sicily. As long ago as 1672, Dr. John Hains figured a bone of this species from the Carpathians, an observation of considerable interest, as it carries the area of the F. spelaa so near to the mountains of Thessaly, where, as Herodotus tells us, the camels attached to the army of Xerxes were attacked by lions.t Messrs. Boyd Dawkins and Sanford refer also to the same species the remains found at Natchez, in Mississippi, which were described by Dr. Leidy as a new species under the name of Felis atrox . The characters, however, which induced Dr. Leidy to regard his specimens as distinct, are met with in some of the bones of F. spelæa from the Mendip Hills. If this opinion be correct, F. spelæa must have stretched eastwards across Russia and Siberia, where no remains of it have yet been observed. Inasmuch, however, as the mam moth, the musk ox, the reindeer, the bison, the elk, the horse, the wolf,-in short, many of our most characteristic quaternary mammalia-occur also in America, it seems à priori rather probable than otherwise that Messrs. Dawkins and Sanford are correct in regarding F. atrox of that continent as specifically identical with the F. spelæa of Europe. Remains of a second large species of Felis, considered to be identical with the leopard , have been discovered in the bone caves of England, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, and Spain ; and the lynx hasbeen foundby Dr. Ransom in a Derbyshire cave . The Mammoth, or Elephas primigenius, had very extensive geographical range. Its remains are found in North America,

• Palæontological Soc. , vol. for

1868, p. 149. + See also Mr. Newton's inte resting memoir on the Zoology of Ancient Europe, Cam . Phil. Soc. , March, 1862. THE MAMMOTH . 293 but not east of the Rocky Mountains nor south of Columbia River ; in the old continent, from the farthest extremity of Siberia to the extreme west of Europe, occurring, though rarely, even in Ireland ; it crossed the Alps, and established itself in Italy as far southward as Rome, but it has not yet been discovered in Naples, in any of the Mediterranean islands, or in Scandinavia . In Spain and Denmark it occurs, though so very rarely that it may be doubted whether the finds really imply residence. In the extreme north, on the contrary, remains of this species are remarkably abundant. Kotzebue was struck by this in Escholtz Bay ( N.W. America ), and his remarks have been fully confirmed by Beechey. * The islands of Lachowski and New Siberia are said to contain innumerable bones of extinct animals, and particularly of the mammoth ; from them and from other parts of Siberia so much fossil ivory is obtained that it forms a regular article of commerce. Nor have skeletons alone been discovered. In 1799 a Tungusian hunter discovered the body of a mammoth embedded in a cliff of frozen soil , where it remained for several years. In 1806 it was visited by Mr. Adams, who found it partly devoured by wolves and other wild animals, and partly removed by the Yakuts, who used it as food for their dogs. Fortunately, however, a con siderable portion of the animal still remained. The skin was dark grey, covered with reddish wool, mixed with long black bristles, somewhat thicker than horsehair. Another frozen mammoth was discovered in 1846, besides several other well preserved portions, and it was probably from earlier finds of a similar nature that the Siberian tribes came to regard the mammoth as a gigantic burrowing animal. It is hardly neces sary to observe that the state of preservation in which mam moths have been found is no evidence of recent existence, for when once enveloped in frozen soil they might remain un changed for an indefinite period.

• Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, vol. i . p . 257..

294 EXISTENCE OF THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT IN EUROPE. It is pro The best authorities consider that the mammoth and the woolly - haired rhinoceros lived in Siberia before, as well as during the glacial period, and though as regards Europe the evidence is not so conclusive, it appears probable that they also existed in Europe in pre - glacial times. bable that during the severer portions of the period they retreated south, and advanced northward again during the milder inter- glacial period. · Whatever doubt, however, there may be as to the date at which this species made its appear ance in Europe, we can no longer hesitate to believe that our ancestors, or at least our predecessors, co -existed in England with the mammoth, which they no doubt hunted, as the wildest tribes of Africa and India do now. In Southern Europe unmistakable remains of the existing African elephant have been met with, but the only other species of elephant which inhabited Northern Europe during the quater nary period was the nearly allied Elephas antiquus, remains of which have been found in English caves and river gravels, though, on the whole, it had a more southerly range than the mammoth. It is generally associated with Rhinoceros lep torhinus, Cuv. , while, on the contrary, the mammoth and R. tichorhinus usually occur together. Fig. 179 represents a molar tooth of E. antiquus, and fig . 180 one belonging to E. primigenius ; it will at once be seen that the plates are much narrower in the latter than in the former. FIG . 179. MURU Molar Tooth of E. Antiquus. THE QUATERNARY SPECIES OF RHINOCEROS. 295 At least three species of rhinoceros inhabited Europe during the quaternary period ; on this all are agreed, but, unfortu nately the nomenclature is involved in very considerable con fusion. R. leptorhinus was originally so named by Cuvier in 1812, from a drawing of a specimen found in the Val d'Arno, and in which the bony septum between the nostrils was FIG. 180 . WW Molar Tooth of Mammoth . represented as deficient. In 1835, M. de Christol stated that he had examined the specimen in question, that the drawing was incorrect, and the name consequently inapplicable. . Sub sequently, however, Dr. Falconer visited Italy and satisfied himself that, after all, the original drawing was correct, and that therefore Cuvier's name must be restored. In the mean time Prof. Owen had unfortunately described another species of rhinoceros found at Clacton as R. leptorhinus, which name must of course be abandoned if Cuvier's name is permitted to stand. Hence Dr. Falconer proposed to call this latter species R. hemitochus. It is necessary therefore to bear in mind that the R. leptorhinus of Owen is not the R. leptorhinus of Cuvier, but that it is the R. hemitochus of Falconer, while M. Lartet maintains that it is identical with the R. Merkii of Kaup. On the other hand, M. de Christol, in 1835, described a rhino ceros, which undoubtedly wanted the nasal septum, and be lieving himself to have proved that the figure on which Cuvier based his description of R. leptorhinus was incorrect, he named this species R. megarhinus. Hence Cuvier's R. leptorhinus is 296 THE QUATERNARY SPECIES OF RHINOCEROS. identical with De Christol's R. megarhinus. The third species is the R. tichorhinus of Cuv., a name which has been generally adopted, although Blumenbach had previously proposed that of R. antiquitatis. Mr. Boyd Dawkins considers that there is still some doubt about the real character of the specimen on which Cuvier founded his R. leptorhinus, and consequently adopts the following nomenclature : R. megarhinus, De Christol; R. lep torhinus, Owen ; and R. tichorhinus, Cuvier. M. Lartet uses the names R. leptorhinus, Cuv.; R. Merkii, Kaup ; and R. tichorhinus, Cuvier. These differences of opinion, however, relate merely to the nomenclature, and do not touch the existence of the species themselves. The first two belonged to the pre- glacial as well as to the post- glacial period. The woolly -haired, two-horned, smooth - skinned R. tichorhinus, on the contrary, which appears to have been the commonest in post-glacial times, has not yet been proved to have existed in Europe in the period before the glacial epoch. The two other species also have a more southerly range, having been found in Italy and Spain, while R. tichorhinus, though it has been met with from the extreme north of Siberia, * throughout Central Europe and England, does not appear to have crossed either the Alps or the Pyrenees. It is somewhat remarkable that no remains of rhinoceros have yet been discovered in Sicily, Malta, Scotland, Ireland , + or America, I in all of which countries the elephant has been met with. On the other hand, a single tooth has, according to Brandt, been found in Scandinavia, where no remains of elephant have yet been discovered . The Musk - ox, or rather musk -sheep, is at present confined

• In more than one instance the † Lartet, Note sur deux têtes de

actual carcase ofthis animal hasbeen Carnassiers Fossiles. Ann . d . Sci. found preserved like the mammoth, Nat. , 5 Ser. vol. viii. by being imbedded in frozen soil. I D'Archiac, Leçons sur le Faune Quaternaire, p. 196 . RHINOCEROS TICHORHINUS. 297 to the northern part of Arctic America. Its remains, how ever, occur in Siberia ; and in 1856 Mr. Kingsley and I were so fortunate as to obtain a portion of a skull from the large gravel- pit near Maidenhead Station. Since then I have met with it again at Greenstreet Green, near Bromley, in Kent ; it has also been found in the gravel of the Avon, near Bath, in that of the Severn, near Gloucester, and at Crayford. It has since been found, though rarely, in France and Germany. The Hippopotamus, though hitherto regarded as a distinct species from the H. amphibius of Africa, was, if not identical with, at any rate very closely allied to it. Some palæontolo gists believe that, like the mammoth and the R. tichorhinus, it was covered with hair ; we have, however, no distinct, evidence in support of this view. It may, moreover, be remarked, though too much importance must not be attached to the observation, that our ancient hippopotamus has been less frequently found in association with these two species, than with E. antiquus and R. hemitæchus, Falc. (leptorhinus, Owen ), which, as just mentioned , have a more southerly range. Thus, in this country, it has only been found in four bone-caves, those of Durdham Down, Kirkdale, Kent's Hole Cavern, and Ravenscliff in Gower, and in the two former it was associated with E. antiquus and R. hemitæchus. In the river gravels its remains are found at Grays and Ilford, associated with the R. tichorhinus, R. leptorhinus, and R. hemitæchus ; at Walton and Folkestone, with Elephas an tiquus ; at Peckham , with E. antiquus and E. primigenius; at Bedford, with E. antiquus, the tichorhine rhinoceros, and the reindeer ; and at Barton, with the mammoth and R. hemitæchus. * The magnificent Irish Elk, or Megaceros hibernicus, which

• The British Pleistocene Mammalia, Palæontological Soc . 1866,

p. xxviii. 298 THE IRISH ELK. attained a eight of more than ten feet, with antlers measur ing eleven feet from tip to tip, may perhaps have lived to a somewhat more recent period, but appears to have had a much more restricted range. Its remains have been found in Sweden, in Germany, in France as far as the Pyrenees, and in Central Italy. It seems, however, to have been most abundant in the British Isles, and especially in Ireland. It is reported to have been frequently found in peat- bogs, but Professor Owen believes that, in reality, the bones generally occur in the lacustrine shell marl, which underlies the peat or bog earth . * In the Niebelungen Lied of the twelfth century, a myste rious animal is mentioned under the name of schelch : “ After this he straightway slew a bison and an elk, Of the strong uri four, and one fierce schelch . " It has been supposed by some writers that the schelch was, in fact, the Megaceros hibernicus. There is, however, no sufficient reason for this hypothesis, and we must remember that the same poem, as Dr. Buckland has pointed out, con tains allusions to giants, dwarfs, pigmies, and fire -dragons. Neither Cæsar nor Tacitus mentions the Irish elk, and they would surely not have omitted such a remarkable animal, if it had been known to them. No remains of the Irish elk have yet been found in asso ciation with bronze, nor indeed am I aware of any which can be referred to the later Stone or Neolithic Age. These twelve species, then , are especially characteristic of the river-drift deposits. Most of them occur also in the loëss of the Rhine and its principal tributaries, but, except perhaps the last, they have not yet been met with in the peat-bogs. They never occur in the Kjökkenmöddings, the Lake-habitations, or tumuli ; nor are there any traditions in Western Europe

• Owen, l. c . p. 465.

WILD HORSES. 299 which can be regarded as indicating, even in the most obscure manner, any recollection of these gigantic mammalia . The Wild Horses, which in ancient times inhabited Europe, differed somewhat from our present breed, and have been described as separate races by Professor Owen, under the names of Equus fossilis and Equus spelæus. The latter is the race which was largely used for food by the ancient inha bitants of the Bruniquel Cave in Dordogne. * It was rather small in size, but appears to have resembled the true horse more than the ass. Some naturalists have, indeed , been disposed to believe that Europe contained two wild species of the genus Equus during quaternary times. This opinion, however, seems to depend on difference of size rather than of form , and we know that the varieties of the horse differ considerably in magnitude. Ekkehard, in the “ Benedictiones ad mensas Ekkehardi monachi Sangallensis," mentions " ferales equi" as existing in the eleventh century in Switzerland . Lucas David also ( Reuss. Chronik . Bd. ii. s. 121) alludes to the wild horse as existing in 1240 in Russia. Even at the beginning of the seventeenth centry, Herberstein expressly says, “ Feras habet Lithuania, præter eas, quæ in Germania referuntur, bisontes, uros, alces, equos sylvestres," etc. Perhaps, however, these mediæval wild horses were merely tame ones which had escaped and bred in the extensive forests of Central Europe. Indeed, the history of the horse in Europe seems to have been much the same as in America. In the one country as in the other, wild horses were at one time frequent, and their remains are abundant. The Spanish con querors, however, found no trace or tradition of the horse at the time of the discovery of America ; and so also in the Danish shell-mounds, and at the earlier Swiss lake villages,

• Owen, Philosophical Transac tions, 1869, p. 535. See also Rüti meyer, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der

fossilen Pferden . 300 THE REINDEER. the horse was either unknown, or at least extremely rare. Gradually it seems to have become again abundant, both in a domesticated and a wild condition ; until at length , as population increased, the wild horse finally disappeared in Europe, as he seems destined ere long to do in America. * The Reindeer still exists in Northern Europe, in Siberia and in North America, where it has been found as far north as man has yet penetrated. Even so recently as the time of Pallas it might still be met with on the wooded summits of the Oural Mountains, as far south as the Caucasus. In Western Europe it is now an extinct species, though it was at one time abundant in England and France, whence, how ever, it is unnecessary to say, it has long disappeared. M. Lartet found no traces of it in any of the Spanish caves examined by him ; Ponzi mentions it , though apparently with some little doubt, as occurring among the animal remains collected by M. Regnoli, at Cantalupo, near Rome ; but its existence south of the Alps seems still doubtful. + At the present day the reindeer, like the Laplander, is gradually retiring northwards, unable to resist the pressure of advancing civilization. Even within the last ten years a few families of Lapps might still be found in the neigh bourhood of Nystuen, on the summit of the Fillefjeld, and some other places in the south of Norway, but none are now to be found on this side of the Namsen river. The reindeer, in a wild state, indeed, even at the present day, is generally distributed, though in small numbers, over the highest and wildest of the Norwegian fjelds, protected, however, by stringent game laws, but for which it would probably have ere now ceased to exist.

• See, for further particulars, + Rapporto sugli Studi e sulle

Brandt, Zoographische und Palæ Scoperte Paleoetnologiche nel Baci ontologische Beiträge, p . 176. no della Campagna Romana. Roma, 1867. THE REINDEER. 301 On the other hand, this species must have been at one time very abundant in Great Britain , no fewer than 1000 horns having been discovered by Col. Wood in some of the Welsh caves. As far as we can judge from the present evidence, the first appearance of the reindeer in Europe coincided with that of the mammoth, and took place at a later period than that of the cave-bear or Irish elk. It is generally found wherever the mammoth and woolly -haired rhinoceros occur ; but, on the other hand, as its remains are abundant in some of the bone - caves in which the gigantic Pachyderms are wanting, it is probable that it survived to a still later period. The rein deer, has not, however, been found in the Kjökkenmöddings of Denmark, nor in any of the tumuli of England, France, or Germany. It is also wanting in the Swiss lake villages, although we know that it was at one time an inhabitant of Switzerland, bones of it having been found in a cave at L'Echelle, between the great and little Salève, near Geneva, where they were mixed with worked flints, ashes, and remains of the ox and horse. As might naturally have been expected, remains of the reindeer occur in the peat mosses of Sweden, as well as in those of Scotland and England. It is not, however, represented on any of the ancient British or Gallic coins. Cæsar, indeed , mentions it as existing in the great Her cynian forest ; but his description is both imperfect and in correct. He seems to have heard of it only at second-hand, and never to have met with anybody who had actually seen It does not appear to have ever been exhibited in the Roman circus. Buffon stated on the authority of Gaston, Comte de Foix, that in his time ( 1331 to 1390) the reindeer still lived in the south of France. Cuvier, however, by examining an ancient manuscript, sent by Gaston himself to Philippe le one. 302 THE REINDEER. " * Hardi, showed that, though his expression is a little ambi guous, he probably intended to say exactly the reverse, his words being “ J'en ay veu en Nourvegne et Xuedene et en ha oultre mer, mes en Romain pays en ay je peu veu . Remains of the reindeer have been found in Scotland in beds of marl and till, and also, though very rarely, in peat. + Hibbert, Brandt, Boyd Dawkins, J. A. Smith, and other good authorities, consider that it survived in the extreme north down to the twelfth century ; relying on the statement of Torfæus, that the Norwegians used to make incursions from the Orkneys into Caithness for the purpose of hunting rein deer (hreina) and other game. While, however, fully admitting the high authority of Torfæus, I cannot regard a casual statement of this charac ter as conclusively deciding the question, and I may add that Sir G. Dasent, who is so great an authority on all questions connected with Scandinavian literature, is convinced that the reindeer was extinct in Scotland at the period in question. It may also be remarked that several attempts which have been made to introduce the reindeer into Scotland have completely failed, the animals dying without any very apparent reason, while, on the contrary, in Iceland they have become numerous. I admit that these experiments are far from conclusive ; but, on the other hand, in Scandinavia the deer are said to be larger in the northern districts than in the southern, while the Spitzbergen specimens are the finest of all. If, indeed, Torfæus had distinctly stated that the reindeer existed in northern Scotland during the twelfth century, the state of the case would have been very different ; the passage

• Recherches sur les Ossements I Edinburgh Journal of Sci.,

Fossiles, vol. vi. p . 125. 1831. + See Dawkins, Popular Science § Zoogeogr. und Palæont. Bei Review , Jan. 1868. Smith, Proc. träge, 1867, pp. 62, 256. Soc. Ant. Scot. , 1869, p. 186. || Rerum Orcadensium His. i. 36. THE REINDEER. 303 referred to, however, could hardly be accepted as conclusive by itself, especially as long as no traces of reindeer had been found among the ancient ruins which abound in that district. On the other hand, since the last edition of this work was published, Mr. J. A. Smith has carefully examined the horns and bones found in the ruins of the curious towers known as “ Brochs, ” or “ Burghs, ” and has shown that some of them certainly belonged to the reindeer. * Thus fragments of rein deer's horns have been collected by Mr. Joass among the ruins of the Cill - Trölla Broch, on the farm of Kintradwell, near Brora, on the sea- coast of Sutherlandshire. Mr. Smith, on carefully examining the remains of deer obtained by Mr. Laing at Keiss, in Caithness, finds that they do not all belong, as at first supposed, to the red deer, but that some of them were those of the reindeer. Lastly, remains of this species have been collected by Mr. Anderson in the ruins of the Yarhouse Broch, in the same county. It is indeed more than probable that in other cases remains of the reindeer have been incor rectly ascribed to the red deer. We do not, unfortunately, know the date at which these Burghs or Brochs were first constructed, but it is on record that some of them were in use down to the twelfth century ( see ante, pp. 58, 59 ). No doubt these observations strongly support the infer ence derived from the statement of Torfæus, and though I am not entirely convinced, it must be admitted that there are strong grounds for believing that the reindeer survived in northern Scotland down to a comparatively recent period . The true Arctic Fox has also been found in English bone caves. Indeed, in the Kesserloch cave in Switzerland, out of 150 lower jaws of foxes, only two belonged to our Common Fox, 66 to the Arctic Fox (Canis lagopus), and the remainder

• Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. , 1869, vol. viii. p. 186.

304 THE AUROCHS. to the Red Fox of North America . * In the same cave the Common Hare was represented by two individuals only, while of the Alpine Hare not less than 250 individuals were indi cated by the remains. The Glutton of North Europe, which is the wolverine of the North American fur-hunters, has been found in several of the English bone - caves, as well as in the Norfolk “ Forest-beds,” + and is very abundant in those of Belgium. The Aurochs, or European Bison, appears to have been abundant in Western Europe. It has been found in Scot land, England, France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Italy, as well as in Russia. Its remains occur in the river -drift gravels, the bone - caves, the Lake villages of Swit zerland, and in the peat- bogs, though none have yet been found in the shell-mounds of Denmark , nor, so far as I am aware, in any of our British peat- bogs or tumuli. M. Lartet thinks that it is represented on a coin of the Santones, which was shown to him by M. de Saulcy. It is stated by Pliny and Seneca to have existed in their time, with the urus, in the great forests of Germany. Though not mentioned by Cæsar, it is alluded to in the Niebelungen Lied, and is said to have existed in Prussia down to the year 1775. According to Nordmann and Von Baer, it still survives in some parts of Western Asia. The bison is also preserved by the Emperor of Russia in the imperial forests of Lithuania, where, however, its existence seems to be very precarious. In 1830 the herd numbered 711 head, of which, during the Polish revolution in 1831, 115 were killed. From that time they gradually increased until 1857, when the numbers were 1898, but during the late

• Merk . Mitt. der Ant. Ges. in Zurich, 1875. Rütimeyer, Die Verand .

der Thierwelt in der Schweiz seit Ansewenheit der Menschen . + Newton, Proc. Geol. Soc. , 1880. THE URUS. 305 Polish rebellion they fell to 874. Since 1863 no numbers have been given. According to Rütimeyer, than whom it is impossible to cite a greater authority on such a question, our ancient bison (B. priscus) was specifically identical with the existing Ameri can bison. Every stage, however, between the fossil form and the existing European aurochs can be traced, so that it is impossible to separate the two, an opinion in which Brandt also coincides. It would appear, moreover, that the American form of bison is more archaic than that of Europe. Allen regards the gigantic Bos latifrons, which had immense horns spreading from 10 to 12 feet, as the parent form , passing through B. priscus into the present European, and through B. bonasus into the American bison. * We have here, there fore, a clear case, in which two now distinct species are connected by the evidence of fossil remains. The Urus, or Bos primigenius, did not extend its range to America, nor, so far as I am aware, have its remains yet been met with in North - eastern Asia. They occur , however, throughout Europe - in England, Scotland, Denmark, and the south of Sweden, in France and Germany. Across the Alps and Pyrenees, it occurs in Italy and Spain, and even, accord ing to M. Gervais, in Northern Africa. In the museum at Lund is a skeleton belonging to this species, in which one of the vertebræ still shows traces of a wound, made, in the opinion of Professor Nilsson, by a flint arrow. Bones of this species have also been met with in ancient tumuli, as well as in the lake -habitations, and in the Kjökkenmöddings. Cæsar particularly mentions the urus as occurring in the Hercynian forest ; it is alluded to in the Niebelungen Lied, and, according to Herberstein, it existed in Germany down to the sixteenth century. In England, wild bulls are men tioned by Fitz-Stephen, in his Life of Becket, as occurring

• The American Bisons, p. 35.

X 306 ELK . LEMMING . SNOWY OWL. 4 near London as late as the twelfth century. It does not seem certain, however, that these were uri. The celebrated wild cattle of Chillingham , and some of our domestic breeds, are generally regarded by palæontologists as being descended from the ancient urus. Mr. Dawkins is of opinion that Machairodus latidens, one of the most remarkable of the Pliocene carnivora, survived to post-glacial times. It was found by MacEnery in Kent's Hole, but has not been met with in the present examina tion of that interesting cavern. Nor has it occurred in any other of our bone -caves or river gravels with remains of post glacial mammalia. The Norway Elk , which is identical with the American moose, was also an inhabitant of this country , but has long become extinct here, as, indeed, throughout Western Europe. Even in Prussia it is said that there are only about 226 remaining. * The lemming has been discovered by Dr. Blackmore, in the river gravels at Fisherton, near Salis bury ; and the lagomys, or tailless hare, a genus now confined to the Himalayas, Siberia, and the colder regions of North America, has been identified by Prof. Owen among the bones from Kent's Cavern, and by Dr. Falconer among those from the Brixham Cave. Among other northern and eastern forms may be also mentioned a species allied to Dipus, Alacdaga geranus, and a small mouse, Arvicola gregalis.t Another glacial genus, that of the marmots, is represented by two species, one of them very closely resembling that now living in Siberia . Lastly, it may be observed that remains of the great snowy owl (Strix nivea) , and of the willow grouse ( Tetrao albus) are met with in abundance in most of the caves of the south- west of France. The river gravels contain also thirty- six species of shell- fish ,

• See Report from Her Majesty's representatives abroad, on the laws and regulations relating to game, presented to Parliament, 1871.

+ Arch . f. Anthropologie, 1876, p. 162. LINKS BETWEEN EXISTING SPECIES. 307 of which thirty-four at present live in Sweden, * and twenty nine in Lombardy. These latter, however, are principally species having a very wide range, and we shall see still more clearly that the leaning of the molluscan fauna is towards the north, if we remember that out of seventy - seven Finland species, thirty-one have been found in the upper level gravels, while of 193 Lombard species, only twenty -nine have as yet occurred. A very interesting point connected with this quaternary fauna is the manner in which it connects together species now quite distinct. Opponents of Mr. Darwin's theory often ask with misplaced triumph for the links connecting any two species. In fact, however, every species is a link between other allied forms. Of course, indeed, as long as any varie ties remain undescribed there will be intervals -indicating however, gaps not in nature, but in our knowledge. More over, it is admitted by every one that there are variable species, that is to say, species which present two or more extreme forms, with intermediate gradations. Now we may fairly ask those who assert that no two species are connected by links, how they would separate the instances of variable animals (which they admit to occur) from the case which they say does not exist. If we were to obtain to- morrow all the links between any two species which are now considered distinct, no one can deny that the two would at once be united, and would hereafter appear in our classifications as one variable species. In fact, therefore, they first unite into one species all these forms, however different, between which a complete series is known, and then argue in favour of the permanence of species because no two of them are united by intermediate links. Moreover, if species were in reality perfectly distinct from one another, then it would necessarily follow that, as our

• Proc. Roy. Soc. 1862, p. 44.

X 2 308 LINKS BETWEEN EXISTING SPECIES. knowledge of any group increased , the separations between the different species would become more and more unmistak able. On the contrary, however, it is a well-known fact that the difficult genera become still more difficult as they are more profoundly studied. If, indeed, we consider existing forms only, no doubt the distinctions between the greater number of species are well marked, nor does any one expect to find a living series of links between them . The interme diate forms lived in tertiary and quaternary times. Thus directly we commence to study the extinct forms, all the con venient lines of separation gradually thin out. For instance, the larger species of mammalia are at present in most cases well marked, but it becomes much more difficult satisfactorily to distinguish them from one another, when we consider fossil specimens as well as recent ones. To take only two cases from the group of quaternary mammalia, we have seen that, according to Rütimeyer, the European and American bisons, which are now quite distinct, are connected by the Bison priscus, while between our brown bear and the grizzly bear of the Rocky Mountains a series of links has been discovered among the abundant remains in our bone- caves. Great as is the interest attaching to the existence of man at a period so much more ancient than that hitherto assigned to him, there is something which, to many minds, will appear even more fascinating, in the presence of such a fauna as that which I have thus briefly indicated. For it must be regarded as a well -ascertained fact, that, even during the human period, the pleasant and sunny valleys of England and of France have been inhabited by the gigantic Irish elk, two species of ele phant, and three of rhinoceros, together with the reindeer, a large bear closely resembling the grizzly bear of the Rocky Mountains, a bison scarcely distinguishable from that of the American Prairies, the musk ox of Arctic America, the lem ming of the Siberian Steppes, the lion of the Tropics, the CLIMATE OF THE QUATERNARY PERIOD. 309 hyæna of the Cape, and a hippopotamus closely resembling that of the great African rivers. Influenced mainly by the presence of the great pachyderms, and particularly by that of the hippopotamus, M. d'Archaic is disposed to consider that the climate of the quaternary period was warmer than ours, " while M. Lartett suggests that we may have had a climate like that of Chili, where, as Mr. Darwin has pointed out, glaciers actually come down to the sea-level in latitudes corresponding with that of our south coast and the northern provinces of France. In other respects, however, the fauna of the quaternary deposits indicates a more severe climate. The presence of the reindeer and musk ox, the lemming and the marmot, corrobo rated, as we shall see in the next chapter, by physical evidence, leaves little doubt on this subject. Moreover, we must remem ber that the trichorhine rhinoceros and the mammoth were not only well provided against cold, but in some cases were enveloped in the ice and frozen mud of the Siberian rivers so soon after death that the flesh had not had time to decay. Much weight is also to be attributed, I think, to the presence of smaller quadrupeds, as, for instance, of the lemming and lagomys. Yet I feel strongly that some of the species, and particu larly the hippopotamus, indicate a warmer climate. Even if protected by fur, as Mr. Prestwich supposes, this animal could never live in a country where the rivers were frozen every winter. To meet this difficulty, a suggestion has been thrown out that it may have made annual migrations. In the Gulf of Penas, on the west coast of South America, lat. 47 ° S. , Mr. Darwin has pointed out that glaciers now “ descend to the sea within less than nine degrees of latitude from where palms grow , less than two and a half from arborescent grasses, less

• Leçons sur la Faune Quaternaire, pp. 15, 16.

† Lartet, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1867, p. 37. 310 PROBABLE FLUCTUATIONS OF CLIMATE. than two from orchideous parasites, and within a single degree of tree - ferns." * The reindeer in America makes, we know, very extensive annual migrations, but a heavy animal like the hippopotamus could hardly do so. I am, therefore, rather disposed to believe that the presence of the hippopotamus, the E. antiquus, and R. leptorhinus, indicates that the climate of the quaternary period was not uniformly severe, but con tained at least one interval of exceptional mildness. The late M. Morlot, well known as an excellent and careful observer, was, I believe, the first to point out that, in Switzer land, there were two periods of great extension of the glaciers, separated by an epoch of comparative warmth . And in Great Britain also there is strong geological evidence of the existence of several such warm interglacial periods.t We shall also see presently that if the cold of the glacial epoch was due to the astronomical causes pointed out by M. Adhémar and Mr. Croll, the period of extreme cold must have been followed by one of unusual warmth, or rather there must have been several oscillations of climate from unusual heat to extreme cold. I ain disposed then , on the whole, to consider that the quaternary fauna consists of two distinct groups, belonging to different periods and to two different conditions of climate, one warmer than the present, the other colder. The whole subject, however, while of great interest, is also one of ex treme difficulty, and I shall return to it more at length in a subsequent chapter. On many points we must be contented to suspend our judgment, but we may at least regard it as proved that, since the appearance of man, there have been great changes in the fauna of Western Europe, which then contained several important species, either now altogether extinct or existing only in distant parts of the world.

• Researches in Geology and Natural History, p.

285. + Geikie, The Great Ice Age. Croll, Climate and Time. ( 311 ) CHAPTER X. CAVE MEN. ITT would be quite impossible, within the limits of a single chapter to describe all the caves in which human remains have been found, in association with, and apparently belong ing to, the same period as those of the extinct mammalia. I will only call attention to a few of those which have been most thoroughly examined, and by the researches in which the conclusions appear to be satisfactorily established. It is unnecessary to observe that a great number of caves present evidence of having been inhabited during times long subsequent to those which we are now considering ; but for the Neolithic Age, as well as for all later periods, we have, as has been already mentioned, other sources of information, and more satisfactory evidence than any which can be derived from the examination of caves. Some writers, indeed, have gone so far as to question alto gether the value of what may be called cave evidence. They have suggested that the bones of extinct animals may have lain in the caves for ages before the appearance of man ; that relics of the human period may have been introduced subse quently ; and that remains belonging to very different periods may have been mixed together. This was, for instance, the conclusion arrived at by M. Desnoyers, even so recently as the year 1845, in his article on Bone-caves. * Unless this

• Recherches Géologiques et His toriques sur les Cavernes, particu lièrement sur les cavernes à osse

ments. Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Naturelle. 312 CAVES IN THE SOUTH OF FRANCE, argument admitted of a satisfactory answer, it must be con ceded that the evidence derivable from cave contents would always be liable to grave suspicion. I trust, however, to be able to show that this is not the case. As long ago as the year 1828, MM . Tournal and Christol in the south of France had found fragments of pottery and human bones and teeth intermingled with remains of extinct animals ; and M. Tournal distinctly expressed the opinion that these had certainly not been washed in by any diluvial catastrophe, but must have been introduced gradually. The presence of pottery, however, throws much doubt on the sup posed antiquity of these remains. A few years later, in 1833 and 1834, Dr. Schmerling * published an account of his researches in some caves near Liége in Belgium . In four or five of these he found human bones, and in all of them rude implements, principally flint flakes, were discovered, scattered in such a manner among the remains of the mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, cave hyæna, and cave- bear, that Dr. Schmerling referred them to the same period. One feels a natural surprise that such animals as these should ever have been natives of England and France, ever have wandered about among our woods or along our streams ; but when it was also suggested that they were contemporary with man, surprise was succeeded by incredulity. Yet these cave researches appear to have been conducted with care, and the principal results have been con firmed by more recent discoveries. The hesitation, however, with which the statements of Dr. Schmerling were received by scientific men arose, no doubt, partly from the fact that some of the fossil remains discovered by him were certainly referred to wrong species, and partly because, with reference to several of the extinct species, and

• Recherches sur les Ossements

Fossiles découverts dans les Cav ernes de la Province de Liége. Par le Dr. P. C. Schmerling. BELGIAN CAVES . 313 especially to the mammoth, he expressed the opinion that the remains had been brought from a distance, and had very likely been washed out of some earlier bed . “ Nous n'hésitons point, ” he says, “ à exprimer ici notre pensée, c'est que nous doutons fort que l'éléphant, lors de l'époque du remplissage de nos cavernes, habitât nos contrées. Au contraire, nous croyons plutôt que ces restes ont été amenés de loin, ou bien que ces débris ont été déplacés d'un terrain plus ancien et ont été entraînés dans les cavernes.” Even, therefore, though Dr. Schmerling might be quite right in his conclusion that the human remains had been “enfouis dans ces cavernes à la même époque, et par consé quent par les mêmes causes qui y ont entraîné une masse d'ossements de différentes espèces éteintes, ” still it would not necessarily follow that man had lived at the same period as these extinct species. Careful explorations of the Belgian caves have recently been carried on under the auspices of the Government by M. E. Dupont. * These caverns belong principally to the so - called Reindeer period, and the flint implements are never ground. Thus out of 30,000 worked flints found in the cavern of Chaleux, and 1200 in those of Furfooz, not one presents a trace of polish. Some of these flint flakes, etc., appear to consist of Pressigny flint, and in the opinion of Dr. Dupont, as well as of M. de Mortillet, must have come from that distant locality. In this cavern the humerus of an elephant was discovered, but in M. Dupont's opinion, founded on the state of the bone, it belonged to an earlier period than the other remains. Human bones have been found in several of these caverns. The Trou du Frontal contained bones belong ing to no less that thirteen individuals. They had probably been buried in the cave, the door of which seemed to have been

• Notices Preliminaires sur les du Gouvernement Belge dans les

Fouilles exécutées sous les auspices Cavernes de la Belgique, 1867. 314 KENT'S HOLE. purposely closed by a large block of stone. When discovered they were in great confusion, having, in the opinion of MM. Dupont and Van Beneden, been disturbed and re-arranged by water. The form of the cavern , and the fact that the opening was in great measure closed by the above-mentioned stone, seem to me to speak strongly against this suggestion, and I should rather regard the disturbance of the bones as due to foxes and badgers. The Trou de la Naulette contained a very remarkable lower jaw, of which M. Dupont says that " regardée dans la face interne, elle offre une telle proclivité d'arrière en avant de la partie symphysaire qu'on est porté á y voir un prognatisme tout animal. Les apophyses géni ne sont pas indiquées ; les fossettes latérales sont tres- prononcées et le rebord mentonnier est reduit à son minimum . Les alvéoles des canines, bien que très- rapprochées des alvéoles des incisives, et les molaires, nous rappellent la disposition qu'on observe sur la mâchoire du singe. En effet, l'alvéole qui logeait la canine est fort vaste et bombée à la face externe. Ce qui semble plus étrange encore, c'est que les trois alvéoles des grosses molaires présentent absolument l'ordre typique du maxillaire simien par l'augmentation pro gressive des alvéoles de la première à la deuxième et à la troisième molaire. " The celebrated cavern of Kent's Hole, near Torquay, was examined by Mr. MacEnery as long ago as 1825. He did not, however, publish his notes on the subject, and they remained in manuscript until 1859, when Mr. Vivian suc ceeded in obtaining them. Mr. MacEnery found human bones, flint flakes, etc. , but all either on the surface or in disturbed soil, so that on the whole he regarded them , though apparently with much doubt, as posterior to the remains of the cave - bear, hyæna, etc. In the year 1840, Mr. Godwin - Austen communicated to the Geological Society a memoir on the Geology of the South KENT'S HOLE. 315 east of Devonshire, * and in his description of Kent's Hole, he says that “ human remains and works of art, such as arrow heads and knives of flint, occur in all parts of the cave , and throughout the entire thickness of the clay : and no distinction founded on condition, distribution or relative position, can be observed, whereby the human can be separated from the other reliquiæ ,” which included bones of the “ elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, horse, bear, hyæna, and a feline animal of large size .” The value, he truly adds, “ of such a statement must rest on the care with which a collector may have explored. I must therefore state that my own researches were constantly con ducted in parts of the cave which had never been disturbed, and in every instance the bones were procured from beneath a thick covering of stalagmite ; so far, then, the bones and works of man must have been introduced into the cave before the flooring of stalagmite had been formed. " Notwithstanding the high authority of Mr. Godwin-Austen, these statements attracted little attention ; and the very similar assertions made by Mr. Vivian, in a paper read before the Geological Society, were considered so improbable that the memoir con taining them was not published. They have, however, been completely confirmed by the systematic examination which was instituted by the British Association. Worked flints were found less abundantly in the lower layers than near the surface, but several were dis covered under circumstances which left no doubt that they were deposited at the same time as the bones of the large mammalia. The researches were carried on by a Committee, consisting of Sir C. Lyell, Mr. Busk, Mr. Evans, Prof. Phillips, Mr. Vivian, Mr. Pengelly, and myself, and the work was under the more immediate superintendence of Mr. Pengelly and Mr. Vivian. In May, 1858, Dr. Falconer called the attention of the

• Transactions of the Geol. Soc. , Ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 433.

316 BRIXHAM CAVE . Geological Society to a newly -discovered cave at Brixham , near Torquay, and a Committee was appointed to assist him in examining it. Grants of money were obtained for the same object from the Royal Society and Miss Burdett Coutts. In addition to Dr. Falconer, Mr. Busk, Mr. Evans, Mr. Pengelly Mr. Prestwich, and Professor Ramsay, were entrusted with the investigations. In September, 1858, a preliminary notice was published by the Geographical Society, but the General Report is contained in the Philosophical Transactions for 1874. The deposits in the cave were, in descending order 1. Stalagmite of irregular thickness. 2. Ochreous cave-earth with limestone breccia. 3. Ochreous cave - earth with comminuted shale. 4. Rounded gravel. The organic remains belonged chiefly to the following species : 1. Elephas primigenius. 2. Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Teeth in considerable numbers and an astragalus. 3. Bos primigenius. 4. Bos. 5. Equus caballus. 6. Cervus tarandus. The reindeer skull and horns. 7. Cervus elaphus. Horns. 8. C. capreolus. 9. Ursus spelæus — the cave -bear. Lower jaws, teeth, etc. 10. U. ferox. 11. U. arctos. 12. Hyæna spelæa. Lower jaws, teeth , fragments of skulls, and other bones. 13. Felis spelæa. 14. Lagomys. Several flint flakes were also found indiscriminately mixed SICILIAN CAVES. 317 with these bones, and, according to all appearance, of the same antiquity. They occurred at various depths, from ten inches to eleven feet, and some of them were in the gravel, below the whole of the ochreous cave - earth . Again, in the grotto of Maccagnone, in Sicily, Dr. Falconer found human traces, consisting of ashes and rude flint imple ments, in a breccia containing bones of the Elephas antiquus, of the hyæna, of a large Ursus, of a Felis ( probably F. spelæa ), and especially with large numbers of bones belonging to the hippopotamus. The “ ceneri impastati,” or concrete of ashes, had at one time filled the cavern , and a large piece of bone breccia was still cemented to the roof, but owing to some change in the drainage, the greater part had been washed out again. The presence of the hippopotamus sufficiently proves that the geographical conditions of the country must have been very different from what they are now ; but I cannot do better than quote Dr. Falconer's own summary of his obser vations in this case : The vast number of Hippopotami implied that the physical condition of the country must have been greatly different, at no very distant geological period, from what obtains now . He considered that all deposits above the bone breccia had been accumulated up to the roof by materials washed in from above, through sinuous crevices or flues in the limestone, and that the uppermost layer, consisting of the breccia of shells, bone-splinters, siliceous objects, burnt clay, bits of charcoal, and hyæna coprolites, had been cemented to the roof by stalagmitic infiltration. The entire condition of the large fragile Helices proved that the effect had been produced by the tranquil agency of water, as distinct from any tumultuous action. There was nothing to indicate that the different objects in the roof breccia were other than of contemporaneous origin : subsequently a great physical alteration in the con tour, altering the flow of superficial water and of the subter 318 GIBRALTAR CAVES. ranean springs, changed all the conditions previously existing, and emptied out the whole of the loose incoherent contents, leaving only the portions agglutinated to the roof. The wreck of these ejecta was visible in the patches of ' ceneri impas tati,' containing fossil bones, below the mouth of the cavern . That a long period must have operated in the extinction of the hyæna, cave - lion , and other fossil species is certain, but no index remains for its measurement. The author would call the careful attention of cautious geologists to the infer ences — that the Maccagnone Cave was filled up to the roof within the human period, so that a thick layer of bone splinters, teeth, landshells, hyænas' coprolites, and human objects, was agglutinated to the roof by the infiltration of water holding lime in solution ; that subsequently, and within the human period, such a great amount of change took place in the physical configuration of the district as to have caused the cave to be washed out and emptied of its contents, excepting the patches of material cemented to the roof and since coated with additional stalagmite." Similar proofs of great and recent geographical changes have been afforded by the examination of certain Spanish caves . The Rock of Gibraltar abounds in caverns containing human remains, with stone, bone, and bronze implements, inixed with those of domesticated animals, such as the goat In the bone breccia from the Genista Cave and fissure, Mr. Busk and Dr. Falconer have discovered Hyæna crocuta, an existing African species, the leopard, lynx, serval and Barbary stag, together with Rh. hemitochus and a species of ibex. But, although it is more than probable, it does not appear to be proved, that man co-existed with these animals on the Rock of Gibraltar. Among some bones found in another cave near Madrid, M. Lartet has discovered molars of the existing African elephant. M. Lartet * has also described with his usual ability an

• Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1861, p. 177.

and ox. AURIGNAC. 319 interesting grotto, or small cave, which was discovered some years ago at Aurignac, in the south of France. A peasant named Bonnemaison, seeing a rabbit run into a hole on a steep slope, put his hand in, and to his surprise pulled out a human bone. Curiosity urged him to explore farther, and on removing a quantity of rubbish, he found a large block of stone, which almost closed up the entrance to a small chamber, in which were no less than seventeen human skeletons. Unfortunately for science, the Mayor of Aurignac, hearing of these discoveries, collected the human bones, had them re buried, and when M. Lartet some years afterwards explored the.cavern, they could not be found again. After carefully examining the locality, M. Lartet came to the conclnsion that this small cavern had been used as a burial- place, and from the remains of bones broken for marrow , and marks of fire immediately outside the cave, he inferred that funeral feasts had been held there. The following is the list of species determined by M. Lartet, together with the approximate number of individuals belong ing to each : Number of individuals. 1. Cave Bear (Ursus spelaus) 5-6 2. Brown Bear ( U. arctos ?) 1 3. Badger (Meles taxus) 1- 2 4. Polecat ( Putorius vulgaris) 1 5. Cave Lion (Felis spelca) . 1 6. Wild Cat ( F. catus) . 1 7. Hyæna ( Hyæna spelca) 5% 6 8. Wolf ( Canis lupus) 3 9. Fox ( C. vulpes) 18–20 10. Mammoth ( Elephas primigenius). Two molars and an astragalus. 11. Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus) 1 12. Horse ( Equus caballus) 12-15 . • . . 320 AURIGNAC. 13. Ass ? * ( E. asinus) . 1 14. Boar ( Sus scrofa ). Two incisors. 15. Stag ( Cervus elaphus) 1 16. Irish Elk (Megaceros hibernicus ) 1 17. Roe ( C. capreolus) 3-4 18. Reindeer ( C. tarandus) 10-12 19. Aurochs ( Bison Europæus) 12-15 Some of these were found in the grotto, others outside ; the latter had been gnawed by some large carnivorous animal, no doubt the hyæna, coprolites of which were found among the ashes. On the other hand, the bones inside the cave were untouched, from which M. Lartet concludes that after the funeral feasts, hyænas came and devoured all that had been left by the men, but that they could not effect an entrance into the cave on account of the large block of stone by which the entrance was closed, and which was actually found in its place by Bonnemaison. In addition to the hyæna, the animals occurring in this list, and yet no longer existing, or known historically to have existed in France, are the reindeer, cave-bear, rhinoceros, cave lion, Irish elk, and mammoth. The contemporaneity of the reindeer with man is very evident ; all the bones are broken for marrow , and many bear the marks of knives, besides which, the greater number of the bone implements are made out of the bones or horns of this species. That the rhinoceros also was contemporaneous with man is inferred by M. Lartet, firstly, on chemical grounds, the bones of this species, as well as those of the reindeer, aurochs, etc., having retained the same amount of nitrogen as the human bones from the same locality ; and secondly, because the bones appear to have been broken by man, and in some cases are marked by knives. Moreover, he has ingeniously pointed out that these bones

• This is, I presume, a small variety of horse, and not the true ass. The query is in the original.

AURIGNAC. 321 must have belonged to an individual recently killed, because, after having been broken by man , they were gnawed by the hyænas, which would not have been the case if they had not been fresh and still full of their natural juices. The elephant was represented only by some detached plates of molars and a calcaneum . This latter was the only gnawed bone found in the interior of the grotto. He is of opinion that these plates were purposely separated, and the calcaneum appears to have been placed in the vault at the time of the last interments; but there is no evidence that it was then in a fresh condition. Indeed, the fact of its being gnawed seems rather to point the other way. Remains of the Ursus spelaus ( cave -bear) were much more abundant, and some of them were found in the grotto. In one case a whole limb appears to have been buried with the flesh on, as the different bones were all found together. It is well known that food and drink were in ancient times fre quently buried with the dead, and M. Lartet thinks that we may account in this manner for the bones of quadrupeds found in the grotto at Aurignac. I have given the particulars of this case at length, because, if the evidence was well established, we should here have an instance of a sepulture belonging to the period at which the cave -bear, the reindeer, the Irish elk, the woolly -haired rhino ceros, and probably the mammoth, still lived in the south of France. It is, however, much to be regretted that M. Lartet was not present when the place was first examined ; and, under all the circumstances, we cannot, I think, feel satisfied that the human remains found in this cave were coeval with those of the extinct mammalia. Another remarkable case is that of the Hyæna-den at Wokey Hole, near Wells, which has been ably explored and described by Mr. Boyd Dawkins. * In this instance the cave

• Geol. Journal, May, 1862, p. 115.

Y 322 WOKEY HOLE. was filled with débris up to the very roof, and it appears that the accumulation of material was partly due to the disintegra tion of the dolomitic conglomerate forming the roof and walls of the cavern, and partly to the sediment washed in gradually by rain and small streams. It is evident that the bones and stones were not brought into the cave by the action of water ; firstly, because none of the bones are at all rolled ; secondly, because, though several rude flint implements were found in the cave, only one single unworked flint was met with ; and thirdly, because, in some cases, fragments of the same bone have been found close together, while, if they had been brought from a distance, it is almost incredible that they should have been again deposited close to one another. Again, there are several layers - one over the other-of album græcum , that is to say, the excrement of hyænas, each of which indi cates, of course, an old floor, and a separate period of occu pation ; so that the presence of, at least, one such floor above some of the flint implements, proves two things ; firstly, that the hyænas which produced the album græcum occupied the cave after the savages who used the flint instruments ; and, secondly, that these implements have not been disturbed by water since the period of the hyæna. During the last years of his life, Mr. Christy examined and described, in conjunction with M. Lartet, with great care a number of small caves and rock - shelters in the Dordogne, some of which had already attracted the attention of archæo logists. * These caves are particularly interesting, because, so far at least as we can judge from the present state of the evidence, the remains found in them belong to M. Lartet's reindeer period, and tend, therefore, to connect the later Stone or Neolithic Age with the period of the river -drifts and the great extinct mammalia ; representing a period about which

• De l'Origine et de l'Enfance des Arts en Périgord. Par M. l'Abbé Audierne.

CAVES IN THE DORDOGNE. 323 we had previously very little information . Those which have been most carefully examined are ten in number, viz . Laugerie, La Madelaine, Les Eyzies, La Gorge d'Enfer, Le Moustier, Liveyre, Pey de l’Azé, Combe -Granal, and Badegoule, most of which I have myself had the advantage of visiting. Some of these, as, for instance, Les Eyzies and Le Moustier, are at a considerable height above the stream, but others—as those at La Madelaine and Laugerie - are little above the present flood - line, showing, therefore, that the level of the river is now nearly the same as it was at the period during which these caves were inhabited. The rivers of the Dordogne run in deep valleys cut through calcareous strata ; and while the sides of the valleys in chalk districts are generally sloping, in this case, owing probably to the hardness of the rock, they are frequently vertical. Small caves and grottos frequently occur ; besides which , as the different strata possess unequal power of resistance against atmospheric influences, the face of the rock is, as it were, scooped out in many places, and thus “ rock -shelters " are produced. In very ancient times these caves and rock shelters were inhabited by men , who have left behind them abundant evidences of their presence. But as civilization advanced, Man, no longer content with the natural but in convenient abode thus offered to him , excavated chambers for himself, and in places the whole face of the rock is honey combed with doors and windows leading into suites of rooms, often in tiers one over another, so as to suggest the idea of a French Petra . Down to a comparatively recent period, as, for instance, in the troublous times of the Middle Ages, many of these, no doubt, served as very efficient fortifications, and even now some of them are still in use as storehouses, and for other purposes, as at Brantôme, where there is an old chapel cut in the solid rock. Apart from the scientific interest, it was impossible not to enjoy the beauty of the scene Y 2 324 FAUNA OF THE DORDOGNE CAVES. which passed before our eyes as we dropped down the Vezére. As the river visited sometimes one side of its valley, some times the other, so we had at one moment rich meadow-lands on each side, or found ourselves close to the perpendicular and almost overhanging cliff. Here and there we came upon some picturesque old castle, and though the trees were not in full leaf, the rocks were in many places green with box and ivy and evergreen oak, which harmonized well with the rich yellow brown of the stone itself. But to return to the bone-caves. Remains of the cave - bear have been found at the Pey de l’Azé of the cave -hyæna at Le Moustier, and separated plates of elephant molars have occurred at Le Moustier and at Laugerie, accompanied at the latter place by a piece of a pelvis. As regards the two first species, MM. Christy and Lartet regard them as probably belonging to an earlier period than the human remains found in the same caves. The presence of the pelvis has been regarded as an evidence of the contemporaneity of the mam moth with the reindeer hunters of Laugerie, and it is certainly difficult to see why they should have brought a fossil -bone into their cave, more especially as the bones of elephants, from the looseness of their texture, are not well adapted for implements. As regards the Felis spelæa, a metacarpal bone belonging probably to this species, and bearing marks of knives, was found in the cave of Les Eyzies. Still, so far as the positive zoological evidence is concerned , the antiquity of the human remains found in these grottos rests mainly on the pesence of the reindeer, as regards which the evidence is conclusive. The bones of this species are all broken open for the marrow ; many of them bear the marks of knives, and at Les Eyzies a vertebra was found which had been pierced by a flint flake. MM . Christy and Lartet are quite satisfied that this bone must have been fresh when it ABSENCE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 323 was thus transfixed . Moreover, as we shall presently see there is still more conclusive evidence that man and the rein deer were contemporaneous in this locality. But in its negative aspect the zoological evidence is also very instructive. No remains have been found which, in the opinion of MM . Christy and Lartet, can be referred to domestic animals. It is true that bones of the ox and horse occur, but there is no evidence that they belonged to domesticated individuals. Remains of the boar are very rare, and if these animals had been domesticated we might have expected to find them in greater abundance. The sheep and goat are entirely wanting, and, what is still more remarkable, even the dog appears to be absent. At the same time the bones of the horse and reindeer, especially of the latter, are very numerous; but MM. Christy and Lartet do not think that they were domesticated. On the other hand, M. Rütimeyer seems to be of a different opinion. * Of the bones from the cave of Veyrier he has drawn out the following list : Ptarmigan 31 individuals, reindeer 18, ibex 6, horse 5, stag 4, mountain hare 4, marmot 4, chamois, 1, wolf 1 , bear 1, ox 1, fox 1 , stork 1. He points out that this is decidedly an Alpine fauna, and he asks why, if the reindeer were wild, they did not retire into the high Alps with the bear, the ibex and the chamois ? The condition of the bones, and especially of the horns, will enable us some day to answer this question, but we have at present no case in which the reindeer and the horse are held in domestication together by the same race, and we must be satisfied to wait for further evidence before the question can be decided. In the collections made by MM. Christy and Lartet, as well as that of M. le Vicomte de Lastic from Bruniquel, a very large proportion of the animal remains consists of teeth, lower jaws, and horns. Other bones do indeed occur, but they form a small fraction of the whole. Yet we cannot attribute this to

• Revue Savoisienne, 25th April, 1868.

326 FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN CAVES. the presence of dogs, partly because no remains of this species have yet been discovered, partly because the bones which remain have not been gnawed, but principally because dogs eat only certain bones and parts of bones, as a general rule selecting the spongy portions, and rejecting the solid shafts. Mr. Galton has pointed out that some of the savage tribes of Africa, not content with the flesh of the animals which they kill, pound up also the bones in mortars, and then suck out the animal juices contained in them. So also, according to Leems, the Danish Laplanders used to break up with a mallet all the bones which contained any fat or marrow , and then boil them until all the fat was extracted . * The Esqui maux also mash up the bones for the sake of the marrow con tained in them.t Some of the ancient stone hammers and mortars were no doubt used for this purpose, and the propor tions of the different bones afford us, I think, indirect evidence that a similar custom prevailed among the ancient inhabitants of Southern France. Passing on now to the flint implements found in these caves, we must first call attention to their marvellous abun dance. Without any exaggeration they may be said to be innumerable. Of course this adds greatly to the value of the conclusions ; nor need it surprise us, because flint is so brittle, that implements made of it must have been easily broken, and, in that case, the fragments would be thrown away as useless ; especially in a chalk district where the supply of flint would, of course, be practically inexhaustible. Many implements, no doubt, would be left unfinished , having been rendered useless, either by some misdirected blow, or some flaw in the flint. Moreover, we should naturally expect that, in a bone-breccia of this nature, the flint implements

• Account of Danish Lapland, by Leems, Copenhagen, 1767. Trans

lated in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. i . p. 396. + Hall, Life with the Esquimaux, vol. ii. pp. 147, 176. FLAKES. SCRAPERS. AWLS, ETC. 327 are would be relatively more abundant than in a Kjökkenmöd ding. Each oyster furnishes but a single mouthful, so that the edible portions evidently form a greater proportion of the whole in the mammalia than in the mollusca. The Kjokken möddings, therefore, would grow, cæteris paribus, more rapidly than the bone- breccia; and supposing the flint implements to be equally numerous in both cases, they would, of course, be more sparingly distributed in the former than in the latter . The principal objects of stone found in the bone - caves which we are now considering, are flakes, both simple and worked, scrapers, cores, awls, lance- heads, cutters, hammers, and mortar stones. The simple and worked flakes are, of course, very numerous, but they do not call for any special observations. They pre sent the usual varieties of size and form. Though less numerous than the flakes, the scrapers still very abundant. On the whole they seem to me longer and narrower than the usual Danish type. Some of them were probably intended to be used in the hand, as both ends are fashioned for scraping. These may be called double scrapers. Others were apparently fixed in handles, as the end opposite to the scraper is broken, sometimes on one side, sometimes on both, so as to form a tapering extremity, which may have been fixed in a handle either of wood, bone, or horn. Many of the flakes are also nipped off at one end, in the same manner. Perhaps, as no trace of such a handle has yet been discovered by MM. Christy and Lartet, wood was the material used for this purpose. Of course, where there was a manufactory of flint flakes, the cores or nuclei, from which they were struck, must also be present. I was, however, astonished at the number of them in these caves ; during my short visit, I myself picked out more than ninety.

• See ante, pp. 96, 97

328 HAMMERS. LANCE-HEADS. Awls and saws are very much less frequent, but some few good specimens have been found. At some of the stations, curious flat implements ( fig . 181) are met with. From the FIG . 181. Flint Implement. constancy of their form , which, moreover, is somewhat pecu liar, we may safely infer that they were applied to some definite purpose. For hammers, the reindeer hunters seem to have used round stones, a good many of which occur in the caves, and which bear unmistakable marks of the purpose to which they were applied . Some of them , however, may have served also as heaters. The North American Indians, the Esquimaux, and some other savages, having no pottery, but only wooden vessels, which could not be put on the fire, used to heat stones, and then place them in the water which they wished to boil. Many of the stones found in these caverns appear to have been used in this manner. These, the commonest sorts of flint implements, are found indiscriminately in all the grottos, but there are some other types which appear to be less generally distributed. Thus, at Laugeriè and Badegoule, fragments of leaf- shaped lance heads, almost as well worked as some of those from Denmark , are far from uncommon . If, therefore, we were to attempt any classification of the grottos, according to the periods of their occupation, we might be disposed to refer these to a somewhat later period than most of the others. On the con trary, to judge from the flint implements, the station at Le RELATIVE ANTIQUITY OF THE REMAINS. 329 Moustier would be the most ancient. Though it would per haps be premature to attempt any such classification, there can be no doubt that Le Moustier presents some types not FIG. 182. FIG . 183. Α . FIG. 184 . Flint Implement from Le Moustier. yet found in the other caves, and resembling in certain respects those of the drift. One of these peculiar forms has one side left unchipped, 330 ABSENCE OF POLISHED IMPLEMENTS. and apparently intended to be held in the hand, while the other has a cutting edge, produced by a number of small blows. Some of these instruments are of large size, and they are supposed by MM. Christy and Lartet to have been used for cutting wood, and perhaps also the large bones of mammalia. Another very interesting type is figured on p. 329 (figg. 182-4 ). This specimen is worked on both sides, but more frequently one of them is left flat. MM. Christy and Lartet regard this type as identical with the “ lance-head ” implements found in the drift. I cannot altogether agree with them in this com parison. Not only are the Le Moustier specimens smaller, but the workmanship is different, being much less bold. Moreover, the flat surface (fig. 182 A ) is no individual peculiarity. It is very frequently, not to say generally, present, and occurs also on the similar implement found by Mr. Boyd Dawkins in the hyæna-den at Wokey Hole, and figured by him in the Geo logical Journal, May, 1862, No. 70, p. 119. This very inte resting type seems rather to be derived from the “ cutters above described, in which case its resemblance to the drift forms would be accidental and insignificant. MM. Christy and Lartet, indeed, call the implements of this type “ lance heads ; " but it may well be doubted whether they were in tended for use in this manner, though there are specimens at Le Moustier which have all the appearance of having been intended for this purpose. On the whole, then, although these Le Moustier types are of great interest, we must pause before we regard them as belonging to the drift forms. No polished implements have yet been found in any of these caverns. The station at Moustier has not as yet produced any im plements made of bone, but a good many have been obtained from the other caves. “ They consist of square chisel- shaped implements ; round, sharply - pointed, awl-like tools, some of which also may have served as the spike of a fish hook ; har poon - shaped lance-heads ; plain or barbed arrow -heads with BONE IMPLEMENTS. 331 many and double barbs, cut with wonderful vigour ; and lastly, eyed needles of compact bone finely pointed, polished and drilled with round eyes, so small and regular that some of the most assured and acute believers in all the other find ings might well doubt whether they could indeed have been drilled with stone, until their repetition by the hand of that practical and conscientious observer, Monsieur Lartet, by the very stone implements found with them , has dispelled their honest doubts. " * Moreover, we must remember that the New Zealanders were able with their stone tools to drill holes even through glass.t No pottery has yet been found in these caves. So far, then (with the exception, perhaps, of the well -worked lance-heads of Laugerie and Badegoule) , all the evidence we have yet obtained froin these caves points to a very primitive period, earlier even than that of the first Swiss lake villages, or Danish shell-mounds. But there is one class of objects in these caves which, taken alone, would have led us to a very different conclusion. No representation, however rude, of any animal has yet been found FIG . 185. Drawing of a Fish. in any of the Danish shell-mounds, or the Stone Age lake villages. Even on objects of the Bronze Age they are so rare that it is doubtful whether a single well -authenticated instance could be produced. Yet in these archaic bone - caves, many very fair sketches have been found, scratched on bone or stone with a sharp point, probably of a flint implement. In some cases there is even an attempt at shading. In the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, I M. Lartet had already

• Christy, Trans. Ethn. Soc. , N. S. vol. iii.

+ Cook's First Voy. p. 464. I Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1861 , vol. xv. 332 REPRESENTATIONS OF ANIMALS. FIG . 186 . madeknown to us some rude drawings found in the caveof Savigné, and in his last memoir he has described and fig ured some more objects of a similar character. In the Dordogne caves also, several of these remarkable draw Drawing of an Ibex. ings have been disco vered, under circumstances which seem to guarantee their authenticity. Fig. 185 represents a cylindrical piece of rein deer's horn, found at La Madelaine, and on which are carved two outlines of fishes, one on each side. Fig. 186 is the piece of the palm of a reindeer's horn, on which is represented the head and chest of an ibex. Fig. 187 represents a very curious group, consisting of a snake, or rather eel, a human figure, FIG . 187 . WW Group of Figures. and two horses' heads. Fig. 188 is a spirited group of rein deer, and pl. 2 is considered to represent a mammoth ; it was found at La Madelaine, and the engraving was for some time unnoticed, as it is rather faint and obscured by numerous scratches. It is on a piece of a mammoth’s tusk, and indica tions of long hair will readily be perceived . In one case there is an unmistakable representation of a glove, or rather gauntlet. one in ind he 5. cts me of D ir ]. ee51 1 1 SCULPTURE. 333 Another interesting specimen is a poniard, cut out of a reindeer's horn ( fig. 189) . The artist has ingeniously adapted FIG . 188 . Group of Reindeer. the position of the animal to the necessities of the case. The horns are thrown back on the neck , the fore -legs are doubled up under the belly, and the hind- legs are stretched out along the blade. Unfortunately, the poniard seems to have been thrown away before it was quite finished, but several of the details indicate that the animal was intended for a reindeer. Although it is natural to feel some surprise at finding these works of art, still there are instances among recent savages of a certain skill in drawing and sculpture being accompanied FIG. 189. Handle of a Poniard . 334 HABITS OF THE CAVE-DWELLERS. by an entire ignorance of metallurgy. This is particularly the case with the Esquimaux, some of whose drawings will be given in a future chapter. In considering the probable condition of these ancient Cave men, we must give them full credit for their love of art, such as it was ; while , on the other hand, the want of metal, of polished flint implements, and even of pottery, * the igno rance of agriculture, and the apparent absence of all domestic animals, including even the dog, certainly imply a very low state of civilization and a very considerable antiquity. There is also evidence that a considerable change of climate must have taken place. The reindeer is the most abundant animal, and evidently formed the principal article of food ; while we know that this species is now confined to Arctic climates, and could not exist in the south of France. Again, the ibex and the chamois, both of which are now restricted to the snowy summits of the Alps and Pyrenees, and a species of spermophilus, also point to the same conclusion. The pre sence of the two former species in some of the Swiss lake dwellings is not equally significant, because they are in the neighbourhood of high mountains, while the highest hills of the Dordogne do not reach to an altitude of much more than 800 feet. Another very interesting species determined by M. Lartet is the Antilope Saïgo of Pallas, which now abounds on the Steppes of North - eastern Europe and Western Asia, in the plains of the Dnieper and the Volga, round the shores of the Caspian, and as far as the Altai Mountains. Mr. Christy tells us that the northern plains of Poland, and the Valley of the Dnieper, are the southern limits of this species at the present day.

• Pottery is, however, very rare in the remains of the Irish Cran

noges, and is not by any means abundant in the Danish shell mounds. HUMAN REMAINS. 335 Again, the accumulation of animal remains in these caves is itself, as Mr. Christy has ingeniously suggested, a good evidence of change in the clinate. We know that the Esqui maux at present allow a similar deposit to take place in their dwellings, but this can only be done in Arctic regions; in such a climate as that now existing in the south of France, such an accumulation would, except of course in the depth of winter, soon become intolerably offensive. So far then as the present evidence is concerned, it appears to indicate a race of men living almost as some of the Esqui maux do now, and as the Laplanders did a few hundred years ago ; and a period intermediate between that of the Polished Stone implements and of the great extinct mammalia ; appa rently also somewhat more ancient than that of the shell mound builders of Denmark. But if these Cave- men shall eventually be shown to have been contemporaneous with the cave- tiger, the cave-bear, the cave-hyæna, and the mammoth, remains of which have been found in doubtful association with them, then, indeed, they must be referred to an even more remote period. As regards the Cave-men themselves, we have, unfortu nately, but very little information. For, although fragmentary human bones have been frequently found, there are, as yet, very few cases on record in which skulls have been obtained in such a condition as to allow of restoration, or of which the age is incontestable. For instance, remains of man , though rare in the loëss, have been described by Ami Boué, Faudel , Crahay, Wurmbrand, Ecker and others; but, as the latter has himself suggested ,* from the composition of loëss, and from the habit of making underground chambers in it, which make excellent cellars, and even dwellings - so to say, cave-dwell ings —it is difficult to satisfy oneself that the remains are clearly contemporaneous with the deposit of the loëss.

• Ar. fur Anthropologie, 1875, p. 99.

336. THE ENGIS SKULL. No perfect skull referable to the Paläolithic period has FIG. 190 . indeed yet been found in Britain . The earliest re mains of man found on the Continent be long to three well -marked types, which MM. de Qua trefages and Hamy have proposed to call the Cann statt type, the Cromagnon type, and the Furfooz type. The first was in their opi nion the oldest. It is named from a skull dug up, as long ago as 1700, by Duke Eberhard of Wür temberg, at Cann statt, near Stuttgart, but not described until the year 1835. The skulls of this type are narrow and Engis Skull low, with very large , بر, 7 FIG. 191 . THE NEANDERTHAL SKULL. 337 FIG . 192. d FIG . 193. b FIG . 194. d } The Neanderthal Skull. 2 Z 338 CAVE MEN . frontal ridges. To it belongs the celebrated skull found in a limestone cave in the Neanderthal, near Hochdal, between Düsseldorf and Elberfeld. This remarkable specimen was first described by Schaafhausen, * and “ under whatever aspect, ” says Prof. Huxley , t we view this cranium , whether we regard its vertical depression, the enormous thickness of its supra ciliary ridges, its sloping occiput, or its long and straight squamosal stature, we meet with ape- like characters, stamping it as the most pithecoid of human crania yet discovered. ” The shape of this skull is so remarkable, that as long as it stood alone considerable doubt was naturally felt whether, in the words of Busk, it represented “ an individual peculiarity or a typical character.” Subsequently, however, two other skulls, almost identical in form , have been discovered in the talus at the outside of a cave at Spy, in Belgium . These skulls, though not entirely, were more complete, and were associated with other bones, indicating a short, robust, pro gnathous race. I The second, the “ Cromagnon ” or “ Engis " type, has also narrow skulls, which, however, unlike those of the preced ing type, are high. To it belongs the celebrated skull, dis covered by Dr. Schmerling in the cave of Engis, near Liège ( figs. 190, 191), which - though I agree with Mr. Boyd Daw kins that the conditions under which it was discovered are too doubtful to justify us in referring it to the Palæolithic period — is no doubt very ancient. As regards form , however, it might have been that of a modern European. “ There is no mark of degradation about any part of its structure . It is, in fact, a fair average human skull, which might have be longed to a philosopher, or might have contained the thought less brains of a savage. ” ' S To the same type belong the skulls

• Muller's Archiv . 1858. Nat. I Poydt and Lohert, Ann. Soc.

Hist. Rev. 1861. Biol. Belgique, 1886. + I. c . p. 156. ſ Huxley, Man's Place in Nature, p. 156 . CAVE MEN. 339 found at Cromagnon, in the Dordogne. * These skulls have been referred , though scarcely perhaps on sufficient grounds, to the Reindeer period . The third, or “ Furfooz ” type, is named after several skulls discovered by M. Dupont in caves near the village of Furfooz, in Belgium . The skull is more round than in the preceding types, though not so much so as in the brachycephalic races of more modern times. The bones of the extremities more nearly resemble those of existing Europeans, but the stature was small, descending even to that of the Lapps. Thus then, even at a very early period, Europe was already occupied by more than one race of man . Under these cir cumstances, as Professor Huxley has well pointed out, “ the first traces of the primordial stock whence man has proceeded need no longer be sought, by those who entertain any form of the doctrine of progressive development, in the newest ter tiaries ; but that they may be looked for in an epoch more distant from the age of the Elephas primigenius than that is from us." If space permitted, I would gladly have referred to other cave explorations; to those, for instance, of Dr. Regnoli and others in Italy, of the Marquis de Vibraye, M. Garrigou, M. Bourguignet, M. Filhol, and many other archæologists in the south of France, where these researches have been prosecuted with great energy and success. In our own country, Mr. Boyd Dawkins has published an excellent work on the sub ject,+ and it is impossible in the limits of a single chapter to do justice to these and other observers. I trust, however, that the evidence brought forward in this chapter has been sufficient to prove that the presence in bone caves of ancient implements and human remains, associated with those of extinct mammalia, is no rare or exceptional

• Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ , part vi.

+ Cave Hunting zz 22 340 CAVE MEN. phenomenon. Nor, if we look at the question from a sci entific point of view , is there anything in this that ought to excite our astonishment. Since the period at which these caves were filled up, the changes which have taken place have resulted rather in the extinction than in the creation of species. The stag, the horse, the boar, the dog, in short, all our existing forms of mammalia, were already in existence ; and there would have been in reality more just cause for surprise if man alone had been unrepresented . 1 mm myad AMERIERE MED BLOTURES COLET CAP DE ( 341 ) CHAPTER XI. RIVER - DRIFT GRAVEL - BEDS. W CHILE we have been straining our eyes to the East, and eagerly watching excavations in Egypt and Assyria, suddenly a new light has arisen in the midst of us ; and the oldest relics of man yet discovered have occurred, not among the ruins of Nineveh or Heliopolis, not on the sandy plains of the Nile or the Euphrates, but in the pleasant valleys of England and France, along the banks of the Seine and the Somme, the Thames and the Waveney. So unexpected were these discoveries, so irreconcilable with even the greatest antiquity until lately assigned to the human race, that they were long regarded with neglect and suspicion. M. Boucher de Perthes, to whom we are principally indebted for this great step in the history of mankind, observed, as long ago as the year 1841, in some sand containing mamma lian remains, at Menchecourt, near Abbeville, a flint, rudely fashioned into a cutting instrument. In the following years other weapons were found under similar circumstances, and especially during the formation of the Champ de Mars at Abbeville, where a large quantity of gravel was moved and many of the so - called “ hatchets ” were discovered . In the year 1846, M. Boucher de Perthes published his first work on the subject, entitled “ De l'Industrie Primitive, ou les Arts et leur Origine.” In this he announced that he had found human implements in beds unmistakably belonging to the age of the drift. In his “ Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes” (1847), he also gave numerous illustrations of these stone 342 M. BOUCHER DE PERTHES. weapons, but unfortunately the figures were rude, and did but scanty justice to the originals. For seven years M. Boucher de Perthes made few converts ; he was looked upon as an enthusiast, almost as a madman. At length, in 1853, Dr. Rigollot, till then sceptical, examined for himself the drift beds at the now celebrated St. Acheul near Amiens, found several weapons, and believed. Still the new creed met with but little favour; prophets are proverbially without honour in their own country, and M. Boucher de Perthes was no exception to the rule. At last, however, the tide turned in his favour.. In 1859, Dr Falconer examined his collection, and on his return to England called the attention of Mr. Prestwich, Mr. Evans, and other English geologists, to the importance of his discoveries. In consequence, the Valley of the Somme was visited in 1859 and 1860, firstly, by Messrs. Prestwich and Evans, and shortly afterwards by Sir C. Lyell, Sir R. Murchison, Messrs. Busk, Flower, Mylne, Godwin Austen, and Galton ; Professors Henslow, Ramsay, Rogers ; Messrs. H. Christy, Rupert Jones, James Wyatt, myself, and other geologists. M. L'Abbé Cochet, therefore, in his “ Rapport addressé à Monsieur le Sénateur Préfet de la Seine- Inférieure, ” does no more than justice to our countrymen, when after a well -merited tribute of praise to M. Boucher de Perthes and Dr. Rigollot, he adds, “ Mais ce sont les Géologues Anglais, en tête desquels il faut placer d'abord MM . Prestwich et Evans .... qui.... ont fini par élever à la dignité de fait scientifique la découverte de M. Boucher de Perthes. " My first visit to the Somme Valley was made in company with Mr. Busk, Captain Galton, and Mr. Prestwich, and I com municated the results to the Natural History Review , in an article “ On the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man afforded by the Physical Structure of the Somme Valley. " * I have seen no reason to modify the general conclusions contained in that

• Natural History Review, 1862, pp. 244–269.

MR. PRESTWICH AND MR. EVANS. 343 article, of which, indeed, this chapter is in the main a reprint. We examined carefully not only the flint weapons, but also the beds in which they were found. For such an investi gation, indeed, our two countrymen were especially qualified : Mr. Prestwich, from his long study and profound knowledge of the tertiary and quaternary strata ; and Mr. Evans, from his intimate acquaintance with the stone implements belong ing to what we must now consider as the second, or at least the more recent, Stone period. On their return to England, Mr. Prestwich communicated the results of his visit to the Royal Society, * while Mr. Evans described the implements themselves in the Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries.t In the “ Antiquités Celtiques,” M. Boucher de Perthes sug gested some gravel -pits near Grenelle at Paris, as being, from their position and appearance, likely places to contain flint implements. M. Gosse shortly afterwards found flint imple ments in these pits, being the first discovery of this nature in the valley of the Seine, while in that of the Oise a small hatchet has been found by M. Peigné Delacourt, at Précy, near Creil. Nor have these discoveries been confined to France. There has long been in the British Museum a rude stone weapon, described as follows : “ No. 246. A British weapon, found with elephant's tooth, opposite to Black Mary's, near Grayes inn lane. Conyers. It is a large black flint, shaped into the figure of a spear's point. ” Mr. Evans tells us, moreover, (1. c. p. 22), “ that a rude engraving of it illustrates a letter on the Antiquities of London , by Mr. Bagford, dated 1715, printed in Hearne's edition of Leland's Collectanea, vol. i. 6,

• On the Occurrence of Flint

Implements associated with the Remains of Extinct Species, in Beds of a late Geological Period, May 19, 1859. Phil. Trans. 1860. + Flint Implements in the Drift. Archæologia, 1860-62. 344 MR. FRERE'S DISCOVERY IN 1800. p. lxiii. From his account it seems to have been found with a skeleton of an elephant in the presence of Mr. Conyers." This most interesting weapon agrees exactly with some of those found in the valley of the Somme. Mr. Evans, on his return from Abbeville, observed in the museum belonging to the Society of Antiquaries, some spe cimens exactly like those in the collection of M. Boucher de Perthes. On examination, it proved that they had been presented by Mr. Frere, who found them with bones of extinct animals in a gravel- pit at Hoxne in Suffolk, and had well described and figured them in the Archæologia for the year 1800. This communication is of so much interest that I have FIG. 195 . FIG . 196 . Flint Implement from Hoxne. SIMILAR DISCOVERIES ELSEWHERE. 345 thought it desirable to reproduce his figures, reduced one - half ( figs. 195—198). FIG . 197 . FIG . 198. 1 Flint Implement from Hoxne. Again, twenty - five years ago, Mr. Whitburn, of Godal ming , while examining the gravel-pits between Guildford and

• Prestwich, Geol. Jour., August, 1861.

346 SIMILAR DISCOVERIES IN OTHER COUNTRIES. Godalming, remarked a peculiar flint, which he carried away, and has since preserved in his collection. It belongs to the drift ” type, but is very rude. Thus, this peculiar type of flint implement has been actually found in association with the bones of the mammoth on various occasions during nearly a hundred and fifty years ! While, however, these instances remarkably corroborate the statements made by M. Boucher de Perthes, they in no way detract from the credit due to that gentleman. In addition to the above-mentioned, similar hatchets have been found in various other localities, as for instance by Mr. Warren, at Icklingham ; by Mr. Leech, near Herne Bay ; by Mr. Evans himself at Abbot's Langley ; by Mr. Norman at Greenstreet Green in Kent ; by Messrs. Whitaker and Hughes, near Dartford ; in fact, similar discoveries have been made in most of our south -eastern counties. In the gravel near Bedford, again, associated with the remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ox, horse, and deer, Mr. Wyatt * has found flint implements resembling both of the two principal types found at Abbeville and Amiens. This case is very interesting, because it shows that the drift flint hatchets are subsequent to the boulder clay ; the Bedford valley being cut through hills capped by a deposit of that period. At Hoxne, also, the bed containing flint imple ments appears actually to rest on the boulder clay. The number of localities on the Continent in which stone implements have been obtained from beds of the Quaternary period has also largely increased. Stone implements, more or less resembling those charac teristic of the Palæolithic Age, have also been found in other parts of the world, as, for instance, in Assyria, North America, Algeria, and Hindostan ; though except in the latter case we

• Flint Implements in the Drift. tectural and Archæological Society ,

By J. Wyatt. Bedfordshire Archi- 1862. ANTIQUITY AS SHOWN BY PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 347 have no reason for attributing to them any very great anti quity. The Indian specimens have been described by Mr. Bruce Foote : * they were found in the Madras and North Arcot districts, and are of quartzite, and in several cases were FIG . 199. WW Stone Implement from Madras. found by Messrs. Foote and King in situ at depths of from 3 to 10 feet. The specimens figured ( figs. 199, 200) will show how closely they resemble our European specimens, and it is interesting that, in the words of Mr. Foote, “ the area,

• On the Occurrence of Stone North Arcot Districts. By R. Bruce

Implements in lateritic formations Foote. in various parts of the Madras and 348 ANTIQUITY AS SHOWN BY over which the lateritic formations were spread, has under gone, as already stated, great changes since their deposition. A great part of the formation has been removed by denudation, and deep valleys cut into them , now occupied by the alluvium of various rivers. " * Unfortunately, no bones have yet been FIG . 200 . Stone Implement from Madras. found in these beds. Worked agates have also been found in the deposits of the Nerbudda, and in the bone-beds of the upper Godavery, “ which are, there is little doubt, the same age as those of the Nerbudda, which contain Elephas insignis,

• 1. c . p. 28.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 349 E. Namadacus, Hippopotamus palæindicus, Bos palæindicus, and B. Namadicus. " * The specimens found in the Sonime Valley, are , as I shall endeavour to show, connected with the present river system , and the same was the case with those first discovered in England. Further researches, however, have brought to light cases in which flint implements have been found in beds of gravel having no relation to the existing river systems. Mr. Flower has called attention to several of these in our eastern counties, and I have had the advantage of visiting them with him . The Shrub Hill gravel-bed, for instance, is a low mound of gravel of about fifteen feet thick, rising in the middle of the fen near Ely, and surrounded on all sides by a low flat district. Mr. Skertchley also has found flint imple ments in beds which he considers to be earlier than the last period of great cold . Some of the Hampshire specimens also have been found in situ, in a mass of drift gravel which covers the tertiary beds, and is intersected by all the streams which now run into the Southampton Water. This mass of gravel, moreover, is not confined to the mainland, but caps also the Foreland Cliffs on the east of the Isle of Wight, where an oval flint imple ment has recently been discovered by Mr. T. Codrington. As Mr. Evans has pointed out, we seem, in this discovery, to have clear evidence that man existed in this country before the Southampton Water was formed, or the Isle of Wight was separated from the mainland, and we may therefore regard these implements as among the most striking proofs of Man's Antiquity, which they carry back to a period far more ancient than that which had previously been assigned to him. We cannot therefore wonder that the statement by Mr. Frere has been distrusted for more than half - a - century ; that

• Blandford, Geol. Magazine, February, 1866.

350 THE QUESTIONS AT ISSUE. the weapon found by Mr. Conyers has lain unnoticed for more than double that time; that the discoveries by M. Boucher de Perthes have been ignored for fifteen years ; that the numerous cases in which caves have contained the remains of men together with those of extinct animals have been suppressed or explained away : these facts show how deeply rooted was the conviction that man belonged altogether to a more recent order of things; and whatever other accusation may be brought against them, geologists can at least not be said to have hastily accepted the theory of the co -existence of the human race with the now extinct Pachydermata of Western Europe. Though, however, geologists are now almost unanimous as to the great antiquity of these curious weapons, still it is not necessary that they should be received as judges ; I only pro pose to summon them as witnesses. The questions to be decided may be stated as follows : 1st. Are the so - called flint implements of human work manship ? 2ndly. Are the flint implements of the same age as the beds in which they are found, and the bones of the extinct animals with which they occur ? 3rdly. What are the conditions under which these beds were deposited ? And how far are we justified in imputing to them a great antiquity ? To the first two of these questions an affirmative answer would be given by every geologist. “ For more than twenty years,” says another competent witness — Prof. Ramsay—“ I have daily handled stones, whether fashioned by nature or art, and the flint hatchets of Amiens and Abbeville seem to me as clearly works of art as any Sheffield whittle .” * But best of all, an hour or two spent in examining the forms of

• Athenæum , July 16, 1859.

EVIDENCE DERIVABLE FROM THE FLINTS THEMSELVES. 351 ordinary flint gravel, would, I am sure, convince any man that these stones, rude though they be, were undeniably fashioned by the hand of man. Still it might be supposed that they were forgeries made by ingenious workmen to entrap unwary geologists. They have, however, been actually found by Messrs. Boucher de Perthes, Henslow, Christy, Flower, Wyatt, Evans, myself, and others, under circumstances which preclude all idea of decep tion. One seen, though not found by himself in situ, is thus described by Mr. Prestwich : “ It was lying flat in the gravel at a depth of seventeen feet from the original surface, and six and a half feet from the chalk . One side slightly projected. The gravel around was undisturbed, and presented its usual perpendicular face. I carefully examined the specimen, and saw no reason to doubt that it was in its natural position, for the gravel is generally so loose, that a blow with a pick dis turbs and brings it down for some way round; and the matrix is too little adhesive to admit of its being built up again as before with the same materials. . . . . I found also afterwards, on taking out the flint, that it was the thinnest side which projected, the other side being less finished and much thicker." * But evidence of this nature, though interesting, is unnecessary ; the flints speak for themselves. Many of them are more or less rolled or worn at the edges. Those which have lain in siliceous or chalky sands are more or less polished, and have a beautiful glossiness of surface, very unlike that of a newly broken flint. In ochreous sand, “ especially if argillaceous,, they are stained yellow, whilst in ferruginous sands and clays they assume a brown colour, ” and in some beds they become white and porcellaneous. In many cases, moreover, they have incrustations of carbonate of lime and small dentritic mark ings. The freshly -broken chalk flints, on the contrtry, are of a dull black or leaden colour ; they vary a little in darkness

• Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 292.

352 THE FORGERIES. but not in colour, and do not present white or yellow facings ; moreover, the new surfaces are dead , and want the glossiness of those which have been long exposed. It is almost unne cessary to say that they have no dendritic markings, nor are they encrusted by carbonate of lime. Now the forgeries — for there are forgeries — differ from the genuine implements by just those characteristics which dis tinguish newly -broken flints from those which have lain long in sand or gravel, or exposed to atmospheric agencies. They are black, never white or yellow ; their surfaces are not glossy, but dull and lustreless, and they have no dendritic markings or incrustations. Nor would it be possible for an ingenious rogue to deceive us by taking a stained flint and fashioning it into a hatchet, because the discoloration of the fint is quite superficial, seldom more than a quarter of an inch in thickness, and follows the outline of the present surface, showing that the change of colour was subsequent to the manufacture ; while if such a flint were tampered with, the fraud would be easily detected, as each blow would remove part of the outer coating, and expose the black flint inside, as may be seen in pl. 1 , fig. 11 . Moreover, it must be remembered, that when M. Boucher de Perthes' work was published, the weapons therein described were totally unlike any of those familiar to archæologists. Since that time, however, not only have similar implements been found both in England, France, and other countries, but, as already mentioned, it has since come to light that similar weapons were in two cases actually described and figured in England many years ago, and that in both these instances they were found in association with the bones of extinct ani mals. On this point, therefore, no evidence could be more conclusive. We may, then, pass on to the second subject, and consider whether the Flint implements are as old as the beds in CHARACTER OF THE TRUE DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. 353 which they occur, and as the remains of extinct mammalia with which they are associated. It has been suggested by some writers, that though they are really found in the mammaliferous gravel, they may be comparatively recent, and belong really to the Neolithic or later Stone Age, but have gradually sunk down from above by their own weight, or perhaps have been buried in artificial excavations. There are, however, no cracks or fissures by which the hatchets could have reached their present posi tions, and the strata are too compact and immovable to admit of any such insinuation from the surface. Nor could any ancient excavations have been made and filled in again without leaving evident traces of the change. Moreover, we may in this case also appeal to the flint im plements themselves, which, as we have already seen, agree in colour and appearance with the gravel in which they occur ; and it seems, therefore, only reasonable to infer that they have been subjected to the same influences. Moreover, if they belonged to the later Stone period, and had found their way by any accident into these gravels, then they ought to correspond with the other flint implements of the Stone period. But this is not the case . The flakes indeed, offer no peculiarities of form . Similar splinters of flint, or obsidian, have been used in the absence of metal by savage tribes in almost all ages and all countries. The other implements, on the contrary, are very characteristic. They are almost always made of flint, whereas many other minerals, such, for instance, as serpentine, jade, clayslate, etc. , were used in the later Stone Age. Their forms are also peculiar ; some are oval (pl. 1 , fig. 11), chipped up to an edge all round, and from two to eight or nine inches in length. A second type is also oval, but somewhat pointed at one end (pl. 1, fig. 10, and figs. 195, 196) . Others again ( figs. 197, 198) have a more or less heavy butt at one end and are pointed at the other. Mr. 2 A 354 DRIFT IMPLEMENTS NEVER GROUND. Evans regards these * as having served as spear or lance heads. He treats as a mere variety of this type those implements in which the cutting end is rounded off but not pointed. Some of these, however, were evidently intended to be held in the hand, and probably served a different purpose ; they may, I think , fairly be considered as a fourth type, though it must be confessed that all these types run very much into one another, and in any large collection many intermediate forms may be found . The smaller end is, in all cases, the one adapted for cutting, while the reverse is almost invariably the case in the oval celts of the Neolithic Stone Age (figs. 97 and 98 ). Again, the flint implements of the drift are never polished or ground, but are always left rough. Many thousands have now been found in the drift gravels of England and France, and of this large number there is not one which shows a trace of polishing or grinding ; while we know that the reverse was almost always the case with the celts of the later Stone period. It is true that the latter is not an invariable rule ; thus, in Denmark there are two forms of so - called “ axes ” which are left rough — namely, the small triangular axes or the Kjökkenmöddings ( figs. 108–110) which are invariably so, and the large square- sided axes with which this is often the case. But, though rough, these two forms of implements resemble in no other way those which are found in the drift, and could not for a moment be mistaken for them . It is not going too far to say, that there is not a single well-authen ticated instance of a " celt " being found in the drift, or of an implement of the drift type being discovered either in a tumulus, or associated with remains of the later Stone Age. It is useless to speculate upon the use made of these rude yet venerable weapons. Almost as well might we ask, to

• l. c. 1860, p. 11 .

SCARCITY OF HUMAN BONES . 355 what use could they not be applied ? Numerous and special ized as are our modern instruments, who could describe the exact use of a knife ? But the primitive savage had no such choice of weapons ; we see before us perhaps the whole con tents of his workshop ; and with these implements, rude as they seem to us, he may have cut down trees, scooped them out into canoes, grubbed up roots, attacked his enemies, * killed and cut up his food, made holes through the ice in winter, prepared fire- wood, etc. The almost entire absence of human bones, which has appeared to some so inexplicable as to throw a doubt on the whole question, is, on consideration, less extraordinary than it might at first sight appear to be. If, for instance, we turn to other remains of human settlements, we shall find a repetition of the same phenomenon. Thus in the Danish shell-mounds where worked flints are by far more plentiful than in the St. Acheul gravel, human bones are of the greatest rarity, only one piece in fact having ever been found. At that period, as in the Drift Age, mankind lived by hunting and fishing, and could not, therefore, be very numerous. however, of the Swiss Lake- habitations, the case was different. M. Tryon estimates the population of the “ Pfahlbauten" during the Stone Age at about 32,000 ; in the Bronze era, 42,000. On these calculations, indeed, even their ingenious author would not probably place much reliance ; still the number of the Lake villages already known is very consider able ; in four of the Swiss lakes only, more than seventy have been discovered , and some of them were of great extent : Wangen, for instance, being, according to M. Lohle, supported on more than 50,000 piles. Yet, if we exclude a few bones of children, human remains have been obtained from these settlements in six cases only. The number of flint imple

• Some savages even now fight with stones, which they simply hold in their hands.

In the era, 2 A 2 356 SCARCITY OF MEN IN ANCIENT TIMES. ments obtained hitherto from the drift of the Somme Valley probably does not much exceed 5000 ; * the settlement at Concise alone ( Lake of Neufchâtel) has supplied about 24,000, and yet has not produced a single human skeleton.t Probably this absence of bones is in part attributable to the habit of burying or burning ; the instinct of man has long been in most cases to bury his dead out of his sight. Still , so far as the drift of St. Acheul is concerned, the difficulty will alto gether disappear, if we remember that no trace has ever yet been found of any animal as small as a man . Even of the elephant and rhinoceros, the ox, horse, and stag, I only the larger and more solid bones remain ; every vestige of the smaller ones has perished. No one supposes that this scanty list fairly represents the mammalian fauna of this time and place. When we find at St. Acheul the remains of the wolf, boar, roedeer, badger, and other animals which existed during the drift period, then, and not till then, we may perhaps begin to wonder at the entire absence of human skeletons. We must also remember that when man lived on the pro duce of the chase, there must have been a very large number

• One of the tumuli in the Mis- Fettlosigkeit,” peculiarities which sissippi Valley is estimated to have recommended them so strongly to

alone contained nearly four thou- the men of the Stone Age, that sand stone implements. This, how they used them in preference to all ever, must have been a very excep- others, nay, almost exclusively, in tional case . the manufacture of those instru † Rapport à la Commission des ments which could be made of bone Musées, October, 1861 , p. 16. ( Fauna der Pfahlbauten , p . 12) . I The bones of the stag owe their How common the bones of the stag preservation perhaps to another are in quaternary strata geologists Prof. Rütimeyer tells us know, and we have bere perhaps that among the bones from the an explanation of the fact. The Pfahlbauten none are in better con- antler of the reindeer is also pre dition than those of the stag: this ferred at the present day by the is the consequence, he says, of their Esquinaux in the manufacture of “ dichten Gefüge, ihrer Härte und their stone weapons. ( Sir E. Bel Sprödigkeit, so wie der grossen cher, Trans. Ethn. Soc. vol. i. p . 139.) cause. PROPORTION OF MEN TO OTHER ANIMALS. 357 of wild animals to each hunter. Among the Laplanders, 100 reindeer is the smallest number on which a man can subsist, and no one is considered rich who does not possess at least from 300 to 500. But these are domesticated, and a large supply of nourishment is derived from their milk . In the case of wild animals, we may safely assume that a much larger number would be necessary The Hudson's Bay terri tory is said to comprise about 900,000,000 acres. The number of Indians was estimated at 139,000. Allowing one wild animal to each twenty acres, this would give about 300 animals to each Indian ; and, if we consider the greater longevity of man, we must multiply this by six, or even more. Or, again, we may attempt to form an estimate in the following manner. The number of skins received by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1866 amounted to 1,250,000, made up as follows : . . . . . Beaver 144,744 Fox . 32,982 Lynx 68,040 Marten . 92,373 Mink 73,149 Musquash . 608,396 Otter 14,376 Rabbit . 105,909 Bear 6,457 Racoon . 24,860 Wolf 7,429 Sundries 63,950 -1,242,765 The number of Indians is estimated at 139,000, and Hearne states that every one requires at least twenty deerskins for clothes, without . Carried over 1,242,765 358 HUMAN REMAINS. Brought over 1,242,765 counting those required for tent- cloths, bags, etc.; this therefore would give us 139,000 20 2,780,000 But the deerskins are fit for clothes only during 2 months in the year, and as it will be observed that the majority of the animals enumerated above are not fit for food, others must have been killed in sufficient quantities to serve as food for 10 months. Assuming that an Indian requires one every month, which is probably well within the mark, we shall again require 139,000 * 10 (the number of months) . 1,390,000 Making therefore a total of 5,412,765 And assuming that one animal out of twenty is killed by the Indians, we shall have 108,000,000 to 139,000 Indians, or about 750 animals to each man ; besides which, a further allowance must be made as before on account of man's greater longevity. Dr. Rae, who has had so such experience in these matters, has been good enough to look over the above calcu lation, which he considers fairly estimated, but it has of course no pretensions to accuracy. Lastly, it may be observed that man is less likely to be drowned by sudden river floods, than is the case with other land mammalia ; * and, on the whole, therefore, it is natural that the bones of animals would be far more common in these gravels than those of man . It must not, however, be supposed that the latter are alto gether absent. Without relying on the human lower jaw, stated to have been found in the pit at Moulinguignon, and about which there has been much discussion and difference of opinion, I may instance the discovery of human remains

• See, for instance, Bakie, Exploring Voyage up the Kwora, p . 215 .

CO - EXISTENCE OF MAN WITH THE MAMMOTH . 359 by M. Bertrand,* at Clichy, in the valley of the Seine. Among these bones, about the authenticity and antiquity of which there seems to be no doubt, was a skull which has been examined by M. Lartet, and which is decidedly dolichocephalic. We have as yet but partly answered the second of the two questions with which we started. Even admitting that the flint hatchets are coeval with the gravel in which they occur, it remains to be shown that the bones of the extinct animals belong also to the same period. This was at first doubted by some geologists, who suggested that they might have been washed out of earlier strata . If, however, these bones belonged to a period earlier than that of the gravel, where, we may ask , are the remains of the animals which did exist at that time ? Moreover, the bones, though sometimes much worn and broken, are at others, and even, according to Mr. Prestwich, " as a general rule, t either not rolled at all, or are slightly so." Secondly, these species, and particularly the mammoth and the woolly -haired rhino ceros, are the characteristic and commonest species of these beds, not only in the valley of the Somme, but in all the drift gravels of England and France ; while, if they belonged in reality to an earlier period, they would not occur so con stantly, and they would be accompanied by other species characteristic of earlier times. Thirdly, the materials forming the drift gravels of the Somme Valley have all been obtained from the present area of drainage, and there are in this district no older beds from which the remains of these extinct mammalia could possibly have been derived. There are, indeed, outliers of tertiary strata, but the mammalian remains found in those beds belong to other, and much older, species. Fourthly, as regards the rhinoceros, we have the express testimony of M. Baillon, that on one occasion all the bones

• Les Mondes, 1869, p. 64. + Pbil. Trans. l. c. p. 300 .

360 THE MAMMOTH AND RHINOCEROS. of a hind-leg were found in their natural positions at Menche court, near Abbeville, while the rest of the skeleton was found at a little distance. In this case , therefore, the animal must have been entombed before the ligaments had decayed away. M. Casciano de Prado has made a very similar discovery in Spain, not far from Madrid. There the section was as follows: first, vegetable soil ; then about twenty -five feet of sand and pebbles, under which was a layer of sandy loam, in which, during the year 1850, a complete skeleton of the mam moth was discovered. Underneath this stratum was about ten feet of coarse gravel, in which some flint axes, very closely resembling those of Amiens, have been discovered. Finally, as regards the rhinoceros, M. Lartet assures us * that some of the bones bear the marks of flint implements ; nay, more than this, he has even satisfied himself, “ by com parative trials on homologous portions of existing animals, that incisions, presenting such appearances, could only be made in fresh bones, still retaining their cartilage.” There is, then, no more reason for believing that the bones of these extinct mammalia were washed out of earlier strata into the drift gravels, than for attributing such an origin to the implements themselves ; and we may, I think, regard it as well established, that the mammoth and woolly -haired rhinoceros, as well as the other above-mentioned mammalia, co-existed with the savages who used the rude “ drift hatchets," at the time when the gravels of the Somme were being deposited. The second of the three questions with which we started (p. 350) may therefore be answered in the affirmative. Must, we, then, carry man back far into the past, or may we retain our date for the origin of the human race by bring ing the extinct animals down to comparatively recent times ? The absence of all tradition of the elephant and rhinoceros in

• Geological Journ. vol. xvi. p. 471 .

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DRIFT BEDS. 361 FIG. 201 . SW. Hill onRodatoMoyenneville Pits High Road Mautort River Somme Europe carries us back far indeed in years, but a little way only, when measured by geological standards, and we must there fore solve this question by examining the drift gravels themselves, the materials of which they are composed, and the positions which they so occupy, as to determine, if possible, the conditions under which they were deposited, and the lapse of time which they indicate. Fig. 201 gives a section across the valley of the Somme at Abbeville, taken from the memoir in the Philosophical Transactions, * by Mr. Prestwich, who has long studied the quaternary beds, and has done more than any other man to render them intel ligible. We should find almost the same arrangement and position of the different beds not only at St. Acheul, but elsewhere along the valley of the Somme, wherever the higher beds of gravel have not been removed by subsequent action of the river. Even at St. Valéry, at the present mouth of the river, I found a bed of gravel at a considerable height above the level of the This would seem to show that at the period of these high-level gravels, the English Channel was narrower than it is

• at present, as indeed we know to have

been the case down to historical times. So early as 1605, our countryman Verstegan the Somme at'Abbevlileo' pointed out that the waves and tides were eating away our coasts. Sir C. Lyellt gives much information

• Phil. Trans. 1860. + See Principles of Geology, p. 315. Menchecourt

Windmill sea , meantide St. atValer ,z. 785 276 NE. 362 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE SOMME VALLEY. on this subject, and it appears, for instance, that, even so lately as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the town of Brighton occupied the site of the present Chain Pier. The difference between the height of the high -level gravels and the river increases from the source to the sea. For in stance, in the Seine Valley at the boundaries of La Brie and Champagne it is nothing ; at Paris, 34 metres ; at the sea , 50 or 60. * FIG . 202. 7 Section at St. Acheul. Mr. Prestwich has pointed outt that a section, similar to that of the Somme, is presented by various rivers — the Lark, Waveney, Ouse, etc., while it is well shown also along the banks of the Seine. Probably, indeed, it holds good of most of our rivers, that along the sides of their valleys are patches of old gravels left by the stream at various heights, before they had excavated the channels to their present depth. Mr. Prestwich considers that the beds of sand and gravel can generally be divided into two more or less distinct series, one continuous along the bottom of the valleys and rising little above the water level — these he calls the low - level gravels ; the other, which he terms the upper or high - level gravels, occurring in detached masses at an elevation of from fifty to two hundred feet above the valley. They seem to me, on the contrary, only the two extremes of a single series, once con

• Belgrand, Bassin Parisien , p. 90 . + Phil. Trans. 1864.

ST. ACHEUL. 363 tinuous, but now generally presenting numerous interruptions. A more magnified view of the strata at St. Acheul, near Amiens, is shown in fig. 202. The upper layer of vegetable soil having been removed, we have 1. A bed of brick earth (a), from four to five feet in thick ness, and containing a few angular flints. 2. Below this is a thin layer of angular gravel ( b), one to two feet in thickness. 3. Still lower is a bed of sandy marl ( c ), five to six feet thick, with land and freshwater shells, which , though very delicate, are in most cases perfect. 4. At the bottom of all these, and immediately overlying the chalk, is the bed of partially rounded gravel ( d ) in which principally the flint implements are found. This layer also contains many well- rolled tertiary pebbles.. In the early Christian period this spot was used as a ceme tery : the graves generally descend into the marly sand, and their limits are very distinctly marked, as in fig. 202 f; an important fact, as showing that the rest of the strata have lain undisturbed for 1500 years. Some of the coffins were of hard chalk ( fig. 202 e), some of wood, in which latter case the nails and clamps only remain, every particle ofwood having perished, without leaving even a stain behind. Passing down the hill towards the river, all these strata are seen to die out, and we find ourselves on the bare chalk ; but again at a lower level occurs another bed of gravel, resembling the first, and capped also by the bed of brick earth which is generally known as loëss. This lower bed of gravel is that called by Mr. Prestwich the lower- level gravel. These strata , therefore, are our witnesses ; but of what ? Are they older than the valley, or the valley than they ? Are they the result of causes still in operation, or the offspring of cataclysms now, happily, at an end ? If we can show that the present river, somewhat swollen, 364 ST. ACHEUL. perhaps, owing to the greater extension of forests in ancient times, and by an alteration of climate, has excavated the present valley, and produced the strata above numerated ; then “ the suggestion of an antiquity for the human family so remote as is here implied, in the length of ages required by the gentle rivers and small streams of eastern France to erode its whole plain to the depths at which they now flow , acquires, it must be confessed, a fascinating grandeur, when by simili tude of feature and geology, we extend the hypothesis to the whole north - west frontiers of the continent, and assume that, from the estuary of the Seine to the eastern shores of the Baltic , every internal feature of valley, dale and ravine - in short, the entire intaglio of the surface - has been moulded by running waters, since the advent of the human race. " * But, on the other hand, it has been maintained that the pliant facts may be read as “ expressions of violent and sudden mutations, only compatible with altogether briefer periods. ” The argument of the Paroxysmist would probably be some thing like the following : " Assuming the pre- existing relief, or excavation rather, of the surface to have approximated to that now prevailing, he will account for the gravel by supposing a sudden rocking movement of the lands and the bottom of the sea of the nature of an earthquake, or a succession of them, to have launched a portion of the temporarily uplifted waters upon the surface of the land.” Let us, however, examine the strata, and see whether the evidence they give is in reality so confused and contradictory. Taking the section at St. Acheul and commencing at the bottom , we have first of all the partially rounded high -level gravel, throughout which, and especially at the lower part, the flint implements occur. These beds but rarely contain vegetable remains. Large

• Blackwood's Magazine, October, 1860.

ORGANIC REMAINS. 365 pieces of the oak, yew , and fir, have, however, been deter mined at Hoxne. The mammalia, also, are but few ; the mammoth, the Elephas antiquus, with species of Bos, Cervus, and Equus, are the only ones which have yet occurred at St. Acheul, though beds of the same age in other parts of England and France have added the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, the rein deer, and several other species. The mollusca are more numerous ; they have been identified by Mr. J. G. Jeffreys, who finds in the upper -level gravel thirty -six. species, all of them land or freshwater forms, and all belonging to existing species. It is hardly necessary to add, that these shells are not found in the coarse gravel, but only here and there, where quieter conditions, indicated by a seam of finer materials, have preserved them from destruction. Here, therefore, we have a conclusive answer to the suggestion that the gravel may have been heaped up to its present height by a sudden irruption of the sea. In that case we should find some marine remains; but as we do not, as all the fossils belong to animals which live on the land, or inhabit fresh waters, it is at once evident that this stratum, not being sub -aerial, must be a freshwater deposit ; and as the most delicate shells are entire, it is equally evident that they were deposited in tranquil water, and not by a cataclysm. But the gravel itself tells us even more than this : the river Somme flows through a country in which there are no rocks older than the chalk, and the gravel in its valley con sists entirely of chalk flints and tertiary débris. * The Seine, on the other hand, receives tributaries which drain other for mations. In the valley of the Yonne we find fragments of the crystalline rocks brought from the Morvan.t The Aube runs through cretaceous and Jurassic strata, and the gravels along its valley are entirely composed of materials derived from these formations. The valley of the Oise is in this

• Buteux, 1. c . p. 98. † D'Archiac, Progrès de la Géologie, p. 163.

366 MINERALOGICAL CONSTITUENTS . respect particularly instructive : “ De Maquenoise à Hirson la vallée ne présente que des fragments plus ou moins roulés des roches de transition que traverse le cours de la rivière. En descendant à Etréaupont, on y trouve des calcaires juras siques et des silex de la craie, formations qui ont succédé aux roches anciennes. A Guise, le dépôt erratique .... est composé de quartzites et de schistes de transition de quelques grès plus récents, de silex de la craie, et surtout de quartz laiteux, dont le volume varie depuis celui de la tête jusqu'à celui de grains de sable. ... Au delà les fragments de roches anciennes diminuent graduellement en volume et en nombre.” At Paris the granitic débris brought down by the Yonne forms a notable proportion of the gravel; and at Précy, near Creil, on the Oise, the fragments of the ancient rocks are abundant ; but lower down the Seine, at Mantes, they are smaller and less numerous, while at Rouen and Pont de l'Arche I found none, though a longer search would doubtless have shown fragments of them . This case of the Oise is, however, inte resting, not only on account of the valuable evidence contained in the above quotation ; but because, though the river flows, as a glance at the map will show, immediately across and at right- angles to the Somme, yet none of the ancient rocks which form the valley of the Oise have supplied any débris to the valley of the Somme : and this, though the two rivers are at one point within six miles of one another, and separated by a ridge only eighty feet in height. The same division occurs between the Seine and the Loire : “ Bien que la ligne de partage des eaux de la Loire et de la Seine, entre St. Amand (Nièvre) et Artenay, au nord d'Orléans, soit à peine sensible, aucun débris de roches venant du centre de la France, par la vallée de la Loire n'est passé dans le bassin de la Seine.” + In the Vivarais near Auvergne, “ Les dépôts diluviens sont

• D’Archiac, l. c. p. 155. † Ibid . I. c. p. 164.

OBJECTIONS TO THE PROPOSED THEORY . 367 composés des mêmes roches que celles que les rivières actuelles entraînent dans les vallées, et sont les débris des seules mon tagnes de la Lozin , du Tanargue et du Mézène, qui entourent le bassin du Vivarais." * Again : “ Le diluvium des vallées de l'Aisne et de l'Aire ne ren ferme que les débris plus ou moins roulés des terrains que ces rivières coupent dans leur cours. ” + Finally, Mr. Prestwich has pointed out that the same thing holds good in various English rivers. The conclusion deduced by M. D'Archiac from the consideration of these observations, and specially from those concerning the valley of the Seine, is, “ Que les courants diluviens ne venaient point d'une direc tion unique, mais qu'ils convergaient des bords du bassin vers son centre, suivant les dépressions préexistantes, et que leur élévation ou leur force de transport ne suffisait pas pour faire passer les débris qu'ils charriaient d'une de ces vallées dans l'autre." + Considering, however, all these facts, remembering that the constituents of these river- drift gravels are, in all cases, derived from beds now in situ along the valley, that they have not only followed the lines of these valleys, but have done so in the direction of the present waterflow , and without in any case passing across from one river system to another, it seems quite unnecessary to call in the assistance of diluvial waves, or indeed any other agency than that of the rivers themselves. There are, however, certain facts in the case which have been regarded by most geologists as fatal to this hypothesis, and which prevented M. D'Archiac, as well as the French geologists generally, from adopting an explanation apparently so simple and so obvious. These difficulties appear to have

• D'Archiac, l. c . p . 160.

+ Malbos. Bull. Geol. vol. iii. p. 631. I Lc. p . 163. 368 OBJECTIONS TO THE PROPOSED THEORY. been twofold, or at least the two principal were ; firstly, the large sandstone blocks which are scattered throughout the FIG . 203. b d Section at Joinville. river gravels of Northern and Central France; and secondly, the height at which the upper- level gravels stand above the present water- line. We will consider these two objections separately. It must be admitted that the presence of the sandstone blocks in the gravels appears at first sight to be irreconcilable with our hypothesis. In some places they occur frequently, and are of considerable size ; the largest I have myself seen is represented in the section, fig. 203, taken close to the railway station at Joinville. It was 8ft. 6 in . in length, with a width of 2ft. 8in. , and a thickness of 3ft. 4in. Even when we remem ber that at the time of its deposition the valley was not excavated to its present depth, we must still feel that a body of water with power to move such masses as these must have been very different from any floods now occurring in those valleys, and might fairly deserve the name of a cataclysm . But whence could we obtain so great a quantity of water ? We have already seen that the gravel of the Oise, though so near, is entirely unlike that of the Somme ; while that of the Seine, again, is quite different from that of any of the neigh bouring rivers. These rivers, therefore, cannot have drained a larger area than at present ; the river systems must have ICE ACTION. 369 been the same as now. Nor would the supposition, after all, account for the phenomena. We should but fall from Scylla into Charybdis. Around the blocks we see no evidence of violent action ; in the section at Joinville, the grey sub-angular gravel passed under the large block above- mentioned, with scarcely any traces of disturbance. But a flood which could bring down so great a mass would certainly have swept. away the comparatively light and movable gravel below. We cannot, therefore, account for the phenomena by aqueous action, because a flood which would deposit the sandstone blocks would remove the underlying gravel, and a flood which would deposit the gravel would not move the blocks. The Deus ex machinâ has not only been called in most unne cessarily, but, when examined, turns out to be but an idol after all. Driven, then, to seek some other explanation of the diffi culty, Mr. Prestwich falls back on that of floating ice. Here we have an agency which would satisfactorily explain all the difficulties of the case . The “ packing” and propelling action of ice would also account for some irregularities in the arrange ment of the beds, which are very difficult otherwise to under stand. Nor is it the physical evidence only which points to an arctic climate during the period now under consideration ; the fauna, as we have already seen, tells the same tale . But though the presence of the sandstone blocks and the occasional contortions of the strata are in perfect accordance with the view of Mr. Prestwich, that the gravels have been deposited by the rivers, our second difficulty still remains namely, the height at which the upper -level gravels stand above the present water -line. We cannot wonder that these beds have generally been attributed to violent cataclysms. M. Boucher de Perthes was always of this opinion. “ Ce coquillage, ” he says, “ cet éléphant, cette hache, ou la main 2 B 370 FRESHWATER ORIGIN OF THE GRAVELS. qui la fabriqua, furent donc témoins du cataclysme qui donna à notre pays sa configuration présente. M. C. D'Orbigny, observing that the fossils found in these quaternary beds are all either of land or freshwater animals, wisely dismisses the theory of any marine action , and ex presses himself as follows : - “ En effet l'opinion de la plupart .des géologues est que les cataclysmes diluviens ont eu pour causes prédominantes de fortes oscillations de l'écorce ter restre, des soulèvements de montagnes au milieu de l'océan , d'où seraient résultées de grandes érosions. Par conséquent les puissants courants d'eau marine, auxquels on attribue ces érosions diluviennes, auraient dû laisser sur les continents des traces authentiques de leur passage, tels que de nombreux débris de coquilles, de poissons et autres animaux marins analogues à ceux qui vivent actuellement dans la mer. Or, ainsi que M. Cordier la fait remarquer depuis longtemps à son cours de géologie, rien de semblable n'a été constaté. Sur tous les points du globe où l'on a étudié les dépôts diluviens, on a reconnu que, sauf quelques rares exceptions très contes tables il n'existe dans ces dépôts aucun fossil marin : ou bien ce sont des fossiles arrachés aux terrains préexistants, dont la dénudation a fourni les matériaux qui composent le diluvium. En sorte que les dépôts diluviens semblent avoir eu pour cause des phénomènes météorologiques, et paraissent être le résultat d'immenses inondations d'eau douce et non d'eau marine, qui, se précipitant des points élevés vers la mer, auraient dénudé une grande partie de la surface du sol, balayé la généralité des êtres organisés et pour ainsi dire nivelé, coordonné les bassins hydrographiques actuels.” + Such cataclysms, however, as those thus suggested by M.

• Mem. Soc. d’Em. l'Abbeville,

1861 , p. 475. + C. D’Orbigny, Bul. Geo. 2nd ser. V. xvii. p. 6. See also D'Ar chiac, 1.c. passim . INAPPLICABILITY OF CATACLYSMS. 371 D'Orbigny, and many other French geologists, even if admitted, would not account for the results before us. We have seen that the transport of materials has not followed any single direction, but has in all cases followed the lines of the present valleys, and the direction of the present water- flow ; that the rocks of one valley are never transported into another ; that the condition of the loëss is irreconcilable with a great rush of water ; while, finally, the perfect preservation of many of the most delicate shells is clear proof that the phenomena are not due to violent or cataclysmic action. We must, moreover, bear in mind that the gravels and sands are themselves both the proof and the results of an immense denudation. In a chalk country, such as that through which the Somme flows, each cubic foot of flint, gravel or sand, represents the removal of, at the very least, twenty cubic feet of chalk, all of which, as we have already seen, must have been removed from the present area of drainage. In consider ing, therefore, the formation of these upper and older gravels, we must not picture to ourselves the original valley as it now is, but must, in imagination, restore all that immense mass of chalk which has been destroyed in the formation of the lower level gravels and sands. Mr. Prestwich has endeavoured to illustrate this by a diagram ;* and I must once more repeat that this is no mere hypothesis, since the mass of sand and gravel cannot have been produced without an immense removal of the chalk. On the whole, then, we may safely conclude that the upper-level gravels were deposited by the existing river, before it had excavated the valley to its present depth, and when consequently it ran at a level considerably higher than the present. Far, therefore, from requiring an immense flood of water, two hundred feet in depth, the accumulation of the gravel

• Proceed. Roy. Soc. 1862, p. 41 .

2 B 2 372 ALTERATION OF THE RIVER LEVEL. may have been effected by an annual volume of water, differ ing little from that of the present river. A given quantity of water will, however, produce very dif ferent effects, according to the rapidity with which it flows. “ We learn from observation that a velocity of three inches per second at the bottom will just begin to work upon fine clay fit for pottery, and however firm and compact it may be, it will tear it up. Yet no beds are more stable than clay when the velocities do not exceed this ; for the water even takes away the impalpable particles of the superficial clay, leaving the particles of sand sticking by their lower half in the rest of the clay, which they now protect, making a very permanent bottom, if the stream does not bring down gravel or coarse sand, which will rub off this very thin crust, and allow another layer to be worn off . A velocity of six inches will lift fine sand, eight inches will lift sand as coarse as linseed, twelve inches will sweep along fine gravel, twenty four inches will roll along rounded pebbles an inch diameter, and it requires three feet per second at the bottom to sweep along shivery angular stones of the size of an egg. If, therefore, we are justified in assuming a colder climate than that now existing, we should much increase the erosive action of the river, not only because the rains would fall on a frozen surface, but because the rainfall of the winter months would accumulate on the high grounds in the form of ice and snow, and would every spring produce floods much greater than any which now occur.t Moreover, as Mr. Evans has well pointed out, in ancient times, and before the river valleys were excavated to their present depths, the chalk might have been saturated with

• Cyc. Brit ., article “ Rivers," + See Murchison's Geology of

Russia and the Ural Mountains P. 274. P. 572. GRADUAL EXCAVATION OF THE VALLEY. 373 water to a greater height than at present, and this also would have rendered floods more frequent and more severe than at present. Returning to the fig. given on p. 371, we now come to the light- coloured marl ( fig . 202 c ). Mr. Prestwich describes it as follows: Of white siliceous sand and light- coloured marl, mixed with fine chalk grit, a few large sub -angular flints, and an occasional sandstone block, irregular patches of flint gravel, bedding waved and contorted, here and there layers with diagonal seams, a few ochreous bands, portions concreted. Sand and freshwater shells common, some mammalian remains. In the pits at Amiens this bed is generally distinct from the underlying gravels, owing perhaps to the upper portion of the gravel having been removed ; but in several places (Précy, Ivry, Bicêtre, etc.) this section is complete, the coarser gravel below becoming finer and finer, and at length passing above into siliceous sand. These sections evidently indicate a gradual loss of power in the water at these particular spots ; rapid enough at first to bring down large pebbles,its force became less and less, until at length it was only able to carry fine sand. This, therefore, appears to indicate a slight change in the course of the river, and gradual excavation of the valley, which, by supplying the floods with a lower bed, left the waters at this height with a gradually diminishing force and velocity. The upper part of the section at St. Acheul consists of brick earth ( fig. 202 a), passing below into angular gravel, while between this and the underlying sandy marl is some times a small layer of darker brick earth. These beds, how ever, vary much even in adjoining sections. Taken as a whole, they are regarded by Mr. Prestwich as the representatives of that remarkable loamy deposit which is found overlying the gravels in all these valleys of Northern France, and which, as the celebrated “ loëss " of the Rhine, attains in some places a 374 THE LOWER - LEVEL GRAVEL - BEDS. thickness of three hundred feet. The greatest development of it which I have seen in the north of France was in a pit in the Rue de la Chevalerie, near Ivry, where it was twenty -two feet thick ; some of this , however, may have been reconstructed loëss brought down by rain from the higher ground in the immediate neighbourhood. Assuming that this loëss is com posed of fine particles deposited from standing or slowly moving waters, we might be disposed to wonder at not finding in it any traces of vegetable remains. We know , however, from the arrangement of the nails and hasps, that in some of the St. Acheul tombs wooden coffins were used, while the size of the nails shows that the planks must have been tolerably thick ; yet every trace ofwood has been removed, and not even a stain is left to indicate its presence. We need not, there fore, wonder at the absence of vegetable remains in the drift. Such is a general account of those gravel-pits which lie at a height of from eighty to one hundred and fifty feet above the present water - level of the valleys, and which along the Somme are found in some places even at a height of two hun dred feet. Mr. Prestwich gives the following table of the mammalia : BEDFORD. ABBEVILLE PARIS . . AMIENS. Great Northern Railway, or Grenelle, Ivry , Summerhouse Menchecourt. St. Roch . Clichy , or the Hill. Rue de Reuilly.

S C . ?

•  ? g

Elephas primigenius, Blum ....... antiquus, Palc...... Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cuv. megarhinus, Christol. Ursus spelæus, Blum. Hyæna spelæa, Gold .. Felis spelæa, Gold . Bos primigenius, Boj. Bison priscus, Boj. Equus (possibly two species) ... Cervus euryceros , Aldr. elaphus, Linn. tarandus, Linn . Hippopotamus major, Nesti. Sus. 1

THE PEAT. 375 To this list we may add the lemming, the Myodes torquatus, and the musk ox, which has been found at two spots in the Thames valley, as well as at Chauny on the Oise. Let us now visit some of the pits at the lower levels. At about thirty feet lower, as for instance at Menchecourt, near Abbeville, and at St. Roch, near Amiens, where the gravel slopes from a height of sixty feet down to the bottom of the valley, we find almost a repetition of the same succession ; coarse sub -angular gravel below, finer materials above. So similar, indeed, are these beds to those already described, that it will be unnecessary for me to give any special description of them . It is possible that when the fauna and flora of the upper and lower- level gravels shall have been more thoroughly inves tigated, they may be found to be almost identical. At present, however, the species obtained from the lower- level gravels are more numerous than those from the upper levels. The mollusca are fifty -two in number, of which forty -two now live in Sweden, thirty - seven in Finland, and thirty -eight in Lombardy. Bearing in mind that Lombardy is much richer than Finland in mollusca, this assemblage has rather a northern aspect. In such a group of species as this, the hippopotamus seems singularly out of place, and in the preceding chapter I have discussed the conclusions which are, I think, to be drawn from its presence : taking the fauna as a whole, however, and looking more especially to such animals as the musk ox, the reindeer, the lemming, the Myodes torquatus, the Siberian mammoth, and its faithful companion the woolly -haired rhi noceros, we have clear evidence of a climate unlike that now prevailing in Western Europe. Finally, the lowest portion of the valley is at present occu pied by a bed of gravel, covered by silt and peat,which latter is in some places more than thirty or even forty feet thick , 376 OBJECTS FOUND IN THE PEAT. and is extensively worked for fuel. These strata have afforded to the antiquaries of the neighbourhood, and especially to M. Boucher de Perthes, a rich harvest of interesting relics belong ing to various periods. The depth at which these objects are found has been carefully noted by M. Boucher de Perthes. Prenant,” he says, “ pour terme moyen du sol de la vallée, une hauteur de 2 mètres audessus du niveau de la Somme, c'est à 30 à 40 centimètres de la surface qu'on rencontre le plus abondamment les traces du moyen- âge. Cinquante cen timètres plus bas, on commence à trouver des débris romains, puis gallo -romains. On continue à suivre ces derniers pendant un mètre, c'est à dire jusqu'au niveau de la Somme. Après eux, viennent les vestiges gaulois purs qui descendent sans interruption jusqu'à près de 2 mètres audessous de ce niveau, preuve de la longue habitation de ces peuples dans la vallée. C'est à un mètre plus bas, ou à 4 mètres environ audessous de ce même niveau, qu'on arrive au centre du sol que nous avons nommé Celtique, celui que foulèrent les Gaulois primi tives ou les peuples qui les précédèrent ;" and which belonged, therefore, to the Neolithic period. It is, however, hardly necessary to add that these thicknesses are only given by M. Boucher de Perthes “ comme terme approximatif ; " and in other localities no doubt the growth was more rapid. Mr. Southall * gives instances of more rapid accumulation ; never theless, without attaching too much importance to M. Boucher de Perthes' calculation, it is obvious that the formation of so great a mass of peat must have required a considerable lapse of time. The “ Antiquités Celtiques” was published several years before the Swiss archæologists had made us acquainted with the nature of the Pfahlbauten ; but, from some indications given by M. Boucher de Perthes, it would appear that there must have been, at one time, lake-habitations in the neigh

• Recent Origin of Man, pp. 270, 467.

OBJECTS FOUND IN THE PEAT. 377 bourhood of Abbeville. He found considerable platforms of wood, with large quantities of bones, stone implements, and handles closely resembling those which come from the Swiss lake villages. These weapons cannot for an instant be confounded with the ruder ones from the drift-gravel. They are ground to a smooth surface and a cutting edge, while those of the more ancient types are merely chipped, not one of the many hun dreds already found having shown the slightest trace of grind ing. Yet though the former belong to the Stone Age, to a time so remote that the use of metal was apparently still unknown in Western Europe, they are separated from the earlier weapons of the upper-level drift by the whole period necessary for the excavation of the Somme Valley, to a depth of more than one hundred feet. If, therefore, we get no definite date for the arrival of man in these countries, we can at least form a vivid idea of his antiquity. He must have seen the Somme running at a height of about a hundred feet above its present level. It is, indeed, probable that he dates back in Northern France almost, if not quite, as far as the rivers themselves. The fauna of the country was unlike what it is now. Along the banks of the rivers ranged a savage race of hunters and fishermen, and in the forests wandered the mammoth, the two - horned woolly rhinoceros, a species of lion, the musk ox, the reindeer, and the urus. Yet the geography of France cannot have been very dif ferent from what it is at present. The present rivers ran in their present directions, and the sea even then lay between the Somine and the Adur, though the channel was not so wide as it is now. Gradually the river deepened its valley ; ineffective, or even perhaps constructive, in autumn and winter, the melting of the snows turned it every spring into a roaring torrent. These 378 RELATION OF THE LÖESS TO THE GRAVEL . floods were perhaps more destructive to animals even than man himself ; while, however rude they may have been, our predecessors can hardly be supposed to have been incapable of foreseeing and consequently escaping the danger. While the water had sufficient force to deposit coarse gravel at any given level, at a still higher one it would part with finer particles, and would thus form the loëss, which at the same time would here and there receive angular flints and shells brought down from the hills in a more or less transverse direction by the rivulets after heavy rains. Mr. Prestwich regards the difference of level between the upper gravels and the loëss as “ a measure of the floods of that period. ” If the gravel- beds were complete, this would no doubt be the case ; but it seems to me that the upper- level gravels are mere fragments of an originally almost continuous deposit, and under such circumstances the present cannot be taken as evidence of the original difference. As the valley became deeper and deeper, the gravel would FIG . 204 . 3 ' 5 1 CHALK 3 Diagram to show the Relations of the Loëss and the Gravels. be deposited at lower and lower levels, the loëss always fol lowing it ; * thus we must not consider the loëss as a distinct bed, but as one which was being formed during the same time, though never at the same place, as the beds of gravel. In fig. 204 I have given a diagram , the better to illustrate my meaning ; the loëss is indicated by letters with a dash and is

• See Mr. Prestwich’s paper read before the Royal Society, June 19,

1862. CONTINUAL CHANGES OF RIVER COURSES. 379 dotted, while the gravels are represented as rudely stratified. In this case I suppose the river to have run originally on the level (1), and to have deposited the gravel (a) and the loëss ( á ) ; after a certain amount of erosion , which would reduce the level to (2), the gravel would be spread out at (6), and loëss at (6 ). Similarly the loëss (6) would be contemporaneous with the gravel (c). Thus, while in each section the lower beds would of course be the oldest, still the upper-level gravels as a whole would be the most ancient, and the beds lying in the lower parts of the valley the most modern. For convenience, I have represented the sides of the valley as forming a series of terraces; and though this is not actually the case, there are places in which such terraces do occur. It is, however, well known that rivers continually tend to shift their courses ; nor is the Somme any exception to the rule ; the valley itself indeed is comparatively straight, but within it the river winds considerably, and when in one of its curves the current crosses “ its general line of descent, it eats out a curve in the opposite bank, or in the side of the hills bounding the valley, from which curve it is turned back again at an equal angle, so that it re - crosses the line of descent, and gradually hollows out another curve lower down in the oppo site bank ,” till the whole sides of the valley, or river -bed, “present a succession of salient and retiring angles. " * During these wanderings from one side of the valley to the other, the river continually undermines and removes the gravels which at an earlier period it had deposited. Thus the upper- level gravels are now only to be found here and there, as it were, in patches, while in many parts they have altogether disap peared ; as, for instance, on the right side of the valley between Amiens and Pont Rémy, where hardly a trace of the high level gravels is to be seen.

• Lyell's Principles, p. 206.

380 ELEVATION OF THE LAND. The neighbouring shores of England and France show various traces of a slight and recent elevation of the land. Raised beaches have been observed at an elevation of from five to ten feet at various points along the coast of Sussex and the Pas de Calais. Marine shells also occur at Abbeville about twenty five feet above the sea -level,* and no doubt this change of level has had an important bearing on the excavation of the valley. Mr. A. Tylor,+ in a recent memoir, agrees with me that the upper-level and lower-level gravels are merely the extremes of a series, seldom complete, but generally imperfect, some times in one part, sometimes in another. But he also main tains that the surface of the chalk in the valley of the Somme had assumed its present form prior to the deposition of any of the gravel or loëss now existing in it. As, however, he admits that the materials forming this gravel and loëss are derived exclusively from the area drained by the Somme and its tributaries, he involves himself in a double difficulty. In the first place he maintains that the materials, by the removal of which the valley was formed, were swept completely out of the valley, which, considering its length, depth and narrow ness, appears to be impossible ; and in the second place, the admission that the gravel and sand consist of flint débris brought down by the Somme and its tributaries is fatal to his argument, since you cannot remove matter from one place to another without affecting the configuration of the surface in both. In admitting, then, that “ the gravel in the valley of the Somme at Amiens is partly derived from débris brought down by the river Somme, and by the two rivers, the Celle and the Arve, and partly consists of material from the adjoin

• The higher- level gravels in to an encroachment of the sea on

some places fringe the coast at an the land, and the consequent inter elevation of as much as one hundred section of the old river- beds at a feet ; this phenomenon, however, I higher level. should be disposed to refer partly + Geol. Journal, vol. xxiv. p. 105. RECAPITULATION. 381 ing higher grounds, washed in by land - floods,” * Mr. Tylor virtually adopts the explanation of the phenomena given in this work, since the formation or removal of this gravel neces sarily involved an alteration of the surface and a deepening of the valley When, finally, the excavation of the valley was completed, the climate had gradually become more like our own, and either from this change, or rather perhaps yielding to the irre sistible power of man, the great Pachydermata became extinct. Under the altered conditions of level, the river, unable to carry out to sea the finer particles brought down from the higher levels, deposited them in the valley, and thus raised somewhat its general level, checking the velocity of the stream , and producing extensive marshes, in which a thick deposit of peat was gradually formed. We have, unfortunately, no trustworthy means of estimating the rate of formation of this substance, which indeed varies considerably, according to the conditions of the case ; but on any supposition the production of a mass in some places more than thirty feet in thickness must have required a very considerable period. Yet it is in these beds that we find the remains of the Neolithic or later Stone period. From the tombs at St.Acheul, from the Roman remains found in the superficial layers of the peat, at about the present level of the river, we know that fifteen hundred years have produced scarcely any change in the configuration of the valley. In the peat, and at a depth of about fifteen feet in the alluvium at Abbeville, are the remains of the Neo lithic period, which we have ample reason for believing, from the researches in Denmark , Switzerland, and other countries, to be of no slight antiquity. Yet all these are subsequent to the excavation of the valley. What date then are we to ascribe to the men who lived when the Somme was but begin ning its great task ? No one can properly appreciate the lapse

• 1.c. p. 105.

382 RECAPITULATION . of time indicated, who has not stood on the heights of Lier court, Picquigny, or on one of the other points overlooking the valley ; nor, I am sure, could any geologist return from such a visit without an overpowering sense of the changes which have taken place, and the length of time which must have elapsed since the first appearance of man in Western Europe. ( 383 ) CHAPTER XII. ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. A LTHOUGH the facts recorded in the preceding chapters have been for the most part discovered within a com paratively recent period, it is by no means merely of late years, or among archæologists only, that the difficulties in Archbishop Usher's chronology have been felt to be insuper able. Historians, philologists, and physiologists have alike admitted that the short period allowed could hardly be recon ciled with the history of some Eastern nations ; that it did not leave room for the development either of the different languages, or (assuming the unity of the human race) for the important physical peculiarities by which the various races of men are distinguished . Thus, Dr. Prichard says : “ Many writers who have been by no means inclined to raise objections against the authority of the Sacred Scriptures, and in particular Michaelis, have felt themselves embarrassed by the shortness of the interval between the Noachic Deluge and the period at which the records of various nations commence, or the earliest date to which their historical memorials lead us back. The extrava gant claims to a remote and almost fathomless antiquity, made by the fabulists of many ancient nations, have vanished before the touch of accurate criticism ; but after abstracting all that is apparently mythological from the early traditions of the Indians, Egyptians, and some other nations, the pro bable history of some of them seems still to reach up to a period too remote to be reconciled with the short chronology 384 HISTORICAL EVIDENCE. of Usher and Petavius. This has been so universally felt by all those writers who have entered on the investigation of primeval history that it is superfluous to dwell upon the subject. " * Baron Bunsen, one of the ablest among those who regard the various forms of language as having had a common origin , is forced to claim for the human race an antiquity of at least 20,000 years. Again, the ingenious author of " The Genesis of the Earth and of Man," + says truly that “ one of the greatest of the difficulties that beset us when we endeavour to account for the commonly supposed descent of all mankind from a single pair, . . . . lies in the fact of our finding, upon Egyptian inonuments, mostly of the thirteenth, fourteenth , and fifteenth centuries before the Christian era, representations of indivi duals of numerous nations, African, Asiatic, and European, differing in physical characteristics as widely as any equal number of nations of the present age that could be grouped together ; among these being Negroes, of the true Negritian stamp, depicted with a fidelity, as to colour and features, hardly to be surpassed by an accomplished modern artist. That such diversities had been produced by natural means in the interval between that remote age and the time of Noah, probably no one versed in the sciences of anatomy and phy siology will consider credible; " and he concludes, therefore, that the human race cannot have been derived from a single pair. For, just as the philological difficulties will not, of course, affect those who accept literally the account given in our English Version of the miraculous creation of languages at the Tower of Babel ; so in the same way “ the shortness of the period allowed by the received chronology, for the develop ment of those physical varieties which distinguish the different

• Prichard, Researches into the Physical Hist. of Mankind, vol. v.

p. 553. + l. c. p. 117. ETHNOLOGICAL EVIDENCE. 385 races of men ,” * though felt as “ one of the greatest difficulties connected with the opinion that all mankind are descended from one primitive stock ," will not affect those who believe in the existence of separate species of men . The study of language, again, clearly proves the great anti quity of man . Four thousand years ago the Assyrians, as proved by their inscriptions, spoke a tongue in many respects less archaic than that of central Arabia is now ; and when we consider that it was descended from a parent source which has produced all the other Semitic languages, that this again was probably related to Libyan and Egyptian, and that still further back lie the ages in which inarticulate cries were gradually moulded into true language, we must feel that lin guistic researches point most strongly in the same direction.t Prof. Huxley has also deduced a very interesting argument from the geographical distribution of the races of men. He divides mankind into four groups, the Australoid, Negroid, Mongoloid, and Xanthochroid. The latter are the fair, light haired, blue-eyed people who occupy a large part of Europe ; the Mongoloid are the Tartar, Amerioan, and Polynesian races ; the Negroid are the Negroes, Hottentots, and Negritos ; and the Australoid type contains all the inhabitants of Australia, and the native races of the Deccan, with whom he also asso ciates the ancient Egyptians. Whatever difference of opinion may exist among ethnologists about the other three divi sions, still as to the Negroid race most are agreed, and this is the one to which I now wish to call attention. The geogra phical distribution of the Xanthochroid and Mongoloid races presents no difficulty, nor will I here discuss that of the Australoid group. But I entirely agree with Prof. Huxley that the present position of the Negro race cannot be explained excepting on the hypothesis that since the appearance of that • Pritchard, 1. c. p. 552. + See Sayce, Int. to the Sci. of Lang. vol. ji . p. 319. 20 386 EVIDENCE DERIVABLE FROM PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY . race immense geographical changes have taken place , —that continent has become ocean, and sea, land. The Negroes are essentially a non -navigating race ; they build no ships, and even the canoes of the Fijians are evidently copied from those of the Polynesians. Now what is the geographical distribution of the race ? They occupy all Africa south of the Sahara, which neither they nor the rest of the true African fauna have ever crossed ; and though they do not occur in Arabia, Persia, Hindostan, Siam, or China, we find them in Mada gascar, and in the Andaman Islands, not in Java, Sumatra, or Borneo, but in the Malay peninsula, in the Philippines, New Guinea, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia , the Figi Islands, and in Tasmania. This remarkable distribution is perhaps most easily expli cable on the hypothesis that since the Negroid race came into existence there must have been an immense tract of land or a chain of islands stretching from the eastern coast of Africa right across the Indian Ocean, and secondly, that sea then occupied the area of the present great desert. In whatever manner, however, these facts are to be explained, they certainly indicate that the Negro race is of very great antiquity. I have often been much struck, when standing at the feet of glaciers , by the great size of the terminal moraines, and the length of time which must have been required for their for mation . Let us take as an instance the Nigard glacier in the Justedal, on the Sognefjord. The Norwegian glaciers no doubt covered formerly a much larger area than that which they now occupy. They retreated as the cold diminished ; but we have already seen that man was present in Western Europe when the general temperature was several degrees at least lower than it is at present ; and we shall probably, therefore, be within the mark if we suppose that the glacier at Justedal has retreated at least a mile up the valley since the period of the river -drift gravels, and the entrance of man into Europe. THE VEGETATION OF DENMARK. 387 Now the terminal moraine of the glacier covers the whole of this space with great blocks of stones, thousands and hundreds of thousands in number, and yet, although all these have probably been brought down in the human period, I could only see a few blocks on the lower end of the glacier itself. As far as Denmark is concerned we must, for the present, rely principally on the double change which has taken place in the prevalent vegetation. Beech forests are now the pride of the country, and, as far as tradition goes, they have always been so. But, as is shown by the peat- bogs, this is a mistake. The large peat-mosses do not help us very much in this matter, but there are in many of the forests small and deep impressions, filled with peat, and called skov-mose. These, as might naturally be expected, contain many trees which grew on their edges, and at length fell into them . At the bottom is usually an amorphous peat, above is a layer of pines — a tree which does not grow naturally in Denmark. Higher up the pines disappear, and are replaced by oaks and white birches, neither of which are now common in Denmark ; while the upper layer consists principally of the Betula verru cosa , and corresponds to the present, which we may call the Beech period. Professor Steenstrup has found stone imple ments among the stems of the pines ; and as the capercailzie, which feeds on the young shoots of the pine, has been found in the Kjökkenmöddings, it seems likely, to say the least, that these shell-mounds belong to the pine period, and that the three great stages of civilization correspond in some measure to these three periods of arborescent vegetation. For one species of tree thus to displace another, and in its turn to be supplanted by a third, would evidently require a great, though at present we have no means of measuring how great, lapse of time. Turning now from Denmark to Switzerland, there are two cases in which a more definite estimate has been attempted. 2 c 2 388 THE CONE OF THE TINIÈRE. We must not, indeed, place too much reliance on them as yet, but if many calculations made on different data shall agree in the main, we may at length come to some approximate conclusion . The first of these calculations we owe to M. Morlot. The torrent of the Tinière, at the point where it falls into the Lake of Geneva, near Villeneuve, has gradually built up a cone of gravel and alluvium. In the formation of the railway this cone has been bisected for a length of one thousand feet, and to a depth, in the central part, of about thirty -two feet six inches above the level of the railway. The section of the cone thus obtained shows a very regular structure, which proves that its formation was gradual. It is composed of the same materials (sand, gravel, and large blocks) as those which are even now brought down by the stream. The amount of detritus does, indeed, differ considerably from year to year, but in the long - run the differences compensate for one another, so that, when considering long periods, and the structure of the whole mass, the influences of the temporary variations, which arise from meteorological causes, altogether disappear, and need not, therefore, be taken into account. Documents preserved in the archives of Villeneuve show that in the year 1710 the stream was dammed up, and its course a little altered, which makes the present cone slightly irregular. That the change was not of any great antiquity is also shown by the fact that on the side where the cone was protected by the dykes, the vegetable soil, where it has been affected by cultivation, does not exceed two or three inches in thickness. On the side thus protected by the dykes the railway cutting has exposed three layers of vegetable soil , each of which must, at one time, have formed the surface of the cone. They are regularly intercalated among the gravel, and parallel to one another, as well as to the present surface of the cone, which itself follows a very regular curve. The first of these ancient THE CONE OF THE TINIÈRE. 389 feet ; surfaces was traced on the south side of the cone, over a surface of 15,000 square feet : it had a thickness of four to six inches, and occurred at a depth of about four feet ( 1.14 metre measured to the base of the layer) below the present surface of the cone. This layer, which belonged to the Roman period, contained tiles and a Roman coin. The second layer was traced over a surface of 25,000 square it was six inches in thickness, and lay at a depth of about ten feet ( 2.97 metres) including the thickness of the layer. In it have been found several fragments of unglazed pottery, and a pair of tweezers in bronze. The third layer has been followed for 3500 square feet ; it was six or seven inches in thickness, and lay at a depth of nineteen feet ( 5:69 metres) below the present surface : in it were found some fragments of very rude pottery, some pieces of charcoal, some broken bones, and a human skeleton with a small, round, and very thick skull. Fragments of charcoal were even found a foot deeper, and it is also worthy of notice that no trace of tiles was found below the upper layer of earth. Towards the centre of the cone the three layers disappear, since at this part the torrent has most force, and has deposited the coarsest materials, even some blocks as much as three feet in diameter. The farther we go from this central region, the smaller are the materials deposited, and the more easily might a layer of earth, formed since the last great inundations, be covered over by fresh deposits. Thus, at a depth of ten feet, in the gravel on the south of the cone, at a part where the layer of earth belonging to the Bronze Age had already disappeared, two unrolled bronze implements were discovered. They had probably been retained by their weight, when the earth which once covered them was washed away by the torrent. After disappearing towards the centre of the cone, the three layers reappear on the north side, at a slightly greater depth, but with the same regularity, and the same 390 THE CONE OF THE TINIÈRE. relative position. The layer of the Stone Age was but slightly interrupted, while that of the Bronze era was easily distin guishable by its peculiar character and colour. It must be confessed that the starting - point of this argu ment, viz. the so - called “ Roman ” layer, is far from being satisfactorily determined. It is quite possible that tiles were used in Switzerland before the “ Roman ” period ; it is pro bable that they continued in use to a later period. The coin found in the " Roman " layer was so much worn as to be unde terminable ; it had, therefore, probably been long in use. M. Uhlmann has also argued that the bones found in the lower · layer are not such as we should expect to find in a Stone Age deposit, since they are not so much discoloured as those from the Stone Age Pfahlbauten, and all belong to domestic animals. Only fourteen determinable fragments, however, were found, and of these several probably belonged to a single individual. Moreover, it would be very illogical to compare the condition of bones from a peat-moss with those which had been lying in a material such as that forming the cone of the Tinière. M. Morlot did not disguise from himself that there were certain elements of doubt in the case, but on the whole it seemed to him that the phenomena were so regular and so well marked that he was justified in applying to them a cal culation, with some little confidence of at least approximate accuracy. Making some allowances ; for instance, admitting three hundred years instead of one hundred and fifty, for the period since the embankment, and taking the Roman period as representing an antiquity of from sixteen to eighteen cen turies, he obtains for the age of Bronze an antiquity of from 2900 years to 4200 years, for that of the Stone period from 4700 to 7000 years, and for the whole cone an age of from

• Ueber Thierreste und Gebisstheil gefunden in den Schuttablage rungen der Tinière. Bern , 1858.

THE VALLEY OF THE THIÈLE . 391 7400 to 11,000 years. M. Morlot thought that we should be most nearly correct in deducting two hundred years only for the action of the dykes, and in attributing to the Roman layer an antiquity of sixteen centuries, that is to say, in referring it to the middle of the third century. This would give an antiquity of 3800 years for the Bronze Age, and 6400 years for that of Stone ; and, on the whole,he is inclined to suppose for the former an antiquity of from 3000 to 4000 years, and for the latter of from 5000 to 7000 years . Not less ingenious is the attempt which has been made by M. Gillieron , * Professor at the College of Neuveville, to obtain a date for the lake-habitation at the Pont de Thiele. This stream connects the Lakes of Neufchâtel and Bienne. During the first part of its course the valley is narrow , and the bridge, close to which the lake- dwelling has been discovered, is situ ated at the narrowest spot. A little farther down the valley suddenly expands, and from this point remains of the same width until it joins the Lake of Bienne. It is evident that the valley, as far as the bridge over the Thièle, was once occu pied by the lake, which has gradually been silted up by the action of forces still in operation ; and if we could ascertain how long it would have taken to effect this change, we should then know approximately the dåte of the remains found at the Pont de Thièle, which are evidently those of a lake dwelling. The Abbey of St. Jean, which stands in this valley, about 375 metres from the present shore of the lake, was founded, according to ancient documents, between the years 1090 and 1106, and is therefore about 750 years old. It is possible that the abbey may not have been built exactly on the then edge of the lake ; but even if this were the case, the gain of land will only have been 375 metres in 750 years. Prof. Gilliéron does not compare with this the whole space

• Notice sur les Habitations Lacustres du Pont de Thièle. Porrentruy,

1862. 392 THE FORMATION OF EGYPT. between the convent and the lake-dwelling, because in the narrower part of the valley, in which the latter is situated, the gain may have been more rapid ; but if we only go to the point at which the basin contracts, we shall have a distance of 3000 metres, which would, upon these data, indicate a minimum antiquity of 6750 years. This calculation assumes that the shape of the bottom of the valley was originally uni form . M. Morlot agrees with Prof. Gilliéron in believing that this was the case, and from the general configuration of the valley it seems to me also to be a reasonable supposition . Moreover, the soundings taken by M. Hisely in the Lake of Bienne show that the variations in depth are but of slight importance. We must not, indeed, attach too much impor tance to these two calculations; but they appear to indicate that 6000 or 7000 years ago Switzerland was already inha bited by men who used polished stone implements, but how long they had been there, or how many centuries elapsed before the discovery of metal, we have as yet no evidence to show . A still greater antiquity was obtained by Mr. Horner as the result of his Egyptian researches, which were undertaken at the joint expense of the Royal Society and the Egyptian Government. Every year the Nile, during its periodical over flow , deposits a certain amount of fine mud, and even as long ago as the time of Herodotus, it was inferred that Egypt had been formerly an arm of the sea, filled up gradually and converted into dry land by the mud brought down from the upper country. In the great work on Egypt which we owe to the French philosophers who accompanied Napoleon's expedition to that country, an attempt was made to estimate the secular eleva tion thus produced, and it was assumed to be five inches in a century. This general average was consistent, however, with great differences at different parts, and Mr. Horner, therefore, THE GRADUAL ELEVATION OF THE COUNTRY. 393 did not consider himself justified in applying this estimate to particular cases, even if he had been satisfied with the evidence on which it rested. He preferred to examine the accumula tion which had taken place round monuments of known age, and selected two - namely, the obelisk at Heliopolis, and the statue of Rameses II. in Memphis. “ The obelisk is believed to have been erected 2300 years B.C., and adding 1850, the year when the observation was made ( June 1851, i.e. , before the inundation of that year) , we have 4150 years in which the eleven feet of sediment were deposited, which is at the rate of 318 inches in a century." But Mr. Horner himself admits that " entire reliance cannot be placed on this conclusion, principally because it is possible that the site originally chosen for the temple and city of Heliopolis was a portion of land somewhat raised above the level of the rest of the desert.” He relies, therefore, principally on the evidence supplied by the colossal statue in Memphis. In this case the present surface is 10 feet 6 inches above the base of the platform on which the statue stood. Assuming that the platform was sunk 14 inches below the surface of the ground at the time it was laid , we have a depth of sediment from the present surface to that level of 9 feet 4 inches. Rameses is supposed by Lepsius to have reigned between 1394 and 1328 B.C., which would give an antiquity of 3215 years, and consequently a mean increase of 31 inches in a century. Having thus ob tained an approximate measure of the rate of deposit in that part of the Nile valley, Mr. Horner dug several pits to a con siderable depth, and in one of them, close to the statue and at the depth of 39 feet, a piece of pottery was found, which upon the above data would indicate an antiquity of about 13,000 years . In many other excavations pieces of pottery and other indi cations of man were found at even greater depths, but it must

• Horner, Phil. Trans. 1858, p. 73.

394 OWING TO THE ANNUAL DEPOSIT OF NILE MUD . be confessed that there are several reasons which render the calculations somewhat doubtful. For instance, it is impossible to ascertain how far the pedestal of the statue was inserted into the ground ; Mr. Horner has allowed 14 inches, but if it was much deeper, the rate of deposition would be dimi nished and the age increased. On the other hand, if the statue was on raised ground, of course the reverse would be the case . It has also been argued that the ancient Egyptians were in the habit of making embankments round the areas on which they erected temples, statues, etc., so as to keep out the waters of the Nile. " Whenever, then ,” says Sir Charles Lyell, “ the waters at length break into such depressions, they must at first carry with them into the enclosure much mud washed from the steep surrounding banks, so that a greater quantity would be deposited in a few years than, perhaps, in as many centuries on the great plain outside the depressed area, where no such disturbing causes intervened .” This objection is, however, untenable, because the rapidity of depression will be in pro portion to the previous retardation, and will only tend to bring the depressed area up to the general level. Supposing, for instance, that the monument of Rameses, erected on the flat plain of Memphis 3200 years ago, was protected by em bankments for the first 2000 years, and that during that time the plain outside was gradually raised 5 feet 10 inches, being at the rate of 34 inches in a century : when the embankment gave way the space enclosed would soon be filled up to the general level, and a thickness of 5 feet 10 inches might be deposited in a few years : still this exceptionally rapid accu mulation would only be the complement of the exceptional want of deposit which had preceded it ; and, consequently, when the level of the surrounding plain had been attained , then, although the mud covering the base of the statue may 5 MR. HORNER'S EGYPTIAN RESEARCHES. 395 have been altogether deposited in the last few hundred years, i.e. since the embankments have been neglected , the thickness of the deposit will still be a measure of the general elevation which has taken place on the surrounding plain since the erection of the monument. Even if the embankments had remained intact to this day, and the monument stood now in the hollow thus produced, Mr. Horner's argument would not be invalidated, but rather confirmed . The depth of the hollow would give us a measure of the deposit which had taken place since the erection of the monument, or rather since the formation of the embankment. If, however, the monument had been erected in an area already depressed by the action of still older embankments, the calcu lation would be vitiated, but in this case the rate of deposition would appear to be greater than it really is, and the true age consequently would be even greater than the above estimate. There are other causes, however, whick prevent me from accepting unreservedly the conclusions of Mr. Horner, although his experiments are of great importance, and much credit is due to the Egyptian Government for the liberal manner in which they assisted Mr. Horner and the Royal Society in this investigation. I have already mentioned the evidence on which M. Morlot has endeavoured to estimate the age of the Cone de la Tinière, and which gave about six thousand years for the lower layer of vegetable soil, and ten thousand years for the whole of the existing cone. But above this existing cone is another, which was formed when the lake stood at a higher level than at present, and which M. Morlot refers to the period of the river drift gravels. This drift-age cone is about twelve times as large as that now forming, and would appear, therefore, on the same data, to indicate an antiquity of more than one hun dred thousand years. In his “ Travels in North America, ” Sir C. Lyell has endea 396 AGE OF THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA . voured to estimate the age of the Mississippi delta in the following manner : - “ Dr. Riddle,” he says, “ communicated to me, at New Orleans, the result of a series of experiments which he had made to ascertain the proportion of sediment contained in the waters of the Mississippi. He concluded that the mean annual amount of solid matter was to the water as 1945 in weight, or about 3000 in volume. Since that period he has made another series of experiments, and his tables show that the quantity of mud held in suspension increases regularly with the increased height and velocity of the stream . On the whole, comparing the flood season with that of clearest water, his experiments, continued down to 1849, give an ave rage annual quantity of solid matter somewhat less than his first estimate, but not varying materially from it. From these observations, and those of Dr. Carpenter and Mr. Forskey (an eminent engineer, to whom I have before alluded), on the average width, depth, and velocity of the Mississippi, the mean annual discharge of water and sediment were deduced. I then assumed 528 feet, or the tenth of a mile, as the probable thickness of the deposit of mud and sand in the delta ; found ing my conjecture chiefly on the depth of the Gulf of Mexico between the southern point of Florida and the Balize, which equals, on an average, one hundred fathoms, and partly on some borings six hundred feet deep, in the delta near Lake Pontchartrain, north of New Orleans, in which the bottom of the alluvial matter is said not to have been reached. The area of the delta being about 13,600 square statute miles, and the quantity of solid matter annually brought down the river 3,702,758,400 cubic feet, it must have taken 67,000 years for the formation of the whole ; and if the alluvial matter of the plain above be 264 feet deep, or half that of the delta, it must have required 33,500 more years for its accumulation, even if its area be estimated only as equal to that of the delta, whereas it is, in fact, larger.” LAPSE OF TIME AS INDICATED BY CHANGE OF CLIMATE . 397 Moreover, as Sir Charles has himself pointed out, a very large proportion of the mud brought down by the river is not deposited in the delta, but is carried out into the gulf. In the “ Antiquity of Man ” * he refers to the above- given calcu lation, and admits that the discharge of water seems to have been much underrated by the earlier experiments. Messrs. Humphrey and Abbot, who have recently surveyed the delta, also remark that “ the river pushes along its bottom into the gulf a certain quantity of sand and gravel, which would,” they suppose, “ augment the volume of solid matter by about one tenth. ” This, of course, would greatly diminish the time re quired ; but, taking into consideration the quantity of mud which is carried out to sea, and which was not allowed for in the previous calculation, Sir Charles Lyell still regards 100,000 years as a moderate estimate ; and he considers that “ the alluvium of the Somme containing flint implements and the remains of the mammoth and hyæna, ” is not less ancient. Again, whatever cause or causes may have produced the great change which has taken place in the climate of Western Europe, there can be little doubt that this change indicates a very considerable lapse of time. We are indebted to Mr. Hopkins for a very interesting memoir on this subject. Among the possible causes of change he discusses Firstly. A variation in the intensity of solar radiation. To this theory Mr. Hopkins sees no à priori objection ; but he does not feel disposed to attach much weight to it, because it is “ a mere hypothesis framed to account for a single and limited class of facts, and unsupported by the testimony of any other class of allied but independent phenomena. " It is, moreover, open to the objections stated with great force by Professor Tyndall, † who argues that the ancient gla

• Appendix to third edition, + Heat considered as a Mode of

p. 16. See also Geological Journal, Motion, p. 192. 1869, vol. xxv. p. 11. 398 LAPSE OF TIME AS INDICATED BY CHANGE OF CLIMATE . ciers indicate the action of heat as much as of cold . “ Cold," he says, “ will not produce glaciers. You may have the bit terest north -east winds here in London throughout the winter, without a single flake of snow . Cold must have the fitting object to operate upon, and this object — the aqueous vapour of the air—is the direct product of heat. Let us put this glacier question in another form : the latent heat of aqueous vapour, at the temperature of its production in the tropics, is about 1000° Fahr., for the latent heat augments as the tem perature of evaporation descends. A pound of water thus vaporized at the equator, has absorbed one thousand times the quantity of heat which would raise a pound of the liquid one degree in temperature. ... It is perfectly manifest that by weakening the sun's action, either through a defect of emission, or by the steeping of the entire solar system in space of a low temperature, we should be cutting off the glaciers at their source ." Professor Frankland has even gone so far as to express the opinion that “ the sole cause of the phenomena of the glacial epoch was a higher temperature of the ocean than that which obtains at present,” * having no doubt overlooked the fact that the fauna of the sea, as well as of the land, had an Arctic character. Secondly. Admitting the proper motion of the sun, it has been suggested that we may have recently passed from a colder into a warmer region of space. I must refer to Mr. Hopkins' memoir for his objections to this suggestion ; they certainly appear to "render the theory utterly inapplicable to the explanation of the changes of tem perature at the more recent geological epochs.” This hypothesis, moreover, is liable to the same fatal objec tion as the first. To produce snow requires both heat and cold ; the first to evaporate, the second to condense. In fact,

• Phil. Mag. 1864, p. 328.

SIR J. W. LUBBOCK ON THE EARTH'S AXIS. 399 what we require is a greater contrast betwen the temperature of the tropics and that of our latitudes; so that, paradoxical as it may appear, the primary cause of the "glacial” epoch may be, after all, an elevation of temperature in the tropics, causing a greater amount of evaporation in the equatorial regions, and consequently a greater supply of the raw material of snow in the temperate regions during the winter months. Thirdly. An alteration in the earth's axis. The possibility of such a change has been denied by many astronomers. My father, the late Sir J. W. Lubbock, has, on the contrary, maintained * that this would necessarily follow from upheavals and depressions of the earth's surface if only they were of sufficient magnitude. The same view has re cently been taken by other mathematicians, and among geo logists by Dr. Duncan and M. Carret. Mr. Evans has made the ingenious suggestion that the solid external crust of the earth may have slid over its fluid or semi- fluid nucleus. On the other hand, Mr. George Darwin, who has recently dealt with the subject, † concludes that, while theoretically such a change may have taken place, the amount could not have been sufficient to cause any considerable change of climate in a recent geological period. The subject is one of extreme difficulty ; but it is at any rate clear that this suggestion, like the preceding, presupposes immense geographical changes, which would therefore necessarily imply an enormous lapse of time. Fourthly. Mr. Hopkins inclines to find the true solution of the difficulty in the supposition that the Gulf - Stream did not at this period warm the shores of Europe. “ A depression of 2000 feet would, ” he says, “ convert the Mississippi into a great arm of the sea, of which the present Gulf of Mexico would form the southern extremity, and which would com municate at its northern extremity with the waters occupying

• Geol. Journ . vol. v. p. 4. + Phil. Trans. vol. clxvii.

400 EFFECT OF A CHANGE IN THE GULF - STREAM . the great valley now occupied by the chain of lakes. ” In this case the Gulf - Stream would no longer be deflected by the American coasts, but would pass directly up this channel into the Arctic Sea ; and as a very great ocean current must have its counter current, it is probable that there would be a flow of cold water from the North between the coasts of Norway and Greenland. The absence of the Gulf-Stream would probably lower the January temperature of Western Europe ten degrees, while the presence of a cold current from the North would make a further difference of about three or four degrees, * an alteration of the climate which would apparently be sufficient to account for all the phenomena. This theory Mr. Hopkins considers as no mere hypothesis, but as necessarily following from the submergence of North America, which has been inferred from evidence of a different nature. In this case, of course, the periods of great cold in Europe and in America must have been successive, and not synchro nous ; and it may also be observed, that in this suggested deflection of the Gulf - Stream , Mr. Hopkins was contemplating a period anterior to that of the present rivers. For if we are to adopt this solution of the difficulty, an immense time would be required. If, when the gravels and loëss of the Somme and the Seine were being deposited, the Gulf - Stream was passing up what is now the valley of the Mississippi, then it follows that the formation of the loëss in that valley and its delta an accumulation which Sir C. Lyell has shown to require a period of about 100,000 years — would be subsequent to the excavation of the Somme valley, and to the presence of man in Western Europe. The deflection of the Gulf- Stream from our coasts might, however, be owing to another cause, namely, a subsidence of the Isthmus of Panama ; in support of which suggestion may

• Hopkins. 1. c. p. 85.

EFFECT OF A CHANGE IN THE GULF -STREAM . 401 be mentioned the remarkable fact recently observed by Dr. Günther, that out of 173 tropical marine fish , no less than 57, or 30 per cent. , occur on both sides of the isthmus - in both the Atlantic and the Pacific. * Mr. Croll, however, has pointed out that at present the " S.E. trade winds of the Atlantic blow with greater force than the N.E. trades, and the consequence is that the S.E. trades sometimes extend to 10° or 15° N. lat ., whereas the N.E.trades seldom blow south of the equator. But during the glacial epoch the very reverse must have occurred . Hence the great equatorial current of the Atlantic must during that period have been driven considerably south of its present position.” + Even at present, while the greater part of the water enters the Gulf of Mexico, one portion is deflected southwards, which in the case mentioned above would happen to the greater portion, if not the whole. Under existing circumstances, however, the southern divi sion is comparatively small ; by far the larger portion of the great equatorial current turns northwards, and warms the Northern hemisphere, so that the comparatively high tempe rature of the Northern Atlantic is in some measure due to heat derived from the Southern hemisphere. In a recent memoir, Mr. Croll has shown the great effect produced by the Gulf Stream on the present climate of Europe. He calculates that it conveys as much heat as is received from the sun by 3,121,870 square miles of the Equator: nearly as much as is received from the sun by the entire Arctic regions, the pro portions being as 15 to 18. Our present climate is 12° higher than the normal due to its latitude, but Mr. Croll points out that this is by no means to be considered as measuring the effect of the Gulf- Stream . The temperature of the whole

• Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. vi. p. 397.

+ Croll, Philosophical Magazine, Aug. 1864. I l. c. Feb. and Oct. 1870. 2 D 402 ASTRONOMICAL CAUSES. hemisphere is raised by the equatorial currents, and the 12° only represent the number of degrees that the mean normal temperature of our island stands above what is called the normal temperature of the latitude.” There is yet another cause to which the present mild tem perature of Europe is partly due, and which must not be alto gether neglected. At the period under consideration, indeed , the geography of Western Europe must have been very nearly what it is now . There is, however, good reason for consider ing that the Desert of Sahara then formed part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mr. Tristram has called attention to cliffs, ancient sea - beaches, and lines of terraces along the northern margin of the desert, and the common cockle is still found living in some of the salt lakes. Mr. Tristram also discovered a species of Haligenes, which inhabits the Gulf of Guinea, in a salt lake in lat. 32° N. and long. 7° E., separated, therefore, from its present marine habitat by the whole extent of the great Desert. Moreover, as we have already seen , the present geo graphical distribution of animals can only be explained on the hypothesis that the existing fauna, including man , occupied Africa long before the Sahara became dry land. Mr. Croll has shown in the memoir already cited , that cur rents of warm water produce a far greater effect upon climate than aerial currents of equal volume and temperature ; yet it is evident that such a change would have a great effect on the climate of Europe. At present we receive from the south hot dry winds, which warm us both directly and also indirectly by melting the snow and ice on our mountain -tops. If the Sahara was a sea, the “ Fohn," instead of being a burning, dry wind, which strips the snow off the Alps, both by melting and evaporation, would be a moist, damp wind, and when it reached the mountains would produce dense clouds and thick fogs, which would prevent the sun's rays from warming the earth or melting the glaciers. So that to the barren desert of the PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. 403 Sahara, which we are apt to look upon as a useless waste, we are in reality much indebted for the fertility and civilization of Europe. M. Adhémar * has suggested a mode of accounting for the cold of the glacial epoch, which , if the true one, would give us means of calculating its antiquity. If the plane of the equator coincided exactly with that of the ecliptic, i.e. with that of the earth's orbit, then it is evident that every day would be followed by a night of equal length. In conse quence, however, of the obliquity of the ecliptic, there are only two days in the year when this is actually the case , namely, the 20th of March and the 23rd September. Thus our year is divided into four well -marked periods, “ Winter " begins on the 22nd December, which is the shortest day of the year, and continues until the 20th March, which is called the spring equinox, because on it the day and night are of equal lengths. “ Spring" commences on the 20th March and continues till the 21st June, during which time the days continue to elongate at the expense of the night. From the 21st June, however, which is the first day of “ summer," the days begin to shorten, until, on the 23rd of September, day and night are again equal, and we have the autumn equinox. Autumn commences on the 23rd September, and the days continue to diminish till the 22nd December, which is the shortest day, and after which they begin to lengthen . At present, then , the northern hemisphere enjoys in each year seven days more of spring and summer than of autumn and winter ; while, on the other hand, the southern hemi sphere has seven days more of autumn and winter than of spring and summer. This inequality of the seasons is due to the greater rapidity with which the earth moves when it is

• Revolutions de la Mer. J. Adhémar. Paris.

2 D 2 404 M. ADHÉMAR'S ARGUMENT. in perihelion, or nearest the sun, as is the case on the 31st December. The perihelion has not always been, nor will it always con tinue to be, at the same time of year as at present. On the contrary, a constant though slow movement is continually taking place : the time of perihelion takes place in each year a little later than the preceding, so that perihelion which now happens on the 31st December, will in the lapse of time fall on the 1st of January, then on the 2nd, and so on . The interval between the times at which perihelion occurs on the same day of the year, is about 21,000 years. At some future day, about 5000 years hence, the perihelion will occur on the 20th March, and in about 21,000 years it will again be on the 31st Dec. The aphelion changes of course in the same way, and consequently the northern and southern hemi spheres alternately enjoy a preponderance of summer. The year 1248 A.D. was that in which the first day of winter cor responded with the passage of the earth into perihelion, and consequently was the period when the balance of summer in favour of the northern hemisphere was greatest. Up to that date the duration of summer was increasing ; it is now, and has been for 630 years, gradually diminishing. Astronomers have not, however, generally considered that these changes, or even those which affect the excentricity of our orbit, would produce any material difference between the climates of the two hemispheres, because, whatever the excen tricity of our orbit may be, the two hemispheres must receive exactly the same amounts of heat, “ the proximity of the sun in perigee, or its distance in apogee, exactly compensating the effect of its swifter or slower motion ;" in other words, the southern hemisphere has a shorter summer than ours because it is nearer the sun, and for the same reason it receives in a given time more heat, so that the two differences neutralize one another. THE CUPOLA OF ICE AT THE SOUTH POLE. 405 M. Adhémar points out, however, that the temperature of each hemisphere does not depend on the quantity of heat received from the sun, but on the difference between the amount received and the amount radiated away into space ; in other words, on the quantity retained. If, he says, in illustration, you burn a given quantity of wood in two iden tical rooms, and then open the windows in one and not in the other, you will soon have a difference of temperature, though the supply of heat has been the same in both . * Now, our northern hemisphere has 186 x 24 = 4464 hours of day in the year, and 179 x 24 = 4296 hours of night, while the southern hemisphere has 4464 hours of night, and only 4296 of day. We may admit that the southern hemisphere will receive as much heat from the sun in its 4296 hours of day, as we do in our 4464, but it is evident that it will retain less, because it will have 168 hours more of night, during which radiation will be going on. Though, therefore, the heat received by the two hemispheres will be equal, the tempera ture of the two will not, M. Adhémar maintains, be by any means the same ; and though at first this difference may be slight, it will in its nature be to a certain extent cumulative. Mr. Croll, however, is of opinion that this difference can, after all, produce little or no effect on climate. However this may be, it is evident that, on account of the much greater accumulation of ice, the southern hemisphere is colder than the northern ; and it is also clear that this very fact tends to aggravate the difference to which it is due. Moreover, M. Adhémar affirms that the immense cupola of ice which is known to exist round the South Pole must affect the centre of gravity of the earth, and consequently attract the ocean southwards. In this manner, indeed, he attempts to explain the remarkable preponderance of land in the north , and of sea in the southern hemisphere. A glance at the map

• Revolutions de la Mer, p. 344.

406 THE CUPOLA OF ICE AT THE SOUTH POLE. will show this difference, but the following table makes it more apparent. Taking each parallel as unity, the proportion of sea is as follows : . . 60° North 50° 40° 30 ° 20° 10° 0 ° 0.353 0.407 0.527 0.536 0.677 0.710 0.771 10° South 20° 30° 40° 50° 60 ° 0.786 0.777 0.791 0.951 0.972 1.000 • . . . Certainly a progressive increase of sea, which is so remarkably regular, can hardly be the result of accident. M. Adhémar maintains that this is due to the alteration of the centre of gravity of the earth, caused by the great southern cupola of ice, and consequently that 11,120 years ago (i.e. 10,500 years before 1248) , when the northern hemisphere was at its coldest, the northern glacier consequently at its maximum , and the southern at its minimum , the preponde rance of water would have been in the northern hemisphere, and the submersion of the lower lands of Europe and America inay have been due to an alteration, not in the level of the land, but in that of the sea. He conceives that when the increasing cupola counterbalances the decreasing one, there is a sudden transfer of the centre of gravity of the earth from one side of the centre of the solid part to the other, and con sequently a rush of water, or deluge, alternately from north to south and from south to north, occurring every 10,500 years. It seems to me, however, that the alterations of the ice cupolas would be too slow , and consequently the change in the centre of gravity too gradual, to cause any sudden rush or deluge of water from the one pole to the other. According to this theory, the year 1248 was that in which our northern hemisphere was at its period of greatest heat, OBJECTIONS TO M. ADHÉMAR'S THEORY . 407 the southern at that of greatest cold ; and as 630 years have since elapsed we ought to find some evidence of subsequent change. As regards the southern hemisphere, M. Adhémar points out that the great southern glacier has considerably retreated since the time of Captain Cook, but it is in the northern hemisphere that he finds the greatest evidence of alteration. He dwells much on the increase, during the last few centuries, of the Swiss glaciers, and of the ice in Greenland, and points out that the cultivation of the vine does not now extend so far northwards as was once the case. M. Adhémar, then, considers that the last epoch of greatest cold must have been 11,120 years ago , since which time the climate of our hemi sphere gradually improved up to the year 1248, when it was most genial, and after which it has, in his opinion, gradually commenced again to deteriorate. Sir Charles Lyell, * however, does not think that this change, “ which could hardly produce more than a difference of half a degree Fahrenheit between the cold of the present winter and that of 1248, would be appreciable.” He adds that the whole effect which can be produced by secular astronomical changes must “ always be very subordinate to the influence of geographical conditions. ”+ Sir John Herschellt also is “very far from supposing it competent” to account for so great an alteration. Moreover, it is remarkable as showing how far we are from possessing the data necessary for any satisfactory conclusions, that while, as we have seen, M. Adhémar regards the enormous cupola of ice at the South Pole as the reason for the almost entire absence of land at that Pole, Sir C. Lyell, on the other hand, states as a fact, that the chief cause of the intense cold of high southern latitudes is " the vast height and extent of

• Principles of Geology, 1867, I Outlines of Astronomy, 1858,

vol. i. p. 278. + Ibid . vol. i. p. 243. p. 235. 408 PROBABLE EFFECT OF PRECESSION. the Antarctic continent," the very existence of which is denied by, and is indeed incompatible with the theory of M. Adhémar, while it is necessary to that of Sir C. Lyell. It must, I think, be confessed that the existence of Victoria Land, Enderby's Land, and other coasts, as well as the great volcano of Mount Erebus, are unfavourable to the theory advocated by M. Adhémar, so far at least as he applies it to explain the present remarkable distribution of land and sea ; and it must also be remembered, as tending to show that the geographical distribution of land and sea has more influence on climate than M. Adhémar is disposed to admit, that according to his theory the southern hemisphere ought at the present time to be, as a whole, far colder than the northern, which, however, is not the case. Although, then, there can be no doubt that astronomical changes would, to a certain extent, affect our climate in the manner indicated by M. Adhémar, those best qualified to form an opinion do not consider that the cause assigned by him would by itself be sufficient to account for changes so great as those which have taken place. The effect produced increases, however, with the excentricity of the earth's orbit. The form of this orbit is always altering; as it approaches to a circle, the effect produced by precession and change of position of perihelion diminishes, while on the other hand it increases as the orbit elongates. At present the excentricity of our orbit is only 0 :0168 ,—that is to say, the orbit is nearly circular ; but there have been periods when it was much more elongated, and when consequently the extremes of tempera ture dependent on precession and the position of perihelion must also have been much greater. Mr. Croll and Mr. Stone have calculated the excentricity for the last million years, and Mr. John Carrick Moore has worked out the effect upon our climate, assuming other things to remain unchanged, in the four last columns of the following THE EXCENTRICITY OF THE EARTH'S ORBIT. 409 table, which is given by Sir C. Lyell in the last edition of the “ Principles of Geology." * Table showing the variations in the excentricity of the earth's orbit for a million years before A.D. 1800, and some of the climatal effects of such variations. 1 Number of years before A.D. 1800 . Ņean of 2 3 4 5 6 Excentricity Difference Number Mean of of of distance of winter hottest coldest Orbit. in millions days in month in lat. month in lat. of miles. excess . of London. of London . D 23 94 11 13 21 101 a с с 1,000,000 950,000 900,000 850,000 800,000 750,000 700,000 650,000 600,000 550,000 500,000 450,000 400,000 350,000 300,000 250,000 210,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 0151 0517 0102

• 0747

0132

• 0575

0220 0226 .0417 0166

• 0388
• 0308

0170

• 0195

0424 0258 0575 .0567 0332 0473 0131

• 0168

4 73 3 7 54 3 38 7344 101 7.3 25 : 1 4.9 36.4 6.4 27.8 10.2 11 20:3 8 18.8 15 8.2 9.5 20-6 12.5 27.8 27.7 16.1 23 6.3 8.1 13° F. 109° 80° 126° 82° 113° 87° 88° 101°9 84° 99° 94° 84° 86° 102° 90° 113° 113° 95° 105° 82° 84° 21 ° F. 3° 23° 7° 22° 0°6 17° 16° 7° 9 20° gº 13° 20 ° 18° 7° 15° 0°7 1º9 12° 5° 22° 20° B { 102 A 6 8824 3 EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE. COLUMN 1. — Division of a million years preceding 1800 into twenty equal parts. COLUMN 2. — Computed by Mr. James Croll, by aid of Leverrier's formula , gives the excentricity of the earth’s orbit, in parts of a unit equal to the mean distance, or half the longer diameter of the ellipse. COLUMN 3.—Which, together with the three following columns, has been com puted by Mr. John Carrick Moore, gives in millions of miles the difference between the greatest and least distances of the earth from the sun, during the excentricities given in Column 2. COLUMN 4. -Gives the number of days by which winter, occurring in aphelion , is longer than the summer in perihelion. COLUMN 5. -Gives the mean temperature of the hottest summer month in the lat London when the summer occurs in perihelion. Column 6. - Gives the mean temperature of the coldest winter month in the latitude of London when the winter occurs in aphelion .

• l. c . vol. i. p. 293.

410 PROBABLE EFFECT OF PRECESSION . Mr. Croll * does not indeed consider that an increase in the excentricity would directly alter the relative temperature of the two hemispheres, though it would bring about a condition of things that would have this effect. The mid- winter tem perature of one hemisphere would be greatly lowered, the consequence of which would be that all the moisture would take the form of snow instead of rain , which would be the more important because the winter would be longer. The heat of the summer would be insufficient to melt the snow, which consequently would accumulate year by year. On the opposite hemisphere the reverse would be the case, and com paratively little snow would fall. The difference of tempera ture thus produced would cause the aerial currents, and espe cially the trade winds on the colder hemisphere, to be much stronger than those on the other ; they would , therefore, blow across the Equator, and, by impelling the equatorial waters towards the hemisphere which was already the warmer of the two, would raise its temperature still further. This table shows that there are four periods, marked A , B, C, and D, in which there has been a large excentricity and an extreme climate. The periods marked A and B, says Sir Charles Lyell, “ would not, I conceive, be sufficiently distant from our era to afford time for that series of glacial and post glacial events which we can prove to have happened since the epoch of the greatest cold. These events relate to changes in the level of the land in opposite directions, as well as the excavation of valleys, and variations in the range and distri bution of aquatic and terrestrial animals, all of which take place at so slow a rate that 200,000 years would not be suffi cient to allow of the series of changes with which we are acquainted. I cannot but think, therefore, that if the date of the most intense glacial cold can be arrived at by aid of a very large excentricity, it would be a more probable conjecture

• Climate and Time, p. 228.

DATE SUGGESTED FOR THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 411 to assign C than B as the period in question ; “ in other words, to regard the glacial epoch as representing a period 800,000 years ago." In differing from such a great authority as Sir C. Lyell, I do so with great diffidence, but I confess that I should be disposed rather to assign the glacial era to the periods A and B, than to either C or D. * It seems to me unlikely that the present fauna of Europe should have continued to exist, almost without alteration, for so long a period as 800,000 years, and the “ variations in the range and distribution of aquatic and terrestrial animals,” might, I think, have occurred in even less than 200,000 years under the great changes in climate which have taken place. Moreover, the Geological Magazine for June, 1868, contains an interesting paper by Mr. Geikie, “ On Denudation now in Progress,” in which he discusses the general effect produced by rivers in excavating valleys and lowering the general level of the country. “ For it is clear that if a river carries so many millions of cubic feet of sediment every year into the sea, the area of the country drained by it must have lost the quantity of solid material, and if we could restore the sedi ment so as to spread it over the basin , the layer so laid down would represent the fraction of a foot by which the basin had been lowered during a year." From observations made on the Mississippi, Ganges, Rhone, Danube, and other great rivers, Mr. Geikie estimates the annual loss at ooo of a foot. But he points out that this would not be uniform . The plains and watersheds would lose little, the slopes and valleys much . " There can be no doubt, ” he says, “ that the erosion of the slopes and water -courses is very much greater than that of the more level grounds. Let it be assumed that the waste is nine times greater in the one case than in the other in all likelihood it is more ): in other words, that while the plains

• Mr. Croll has also expressed this opinion. Phil. Mag. 1868, p . 367.

412 EFFECT OF RIVERS ON THE LEVEL OF CONTINENTS. and table - lands have been having one foot worn off their surface, the declivities and river - courses have lost nine feet. Let it be further assumed that one-tenth part of the surface of a country is occupied by its water- courses and glens, while the remaining nine-tenths are covered by the plains, wide valleys, or flat grounds. Now, according to the foregoing data, the mean annual quantity of detritus carried to the sea is equal to the yearly loss of good of a foot from the general surface of the country. The valleys, therefore, are lowered by Izoo of a foot, and the more open and flat land by 10500 of a foot ." Mr. Geikie calculates in this manner that Europe would disappear in little more than 4,000,000 of years. I cannot altogether accept this conclusion, for when a river has less than a given amount of fall, it ceases to excavate. Thus the effect of the Nile is to raise, not to lower, the level of Egypt, and most of our large rivers near their mouths act in a some what similar manner. As regards the higher districts, how ever, his data are perhaps not far wrong, and if we apply them to the valley of the Somme, where the excavation is about 200 feet in depth, they would indicate an antiquity for the Paleolithic epoch of from 100,000 to 240,000 years, which, though arrived at from perfectly different data, agrees with the periods A and B in the calculation made by Messrs. Croll and Stone. In addition to the causes already alluded to, there is at least one other astronomical phenomenon, namely, the change in the obliquity of the ecliptic, which must be taken into account in considering the effects which cosmical causes may, or must, have exercised on climate. The whole question then is one, not only of extreme interest, but also of very great difficulty, and we are not, I think , at present in a position to estimate with confidence the effects on climate which may have been produced by these various causes. THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC. 413 Several other points connected with the glacial period would receive a natural explanation if we were able to adopt the suggestions of M. Adhémar and Mr. Croll. Thus M. Morlôt * some years ago pointed out that there are in Swit zerland evidences of several periods of cold, during what is called the glacial epoch, separated by an interval of mildness. Of this the most striking instance is afforded by the Dürnten beds, where a layer of coal or lignite no less than 12 feet thick, lies between two glacial deposits. Mr. Croll givest particulars of 250 borings through the surface deposits of the mining districts in Scotland. Of these, 25 showed two dis tinct boulder clay beds, 10 three, 1 four, 2 five, and 1 as many as six, with stratified beds of sand and gravel between ; while 16 have two or three separate beds of boulder clay, differing in colour and hardness, but without intermediate stratified beds. Mr. Geikie also has found in the south -east of York shire that certain gravel beds, which have yielded mammalian remains and myriads of Cyrena fluminalis and other shells, are covered by a mass of unstratified tile or boulder clay.I Whether M. Adhémar is right in attributing the prepon derance of ocean in the southern hemisphere to the influence of the great Antarctic glacier, cannot, I think, in the present state of our knowledge, be conclusively determined. There can, however, be no doubt that an accumulation of snow and ice at one pole would, by affecting the position of the centre of gravity of the earth, attract the waters towards that pole. Mr. Croll calculates that a diminution of 470 feet in the thickness of the Antarctic glacier would raise the sea-level at the North Pole 26 feet 5 inches, and 25 feet at the lati

• Bull. de la Soc. Vaudoise des I Mr. Skertchley also considers

Sciences Naturelles, March, 1854. that he has found a clear case, near Bibl. Universelle de Genève, May, Brandon, in which palæolithic brick 1858. earth underlies boulder clay. Other + Climate and Time, p . 254. geologists, however, have contested his interpretation of the fact. 414 M. ADHÉMAR ON CHANGES IN THE SEA- LEVEL. tude of Glasgow . A mile of ice removed in the same way would produce a change of 280 feet. M. Adhémar dwells on various considerations which induce him to attribute a very great thickness to the great southern glacier, and con sequently he considers that the alterations of sea-level which would result from the alternate preponderance of ice in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, would account for the various alterations in the distribution of land and water. That there · must, however, have been elevations and depressions of the land itself is sufficiently evident from other considerations ; but it is impossible to deny that the cause pointed out by M. Adhémar may have produced the relative elevation of the sea, as proved by the various raised beaches which fringe our shores, and the depression on the other hand indicated by the submerged forests, observed at so many points. The former would indicate the periods of cold ; the latter, those of heat. The present condition of our rivers will also thus be simply explained. There can, I think, be no doubt that many of them have excavated their own valleys. At present, however, they are all filling up the lower parts of the excavation , as, for instance, we have seen to be the case with the Somme. Moreover, the bottom of these valleys is in most cases lower than the present sea-level, which cannot have been the case at the time when they were excavated. It is evident, then, that the excavation must have been finished at the time when the sea was at a lower relative level than at present. Again, it will be remembered that side by side with the remains of Arctic animals have been found others indicating a warm climate, such, for instance, as the hippopotamus. This fact, which has always hitherto been felt as a difficulty, is at once explained by Mr. Croll's suggestion ; for when the excentricity was at a high value, we should have a change every ten or twelve thousand years from a high to a low temperature, and GEOLOGICAL CHANGES. 415 vice versa . But a period of ten thousand years, long as it may appear to us, is very little from a geological point of view ; and we can thus understand how the remains of the hippopo tamus and the musk ox come to be found together in England and France. The very same astronomical conditions which fitted our valleys for the one, would at an interval of ten thousand years render them suitable for the other. In this case, Palæolithic Man would date back to the warmer inter glacial times, which perhaps may explain the absence of any human remains of this period in Scandinavia and Germany. These considerations appear also to throw much light on the changes in the distribution of land and sea which took place during the glacial period. Mr. Croll has pointed out* that the agglomeration of ice which must have taken place, as above mentioned, would materially affect the question by altering the position of the centre of the earth. It must be remembered that what we call the “ glacial ” period , was rather a period of extreme conditions ; the tempera ture of the northern and southern hemispheres being much more unequal than at present, and each being alternately much hotter and colder, We have not as yet any means of measuring the amount of ice which under these circum stances would accumulate, first at one pole and then at the other ; but even under the present comparatively equable conditions, Mr. Croll considers that the ice cap at the Ant arctic Pole must be at least twelve miles in thickness. The Antarctic continent appears to extend from the South Pole to at least latitude 70°, so that it has a diameter of 2800 miles, and is undoubtedly covered with one continuous sheet of ice. Sir James C. Ross, after reaching the highest southern latitude which has yet been attained, found himself stopped by a precipitous wall of ice, which rose to a height of 180 feet, and effectually barred all further progress southwards.

• Geol. Mag., July and August, 1874.

416 GEOLOGICAL CHANGES. For 450 miles he sailed in front of this cliff, and found it unbroken by a single inlet . * We can form some idea of this great ice sheet by what we know of the interior of Greenland, which also is covered by a continuous ice sheet, sloping gradually towards the interior. Even of this ice sheet we know little beyond the edge. Dr. Hayes, who has penetrated further inland than any one else, in describing his camp at the furthest point he reached, about seventy miles from the sea, says : “ Our station was as sublime as it was dangerous. We had attained an altitude of 5000 feet above the sea-level, and were seventy miles from the coast, in the midst of a vast frozen Sahara, immeasurable to the human eye. There was neither hill, mountain, nor gorge anywhere in view. We had completely sunk the strip of land between the Mer de Glace and the sea, and no object met the eye but our feeble tent, which bent to the storm. Fitful clouds swept over the face of the full orbed moon, which, descending towards the horizon, glim mered through the drifting snow that scudded over the icy plain — to the eye in undulating lines of downy softness, to the flesh in showers of piercing darts. " (Open Polar Sea, p. 134.) In fact, the ice sheet must slope upwards towards the interior, because the snow which falls there would accumulate until it reached an angle sufficient to carry it towards the sea. In Greenland, the slope, so far as observed, appears to be about 2 °. Prof. Hopkins has shown that ice barely moves on a slope of one degree. This minimum slope of 1° continued over the 1400 miles from the edge of the Antarctic ice cap to the South Pole, would give a thickness of ice at the Pole of no less than twenty - four miles. But even if the slope is only 1 degree, and, as Mr. Croll points out, we have no evidence that such a slope would be sufficient to discharge

• Geikie's Ice Age, p. 101 .

GEOLOGICAL CHANGES. 417 the ice, it must still be twelve miles thick at the South Pole. Now if the climatal conditions altered, so that the northern hemisphere became colder, and the southern on the contrary warmer, and if one -sixth of this ice, or two miles, was removed from the latter, and a similar amount deposited on the former, the result would be such a displacement of the earth's centre of gravity as to cause, according to Mr. Croll, a rise of the ocean at the North Pole of 380 feet; and in the latitude of Edinburgh 312 feet, while according to other calculations it would be much greater. Again, it is very probable that ice would be melted at the one Pole more rapidly than it would be formed at the other. At the lowest estimate, the ice forming the present Antarctic ice cap would be sufficient to raise the general level of the ocean several hundred feet. The removal of two miles of ice from the Antarctic continent, and the deposition of one mile over a corresponding area round the North Pole, would alter the sea - level no less than 485 feet at the Pole, and 435 feet in the latitude of Edinburgh, as follows the removal of the two miles would affect the centre of gravity of the earth 190 feet, the deposition of the ice round the North Pole would carry it 95 feet further, while the additional water resulting from the melting of the one mile of ice would raise the general level of the ocean 200 feet, making, as before, a total change at the North Pole of 485 feet. Sir C. Lyell attempted * to form an estimate of the dura tion of the glacial epoch, on the assumption that the dif ferent movements of elevation and depression proceeded at an average rate of 24 feet in a century. As the simplest " series of changes in physical geography which can possibly account for the phenomena of the glacial period,” he gave the following:

• Antiquity of Man, pp. 282, 285.

2 E 418 GEOLOGICAL CHANGES First, a continental period , towards the close of which the forest of Cromer flourished ; when the land was at least 500 feet above its present level, perhaps much higher, and its extent probably greater than that given in the map, fig. 41." In this map the British Isles, including the Hebrides, Orkneys, and Shetlands, are connected with one another and with the Continent, the whole German Ocean being laid dry. “ Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land north of the Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland, was gradually reduced to such an archipelago as is pictured in map, fig. 40 ; and finally to such a general prevalence of sea as is seen in map, fig. 39, only the tops of the mountains being left above water. This was the period of great submer gence and of floating ice, when the Scandinavian flora, which overspread the lower grounds during the first continental period, may have obtained exclusive possession of the only lands not covered with perpetual snow. “ Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the glacial sea, with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid dry, and when the quantity of land equalled that of the first period .” During this period perhaps Spitzbergen , Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands, received their present vege tation, the existence of which can hardly be accounted for without a period of continuous or nearly continuous land. It is evident that such changes as these would require a great lapse of time. Sir Charles Lyell admits that the average change of 24 feet in a century is a purely arbitrary and con jectural rate, and that there are cases in which a change of as much as six feet in a century appears to have taken place : still it is in his opinion probable that the rate assumed in a century is , if anything, above the average, and in this I believe most geologists would be disposed to agree with him . On this hypothesis the submergence of Wales, to the extent of 1400 feet, would require 56,000 years ; but “ taking Prof. IN THE QUATERNARY PERIOD. 419 Ramsay's estimate of 800 feet more, that elevation being required for the deposition of some of the stratified drift, we must demand an additional period of 32,000 years, amounting in all to 88,000 ; and the same time would be required for re- elevation of the tract to its present height. But if the land rose in the second continental period no more than 600 feet above the present level, this .... would have taken ano ther 24,000 years ; the whole of the grand oscillation, com prising the submergence and re - emergence, having taken , in round numbers, 224,000 years for its completion ; and this, even if there were no pause or stationary period, when the downward movement ceased, and before it was converted into an upward one." To most geologists these figures, large as they are, will have no appearance of improbability. All the facts of geology tend to indicate an antiquity of which we are but beginning to form a dim idea. Take, for instance, one single formation our well-known chalk. This consists entirely of shells and fragments of shells deposited at the bottom of an ancient sea, far away from any continent. Such a progress as this must be very slow : probably we should be much above the mark if we were to assume a rate of deposition of ten inches in a century. Now the chalk is more than a thousand feet in thickness, and would have required therefore more than 120,000 years for its formation . The fossiliferous beds of Great Britain, as a whole, are more than 70,000 feet in thick ness ; and many which with us measure only a few inches, on the Continent expand into strata of immense depth ; while others of great importance elsewhere are wholly wanting with us ; for it is evident that during all the different periods in which Great Britain has been dry land, strata have been forming ( as is, for example, the case now) elsewhere, and not with us. Moreover, we must remember that many of the strata now existing have been formed at the expense of older 2 E 2 420 GEOLOGICAL TIME. ones ; thus all the flint gravels in the south - east of England have been produced by the destruction of chalk. This again is a very slow process. It has been estimated that a cliff 500 feet high will be worn away at the rate of an inch in a century . This may seem a low rate, but we must bear in mind that along any line of coast there are comparatively few points which are suffering at one time, and that even on those, when a fall of cliff has taken place, the fragments serve as a pro tection to the coast until they have been gradually removed by the waves. The Wealden Valley is twenty -two miles in breadth , and on these data it has been calculated that the denudation of the Weald must have required more than 150,000,000 of years. There can be no doubt about the interest of these calcula tions, and they have also the great merit of giving some defi niteness to our ideas. We must not, however, attribute to them a value which has been distinctly disclaimed even by their authors. Moreover, we must remember that these esti mates are brought forward not as a proof, but as a measure, of antiquity. Our belief in the antiquity of man rests not on any isolated calculations, but on the changes which have taken place since his appearance ; changes in the geography, in the fauna, and in the climate of Europe. Valleys have been deepened, widened, and partially filled up again ; caves through which subterranean rivers once ran are now left dry ; even the configuration of land has been materially altered, and Africa finally separated from Europe. Our climate has greatly changed for the better, and with it the fauna has materially altered. In some cases - for instance, in that of the hippopotamus and of the African elephant-we may probably look to the diminution of food and the presence of man as the main cause of their disappearance ; the extinc tion of the mammoth, the Elephas antiquus, and the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, may possibly be due to the same influences ; but GEOLOGICAL TIME. 421 I the retreat of the reindeer and the musk ox are probably in great measure owing to the change of climate. These and similar facts, though they afford us no means of measurement, impress us with a vague and overpowering sense of antiquity. All geologists, indeed, are now prepared to admit that man has existed on our earth for a much longer period than was until recently supposed to have been the case. But it may be doubted whether even geologists yet realize the great antiquity of our race . “ When speculations on the long series of events which occurred in the glacial and post- glacial periods are indulged in ,” says Sir C. Lyell, * " the imagination is apt to take alarm at the immensity of the time required to interpret the monu ments of these ages, all referable to the era of existing species. In order to abridge the number of centuries which would otherwise be indispensable, a disposition is shown by many to magnify the rate of change in pre-historic times, by invest ing the causes which have modified the animate and the in animate world with extraordinary and excessive energy ... We of the living generation, when called upon to make grants of thousands of centuries, in order to explain the events of what is called the modern period, shrink naturally at first from making what seems so lavish an expenditure of past time.” That palæolithic implements belong to a period of great cold, i.e. to the glacial period, seems indicated by the fact that they have not yet been found in the areas occupied by the deposits of the late glacial epoch. If a map be constructed showing the regions occupied by the deposits of the glacial epoch, the morainic débris, diluvial gravels, and boulder clay, on the one hand, and the palæolithic implements on the other, it would be seen at a glance that the former end when the latter begin.

• Address to the Brit. Ass. 1864, p. 21. Bath.

422 REPORTED EVIDENCE OF MAN That man existed in Western Europe during the period of the Mammoth and the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, no longer, I think, admits of a doubt ; but when we come to Pliocene, and still more to Miocene times, the evidence is less conclusive. M. Desnoyers * has called attention to some marks noticed by him on bones found in the upper pliocene beds of St. Prest, and belonging to the Elephas meridionalis, Rhinoceros lepto rhinus, Hippopotamus major, several species of deer (including the gigantic Megaceros carnutorum , Laugel), and two species of Bos, which he considers to be of human origin . Among the bones of the deer were several crania, all of which have been broken in one way, namely, by a violent blow given on the skull between, and at the base of, the horns. M. Steenstrup has noticed fractures of this kind in other less ancient skulls of ruminants, and at the present day some of the northern tribes treat the skulls of ruminants in the same manner. Through the courtesy of M. Desnoyers, I have had the opportunity of examining some of the scratched bones from Saint Prest. The markings fully bear out the description given by him, and some of them at least appear to me to be probably of human origin ; at the same time, and in the present state of our knowledge, I am not prepared to say that there is no other manner in which they might have been produced. At the same place, that indefatigable archæ ologist, M. l'Abbé Bourgeois, has more recently discovered worked flints, including flakes, awls and scrapers, but unfor tunately there is some doubt as to the stratigraphical relations of the bed in which they occurred. Moreover, some autho rities consider these beds to be interglacial. In the inter glacial coal-beds of Dürnten already alluded to (ante, p. 413 ), Prof. Rütimeyer has found a fragment apparently of rough basket or wattle work. The interpretation in this case again

• Comptes Rendus, June 8 , 1863.

+ Mat. pour l'Histoire de l'Homme, 1867, p. 17 ; ditto, 1873, p. 14. IN THE PLIOCENE PERIOD. 423 has been questioned, but Prof. Schwendener, who has recently examined the specimens with great care, is decidedly of opi nion that it is of human workmanship. At the meeting in Spezzia of the “ Societé Italienne des Sciences Naturelles, ” Prof. G. Ramorino exhibited some bones of Pliocene Age, said to bear marks of knives. These speci mens are in the museum at Genoa, but I have not myself seen them. * M. Capellini also has described certain bones supposed to belong to the same geological period, which, in his opinion, bear marks of flint knives. Mr. Evans, however, has suggested that these marks may have been made by the teeth of fishes.t The existence of man during the period of the crag has been supposed to be indicated by the fact that some of the sharks' teeth, so abundant in these deposits, are perforated in a manner which at first sight certainly resembles that in which we find similar teeth pierced by savages at the present day. Mr. Charlesworth , while carefully abstaining from the expression of any opinion, exhibited several such specimens at a recent meeting of the Anthropological Institute. It has, however, I think, been shown that these perforations are pro bably the work of boring parasites. I Some archæologists even consider that we have proof of the presence of man in miocene times. Thus M. Bourgeois has found in the calcaire de Beauce, near Pontlevoy, many flints which have been subjected to the action of heat, and others which he considers to show undoubted marks of human work manship. On the former point there is still some difference of opinion, and the action of fire, though it points strongly to, does not absolutely prove, the presence of man. These inte resting specimens were found in a stratum which contains the remains of Acerotherium , an extinct animal allied to the I Hughes, Man in the Crag. Geol. + Congrès, Int. d'Anth.1876, p.46. Mag. vol. ix. June, 1872.

• 1. c . vol. i. P:

41. 424 MIOCENE MAN. Rhinoceros, and beneath a bed which contains the Mastodon, Dinotherium , and Rhinoceros. The enormous number of these cracked flints also throws some doubt on their being of human origin. In the Matériaux pour l'Histoire de l'Homme for 1870, * is a figure of a flint flake found by M. Tardy in the miocene beds of Aurillac ( Auvergne ), together with the remains of Dinotherium giganteum , and Machairodus latidens. I have not visited the locality, and cannot express any opinion as to the age of the bed in which this interesting specimen was discovered, but from the figure given there can be no reason able doubt that it is of human workmanship. M. Delaunay also has called attention to a rib, found by him at Pouancé ( Maine et Loire), and belonging to a well-known miocene species, the Halitherium fossile ;t this bears certain marks which closely resemble those which might have been made by flint implements. M. Hamy gives a good figure of this interesting specimen. Whether, however, we have conclusive evidence of the existence of man in miocene times, is a ques tion on which archæologists are still of different opinions. Sir Charles Lyell himself thinks that we may expect to find the remains of man in the pliocene stiata ; but there he draws the line, and says that in miocene times, “ had some other rational being, representing man, then flourished , some signs of his existence could hardly have escaped unnoticed, in the shape of implements of stone or metal, more frequent and more durable than the osseous remains of any of the mammalia." Without expressing any opinion as to the mental condition of our ancestors in the miocene period, it seems to me evident that the argument derived from the absence of human remains, whatever may be its value, is as applicable to pliocene as to miocene times. On the other hand, no living species of land

• 1.c. p. 93. + Précis de Paléontologie Humaine, p. 58.

MIOCENE MAN. 425 mammal has yet been found in the miocene strata . It is true that, by the exercise of his brains, man is more able to render himself independent of external conditions than other animals ; cold, for instance, leading to warmer clothes in the one, to more fur in the other ; still, judging from the analogy of other species, I am disposed to think that in the miocene period man was probably represented by anthropoid apes, more nearly resembling us than do any of the existing quadrumana. We need not, however, expect necessarily to find the proofs in Europe ; our nearest relatives in the animal kingdom are con fined to hot, almost to tropical climates; and though we know that during parts of the miocene period the climate of Europe was warmer than at present, so that monkeys lived much north of their present limits, still it is in the warmer regions of the earth that we are, perhaps, most likely to find the earliest traces of the human race. ( 426 ) CHAPTER XIII. MODERN SAVAGES. A LTHOUGH our knowledge of ancient times has of late years greatly increased, it is still very imperfect, and we cannot afford to neglect any possible source of information. It is evident that history cannot throw much light on the early condition of man, because the discovery — or, to speak more correctly, the use - of metal has in all cases preceded that of writing. Even as regards the Age of Bronze, we derive little information from history ; and although, as we have seen, the Age of Stone is vaguely alluded to in the earliest European writers, their statements have generally been looked upon as imaginative rather than historical, and contain, indeed, little more than the bare statement that there was a time when metal was unknown. Nor will tradition supply the place of history. At best it is untrustworthy and short-lived. Thus in 1770 the New Zealanders had no recollection of Tasman's visit. * Yet this took place in 1643, less than 130 years before, and must have been to them an event of the greatest possible importance and interest. In the same way the North American Indians soon lost all tradition of De Soto's expedition, although “ by its striking incidents it was so well suited to impress the Indian mind." + Even as regards events which are contemporary, or nearly so, we find that the accounts given by savages become rapidly

• Cook's First Voyage round the World. Hawkesworth's Voyages,

vol. ii. p. 388. + Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, vol. ii. p. 12. THE UNTRUSTWORTHINESS OF TRADITION . 427 distorted. Thus Nilsson * quotes the account given by Mac kenzie, that the Esquimaux described the English to him as being giants, with wings, who could kill with a glance of their eye, and swallow a whole beaver at a mouthful. So also Colonel Dalton tells us that “ though the Kols have known the English for little more than half a century, they assign to them a most honourable place in their genesis. The Assam Abors and Garrows do the same. ” + The Bungogees and Pankhos ( hill tribes of Chittagong) believe that their ancestors came out of a cave in the earth under the guidance of a chief named Tlandrokpah, who was so powerful that he married the daughter of the Deity, to whom he presented his gun . “ You can still hear the gun, the thunder is the sound of it .” In this case the mention of the gun shows that the tradition must be of modern origin . Again , Speke says : “ I found that the Waganda have the same absurd notion here as the Wanyainbo have in Karagŭé, of Kamrisi's supernatural power in being able to divide the waters of the Nile in the same manner as Moses did the Red Sea." Mansfield Parkyns relates how it is firmly believed in the remote parts of Abyssinia, that the German missionaries had , " in the course of only a few days, perforated a tunnel all the way ( from Adowa) to Massowa, on the coast of the Red Sea, a distance of above a hundred and fifty miles, whence they were to obtain large supplies of arms, ammunition, etc." || Baker | also, in his Nile Tributaries, says : “ The conver p. 95.

• The Stone Age, English edi

tion, p. 209. + Trans. Eth. Soc. , New Ser. vol. vi. p. 38. See also Lichtenstein's Travels, vol. i. p. 290 ; James' Ex pedition to the Rocky Mountains, vol.iii. p. 247; and Campbell, Trans. Ethn. Soc. 1870, p. 335.

1. Capt. Lewin , The Hill Tribes

of Chittagong. Calcutta, 1869, See also Lichtenstein's Travels, vol. i. p. 290. § Speke, p. 438. See also p. 504. || Life in Abyssinia, p. 151. T 1.c. pp. 129, 130. 428 THE UNTRUSTWORTHINESS OF TRADITION . sation of the Arabs is in the exact style of the Old Testament. The name of God is coupled with every trifling incident in life, and they believe in the continual action of Divine special interference. Should a famine afflict the country, it is ex pressed in the stern language of the Bible, ‘ The Lord has sent a grievous famine upon the land ;' or, ' The Lord called for a famine, and it came upon the land. Should their cattle fall sick, it is considered to be an affliction by Divine command ; or should the flocks prosper and multiply particularly during one season , the prosperity is attributed to special interference. Nothing can happen in the usual routine of daily life without a direct connexion with the hand of God, in the Arab's belief. “ This striking similarity to the description of the Old Testament is exceedingly interesting to a traveller when residing among these curious and original people. With the Bible in one hand, and these unchanged tribes before the eyes, there is a thrilling illustration of the sacred record : the past becomes the present, the veil of three thousand years is raised, and the living picture is a witness to the exactness of the historical description. At the same time, there is a light thrown upon many obscure passages in the Old Testament by the experience of the present customs and figures of speech of the Arabs, which are precisely those that were practised at the periods described. I do not attempt to enter upon a theo logical treatise, therefore it is unnecessary to allude specially to these particular points. The sudden and desolating arrival of a flight of locusts, the plague, or any other unforeseen cala mity, is attributed to the anger of God, and is believed to be an infliction of punishment upon the people thus visited , precisely as the plagues of Egypt were specially inflicted upon Pharaoh and the Egyptians. Should the present history of the country be written by an Arab scribe, the style of the description would be purely that of the Old Testament, and the various calamities or the good fortunes that have in the TENDENCY TO THE MARVELLOUS. 429 course of nature befallen both the tribes and individuals, would be recounted either as special visitations of Divine wrath , or blessings for good deeds performed. If in a dream a particular course of action is suggested, the Arab believes that God has spoken and directed him . The Arab scribe or historian would describe the event as the voice of the Lord ' ( Kallam el Allah) having spoken unto the person ; or, that God appeared to him in a dream and ' said. Thus, much allowance would be necessary on the part of a European reader for the figurative ideas and expressions of the people. ” Although, then, traditions and myths are of great impor tance, and indirectly throw much light on the condition of man in ancient times, we must not expect to learn much directly from them. At any rate, as regards the Stone Age in Europe both history and tradition are silent, and here, as in all long civilized countries, stone weapons and arrow - heads are regarded as thunderbolts or “ Elfin ” arrows. Deprived, therefore, as regards this period, of any assistance from history, but relieved at the same time from the embar rassing interference of tradition , the archæologist is free to follow the methods which have been so successfully pursued in geology — the rude bone and stone implements of bygone ages being to the one what the remains of extinct animals are to the other. The analogy may be pursued even farther than this. Many mammalia which are extinct in Europe have representatives still living in other countries. Much light is thrown on our fossil pachyderms, for instance, by the species which still inhabit some parts of Asia and Africa ; the secon dary marsupials are illustrated by their existing represen tatives in Australia and South America ; and in the same manner, if we wish clearly to understand the antiquities of Europe, we must compare them with the rude implements and weapons still, or until lately, used by the savage races in other parts of the world. In fact, the Van Diemaner and 430 NO EVIDENCE OF DEGRADATION. South American are to the antiquary what the opossum and the sloth are to the geologist. A certain space, therefore, devoted to the consideration of the modern savages will not be out of place in this work ; and though it would require volumes to do justice to the subject, still it may be possible to bring together a certain number of facts which will throw light on the ancient remains found in Europe, and on the condition of the early races which inhabited our continent. In order, however, to limit the sub ject as much as possible, I propose, with one exception, to describe only the “ non -metallic savages” (if such an expres sion may be permitted), and even of these , only some of the most instructive, or of those which have been most carefully observed by travellers. It is a common opinion that savages are, as a general rule, only the miserable remnants of nations once more civilized ; but although there are some well-established cases of national decay, there is no scientific evidence which would justify us in asserting that this applies to savages in general. No doubt there are instances in which nations once progressive have not only ceased to advance in civilization, but have even fallen back. Still, if we compare the accounts of early travellers with the state of things now existing, we shall find no evi dence of any general degradation. The Australians, Bushmen , and Fuegians lived when first observed almost exactly as they In some savage tribes we even find traces of im provement; the Bachapins, when visited by Burchell, had just introduced the art of working in iron ; the largest erection in Tahiti was constructed by the generation living at the time of Captain Cook's visit, and the practice of cannibalism had been recently abandoned ;* the largest Mexican temple was built only six years before the discovery of America ; in the

• Forster, Observations made p. 327. See also Ellis, Polynesian

during a Voyage round the World, Researches, vol. ii. p. 29. do now. PROGRESS AMONG SAVAGES. 431 north of Australia, McGillivray tells us that the rude bark canoes which were formerly in general use have been quite superseded by those dug out of the trunk of a tree ; again, outriggers are said to have been recently adopted by the Andaman Islanders ; and if certain races, as for instance some of the American tribes, have fallen back, this has, I think, been due less to any inherent tendency than to the injurious effect of European influence. Moreover, if the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, New Zealand, etc., had ever been inhabited by a race of men more advanced than those whom we are in the habit of regarding as the aborigines, some evidence of this would surely have remained ; and this not being the case, none of our travellers having observed any ruins or other traces of a more advanced civilization, there does not appear to be any sufficient reason for supposing that these miserable beings are at all inferior to the ancestors from whom they are descended. The Hottentots. Speaking generally, we may say that the use of metal has been long known throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa ; while in America, in Australia , and in the Oceanic Islands, all implements and weapons were, until within the last three hundred years, made of wood, bone, stone, or other similar materials. The semi - civilized nations of Central America formed , indeed, a striking exception to the rule, since they were ac quainted with the use of bronze. The North American Indians also had copper hatchets, but these were simply hammered into shape, without the assistance of heat. Here, therefore, we seem to get a glimpse of the manner in which our ances tors may have acquired the knowledge of metal. No doubt the possession of iron generally marks a great advance in civi lization ; still the process is very gradual, and there are some 432 THE HOTTENTOTS. nations which, though provided with metal implements, are nevertheless but little removed from a state of barbarism . Thus the Hottentots, who were not only acquainted with the use, but even with the manufacture of iron, and who pos sessed large numbers of sheep and cattle, were yet in many respects among the most disgusting of savages. Even Kolben, who generally takes a favourable view of them , admits that they are, in his opinion, the filthiest people in the world . * We might go farther, and say the filthiest animals ; I think no species of mammal could be fairly compared with them in this respect. Their bodies were covered with grease, their clothes were never washed, and their hair was loaded “ from day to day with such a quantity of soot and fat, and it gathers so much dust and other filth which they leave to clot and harden in it, for they never cleanse it, that it looks like a crust or cap of black mortar.” + They wore a skin over the back, fastened in front. They carried this as long as they lived, and were buried in it when they died . Their only other garment was a square piece of skin, tied round the waist by a string, and left to hang down in front. In winter, however, they sometimes used a cap. For ornaments they wore rings of iron, copper, ivory, or leather. The latter had the advan tage of serving for food in bad times. Their huts were generally oval, about fourteen feet by ten in diameter, and seldom more than four or five in height. They were made of sticks and mats. The sticks were fastened into the ground at both ends, or, if not long enough, two were placed opposite to one another, and secured together at the top. One end of the hut was left open to form the door. The mats were made of bulrushes and flags dried in the sun, and so closely fitted together that only the heaviest rain could

• Kolben's History of the Cape of Good Hope, vol . i. p. 47.

+ Kolben, l. c. p. 188. DRESS. FOOD. WEAPONS. 433 penetrate them . * “ With respect to household furniture, " says Thunberg,† “ they have little or none. The same dress that covers a part of their body by day, serves them also for bedding at night.” Their victuals are boiled in leathern sacs and water, by means of heated stones, but sometimes in earthen pots. Milk is kept in leathern sacs, bladders of animals, and baskets made of platted rushes, perfectly water tight. These, a tobacco pouch of skin , a tobacco pipe of stone or wood, and their weapons, constitute the whole catalogue of their effects. According to Kolben, they sometimes broiled their meat, sometimes boiled it in blood, to which they often added milk ; “ this they look on as a glorious dish. ” They were, however, both filthy and careless about their cookery, and the meat was often eaten half putrid, and more than half raw . Their weapons consisted of bows and poisoned arrows, spears, javelins or assagais, stones, and darting - sticks or “ kirris," about three feet long and an inch thick. With these weapons they were very skilful, and feared not to attack the elephant, the rhinoceros, or even the lion. Large animals were also sometimes killed in pitfalls, from six to eight feet deep, and about four feet in diameter. They fixed a strong pointed stake in the middle. “ Into this hole an elephant falling with his fore- feet ( it is not of dimensions to receive his whole body ), he is pierced in the neck and breast with the stake and there held securely ," || for the more he struggled the farther he penetrated. They caught fish both with hooks and in nets. They also ate wild fruits and roots of various kinds, which, however, they did not take the trouble to cultivate.

• Thunberg, Pinkerton's Travels, § Thunberg , p. 141 ; Kolben ,

vol. xvi. p. 33 ; Kolben , 1.c. p. 221 ; p. 203 ; Harris, Wild Sports of Sparrman, vol. i . p. 195. Africa, p. 142. + Page 141 . || Kolben, p. 250. I This, however, they appear to have learnt from the Europeans. 2 F 434 METALLURGY. For domestic animals the Hottentots had oxen, sheep, and dogs. It might have naturally been supposed that oxen were used in the same manner all over the world. They seem evi dently adapted either for draught or for food. With the dog the case is different ; we ourselves use him in various ways, and one feels therefore the less surprise at the different ser vices which he performs for different races of savages. But even with regard to cattle the same was the case : besides what we may call their normal uses, the Veddahs, or wild inhabitants of Ceylon, used oxen in hunting; and the Hotten tots trained some to serve as what we may call sheep-oxen, or cow- oxen—that is to say, to guard and manage the flocks and herds—and others as war-oxen, a function which might have been considered as opposed to the whole character of the beast, but in which, nevertheless, they appear to have been very useful. The Hottentots of late years not only used iron weapons, but even made such for themselves. The ore was smelted in the following manner : * “ They make a hole in a raised ground, large enough to contain a good quantity of ironstones, which are found here and there in plenty in the Hottentot countries. In this hole they melt out the iron from the ore. About a foot and a half from this hole, upon the descent, they make another, something less. This is the receiver of the melted iron, which runs into it by a narrow channel they cut from one hole to the other. Before they put the ironstones into the hole where the iron is to be smelted out of them , they make a fire in the hole, quite up to the mouth of it, in order to make the earth about it thoroughly hot. When they suppose the earth about it is well heated, they fill the hole almost up with ironstones. They then make a large fire over the stones, which they supply from time to time with fuel, till the iron is melted and all of it is run into the receiver,

• Kolben, 1. c. p. 239.

CUSTOMS. CHARACTER. 435 As soon as the iron in the receiver is cold , they take it out, and break it to pieces with stones. These pieces the Hotten tots, as they have occasion, heat in other fires, and with stones beat 'em out and shape ' em to weapons. They rarely make anything else of iron.” The Hottentot customs, some of which are extremely curious, are fully described by Thunberg, * Kolben, t Cook, I Sparrman , and other travellers. Whether the Hottentots can be said to have had any religion,|| depends upon the exact meaning we attach to the word. Though they seem to have had some notion of a Deity, even Kolben admits that they had not " any institution of worship. ” The older writers, indeed, consider certain dances as being religious ceremonies. This was stoutly denied by the natives themselves , in spite of which Kolben assures us that they were “ acts of religion, ” adding candidly, " let the Hottentots say what they will. ” They are very fond of smoking, and are great drunkards. It is only fair to say that Kolben gives them a good character for integrity, chastity, fidelity, and liberality, assuring us that they “ are certainly the most friendly, the most liberal, and the most benevolent people to one another that ever appeared Other travellers also speak of them in very high terms.tt At the same time it is difficult to see how these statements can be reconciled with the admitted fact that, as soon as any man or woman is so enfeebled by old age that he or she is unable to work, and can “ no longer " I am quoting from Kolben himself—“ be of any manner of

• 1. c. pp. 141 , 142. Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. ii . p. 153 ;

+ Pp. 113, 115, 118, 121, 153, 80 also Harris,Wild Sports ofAfrica, 252. p. 160 ; Sparrman, vol. i. p. 207. I Hawkesworth's Voyages, vol. Sparrman , vol.i. p. 212 ; Kol iii. p. 791. ben, l. c . § Vol. i. p. 357. ** 1.c. p. 334. || Thunberg, 1. c. p. 141 , &c.; ++ See, for instance, Philips' Kolben, pp. 37, 93, & c. Beeckman South Africa, pp. 4, 5, 6. thought they had no religion at all. " ** upon earth .' 2 F 2 436 THE BUSHMEN . service in anything, they are thrust out of the society and confined to a solitary hut at a considerable distance from the kraal, there, with a small stock of provisions placed within their reach, but without any one to comfort or assist ' em, to die either of age or hunger, or be devoured by some wild beast.” * This, it must be remembered , was no exceptional atrocity, but a general custom , and applied to the rich as well as the poor, for if an old man had property it was taken away from him . Infanticide, again, was very common among them, and was not regarded as a crime. Girls were generally the victims ; and if a woman had twins, the ugliest of them was almost always exposed or buried alive. This was done with the consent of “ the whole kraal, which generally allows it without taking much pains to look into it.” + The poverty and the hardships which they had to undergo may perhaps plead as some excuse for these two unnatural customs. The Bushmen resembled the Hottentots in many things, but were even more uncivilized. They had no knowledge of metallurgy, no domestic animals, and no canoes. They frequently stole the cattle of their more advanced neighbours, but always killed and ate them as quickly as possible. Their principal weapons were bows and poisoned arrows. Lichten stein asserts that they had no names, but this was probably an error. Bleek regards them as the lowest of human races , and Haeckel even goes so far as to assert that they seem “ to the unprejudiced comparative student of nature, to manifest a closer connexion with the gorilla and chimpanzee than with a Kant or a Goethe." S The Veddahs. The Veddahs, or wild tribes who inhabit the interior of

• 1. c . p. 321.

+ l . c. p. 144. I Travels in Southern Africa, vol. i . p. 192. § On the Origin of Language, by W. H. J. Bleek. Edited by Dr. E. Haeckel, pp. 4 , 5. THE VEDDAHS. 437 Ceylon, have been described by Knox, * Tennent,+ and Bailey.I They live in huts very rudely formed of boughs and bark, and cultivate small patches of chena, but subsist principally on honey and the produce of the chase. Their weapons con sist of axes and bows and arrows. With the latter they are not very skilful, as they pursue only the larger game, and the art of hunting consists in creeping close up to their prey and taking it unawares. They are very good deer -stalkers, and, besides excellent dogs, have also hunting buffaloes. These are so trained that they are easily guided by a string tied round the horn, and are used at night. The buffalo feeds, the man crouches behind him, and thus, unseen and unsuspected, steals upon his prey. They have no pottery, and their cookery is very primitive. They wear scarcely any clothes, nothing in fact but a scrap of dirty rag, supported in front by a string tied round the waist. Perhaps the women's cloth is a trifle larger than the men's, but that appears to be the only difference. They are very dirty, and very small ; the ordinary height of the men being from four feet six to five feet one, and of the women from four feet four to four feet eight. Mr. Bailey thinks that it would be impossible to conceive more barbarous specimens of the human race. Davy even asserts that they have no names, and do not bury the dead. They have, however, one remarkable peculiarity which it would be unfair to omit. They are kind, affectionate, and constant to their wives ; abhor polygamy, and have a proverb that “ Death alone can separate husband and wife. ” In this they are very unlike their more civilized neighbours. An

• An Historical Relation of Cey

lon. 1681. § It is only fair to add that the + Ceylon. Kandyans are said to have much I Transactions of the Ethnologi- improved in this respect of late cal Society, New Series, vol. ii. p. 278. See also Davy's Ceylon. years. 438 THE ANDAMAN ISLANDERS. intelligent Kandyan chief, with whom Mr. Bailey visited these Veddahs, was “perfectly scandalized at the utter bar barism of living with only one wife, and never parting until separated by death . " It was, he said, “ just like the wan deroos" (monkeys ). Even in their marriage relations, how ever, the Veddahs cannot altogether be commended, as it is or was until lately - very usual with them for a man to marry his younger sister. This is the more remarkable, as marriage with an elder sister seemed to them as horrible as it does to us. The Andaman Islanders. The Mincopies, or inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, have been described by Dr. Mouatt, * Sir E. Belcher,t Mr. Day, Mr. Man, and Prof. Owen ,& who considers that they are, perhaps, the most primitive, or lowest in the scale of civilization, of the human race." Their huts consist of four posts, the two front ones six to eight feet high, the back ones only one or two feet. They are open at the sides, and covered with a roof of bamboo, or a few palm -leaves bound tightly together. The Mincopies live chiefly on fruit, mangroves, and shell- fish. Sometimes, however, they kill the small pigs which run wild in the jungle. They have single -tree canoes, hollowed out with a p -shaped axe, assisted probably by the action of fire. They are ac quainted with the use of outriggers, which , however, appear to have been of récent introduction, as they are not alluded to by the earlier writers. Their arrows and spears are now generally tipped with iron and glass, which they obtain from wrecks, and which have to a great extent replaced bone.

• Adventures and Researches among the Andaman Islanders.

† Belcher, Trans. Ethn. Soc. , New Series, vol. v. p . 40 . I Proc. Asiat. Soc. of Bengal 1870 . § Transactions of the Ethnologi cal Society, New Ser. vol. ii. p. 34. || Mouatt, 1.c. p . 317. THE ANDAMAN ISLANDERS. 439 Their harpoons, like those of so many other savages, have a movable head, and a long cord by which this may be held when fixed in the victim. * They are very skilful with the bow, and “ make practice at forty or fifty yards with unerring certainty,” + though their arrows have no feathers. Their nets are made with great ingenuity and neatness. They have no pottery, but use either shells or pieces of bamboo to hold water. They kill fish by harpoons, or with small hand -nets they take any that are left by the tide, and it is even said that they are able to dive and catch them with their hands. I They cover themselves with mud, and also tattoo, but wear no clothes. They count only up to two. They are stated to have no idea of a Supreme Being, no religion, nor any belief in a future state of existence. After death , the corpse is buried in a sitting posture. When it is supposed to be entirely decayed, the skeleton is dug up, and each of the relations appropriates a bone. In the case of a married man, the widow takes the skull and wears it suspended by a cord round her neck. $ It forms a very convenient box for small articles. Marriage, however, only lasts, at least in some tribes, until the child is born and weaned, when, according to Lieut. St. John, as quoted by Sir E. Belcher, the man and woman generally separate, each seeking a new partner. || They have no dogs, nor indeed any domestic animals. The Australians. Throughout the whole continent of Australia the aborigines were remarkably similar in physical appearance, in character, and in general habits. They were, in some respects, scarcely, if at all, farther advanced than those of the Andaman Islands. The “ houses " observed by Captain Cook " at Botany Bay,

• 1.c. p. 326.

+ Belcher, Trans. Ethn. Society, New Ser. vol. v. p . 49. I Mouatt, 1. c. pp. 310, 333. § 1. c. p. 327. Belcher, 1. c . p. 43. || 1. c. p. 45. 410 THE AUSTRALIANS. where they were best, were just high enough for a man to sit upright in, but not large enough for him to extend himself in his whole length in any direction ; they were built with pliable rods about as thick as a man's finger, in the form of an oven, by sticking the two ends into the ground, and then covering them with palm -leaves and broad pieces of bark ; the door is nothing but a large hole at one end . ” Eyre also gives a very similar description of those observed by him . * Further north, wbere the climate was warmer, the dwellings were even less substantial, and being comparatively open on one side, scarcely deserve even the name of huts, and were little more than a protection against the wind. Finally, the natives observed by Dampier near C. Levéque, on the north west coast, seem to have had no houses at all. Round their dwelling -places Captain Cook observed “ vast heaps of shells, the fish of which we suppose had been their food.” + Captain Grey also describes similar shell mounds, some of which covered quite half an acre, and were as much as ten feet high. They seem, however, to have been first noticed by Dampier. The food of the Australian savages differs much in different parts of the continent. Speaking generally, it may be said to consist of various roots, fruits, fungi, shell - fish, frogs, snakes, honey, grubs, moths, birds, birds' eggs, fish, turtles, dog, kan garoo, and sometimes of seal and whale. | The kangaroo, however, forms only an occasional luxury, nor are the natives, so far as I am aware, able to kill whales for themselves, but when one is washed on shore it is a real godsend to them . Fires are immediately lit to give notice of the joyful event.

• Discoveries in Central Aus

tralia, vol. ii. p. 300. + First Voyage, vol. iii. p. 598. I l.c. vol. i. p. 110. See also King's Australia, vol. i. p. 87. § Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. ii. || Grey's Explorations in North West and Western Australia, p.263 ; Eyre, vol. ii . p. 251 ; McGillivray's Voyage of H. M. S. Rattlesnake, vol. i . p. 148. p. 473. FOOD. ROCK ENGRAVINGS. 441 - Then they rub themselves all over with blubber, and anoint their favourite wives in the same way ; after which they cut down through the blubber to the beef, which they sometimes eat raw and sometimes broil on pointed sticks. As other natives arrive, they “ fairly eat their way into the whale, and you see them climbing in and about the stinking carcase, choosing titbits . ” For days “ they remain by the carcase, rubbed from head to foot with stinking blubber, gorged to repletion with putrid meat - out of temper from indigestion, and therefore engaged in constant frays - suffering from a cutaneous disorder by high feeding — and altogether a dis gusting spectacle. There is no sight in the world ,” Captain Grey adds,“ more revolting than to see a young and gracefully formed native girl stepping out of the carcase of a putrid whale ." The Australians also mash up bones and suck out the fat contained in them . Like other savages, they are ex cessively fond of fatty substances. In a cave on the north - eastern coast, Mr. Cunningham observed certain " tolerable figures ofsharks, porpoises, turtles, lizards, trepang, starfish, clubs, canoes, water - gourds, and some quadrupeds which were probably intended to represent kangaroos and dogs.” The natives round Sydney also fre quently drew upon the rocks “ various figures of fish, clubs, swords, animals, and branches of trees, not contemptibly represented . " * Other tribes are very deficient in art, and, according to Mr. Oldfield, are “ quite unable to realize the most vivid artistic representations. On being shown a large coloured engraving of an aboriginal New Hollander, one de clared it to be a ship, another a kangaroo, and so on ; not one of a dozen identifying the portrait as having any connexion with himself.” + It is not, however, quite clear to me that they were not poking fun at Mr. Oldfield .

• King, vol. č. p. 26 ; Grey, vol. i. + Oldfield on the Aborigines of

p. 259 ; Collins, p. 381. Australia . Transactions of the Eth nological Society , New Ser. vol. iii. 442 CANOES. IMPLEMENTS. On the north- eastern coasts they use canoes made from the trunks of trees, each canoe being formed from a single trunk, probably hollowed by fire. “ They are about fourteen feet long, and being very narrow , are fitted with an outrigger." Farther south the canoes were nothing but a piece of bark , tied together at the ends and kept open in the middle by small bows of wood. The western tribes had no canoes, owing, according to King,# to the absence of large timber.Ş Instead of a boat they used a log of wood, on which they sat astride, with a bit of bark in each hand, which served as a paddle. Some tribes fasten four or five mangrove stems together so as to make a small float or raft . The natives observed by Dampier were even worse off in this respect ; they had “ no boats, canoes, or bark logs." Yet they dwelt on the shore, lived principally on fish , and swam about from island to island. The Western Australians, according to Jukes, had neither boats nor rafts, “ and the islands close to the mainland had never been visited by them previously to the founding of our colonies.” So also some of the tribes near Sydney are said to have been unable to swim . The absence of canoes is very remarkable in a people whose habits were so littoral, and whose food was derived almost entirely from the sea . The implements of the Australians are very simple. They have no knowledge of pottery, and carry water in skins or in vessels made of bark . They are quite ignorant of warni water, which strikes them with great amazement. I Some of them carry " a small bag, about the size of a moderate

• Freycinet, Voyage autour du

Monde, vol. ii. p. 705 ; Jukes, Voy age of H.M.S. Fly, ii. 243. + Cook's First Voyage, vol. ij . § In his view , however, of Ca reening Bay, the country appears to be well wooded. || Voyage of the Novara, English Trans. vol. iii. p. 36. T D'Urville, vol. i. p. 461. p . 643. I l.c. vol. i.pp. 38, 43, 49 ; vol. ii. pp. 66, 69. IMPLEMENTS. 443 cabbage-net, which is made by laying threads loop within loop, somewhat in the manner of knitting used by our ladies to make purses. This bag the man carries loose upon his back by a small string, which passes over his head ; it gene rally contains a lump or two of paint and resin, some fish hooks and lines, a shell or two, out of which their hooks are made, a few points of darts, and their usual ornaments, which includes the whole worldly treasure of the richest man among them .” A very similar inventory is given by Capt. Grey, who adds, however, a flat stone to pound roots with. * They have also stone hatchets, hammers, knives, pieces of flint, and sticks to dig up roots. The hammer is used for killing seals or other animals, and for breaking open shell - fish. The handle is from twelve to fifteen inches long, pointed at one end, and having on each side at the other a hard stone attached to the handle by a mass of gum. The knives ( fig . 205, which represents a specimen presented to me by A. W. Franks, Esq.) have a similar handle, and at the end a few splinters of quartz or flint, arranged in a row and fastened into a slit with gum in the same manner. The natives of Botany Bay had fish -hooks, but no nets ; on the contrary, Capt. Grey, in describing those of Western Australia, mentions nets, but not hooks; Eyre also states that hooks were unknown in South Australia, while nets were used in hunting and as bags ; Taplin says that the Narinyeri had neither nets nor hooks ; the natives of the North - west also, according to Dampier, had “ no instruments to catch great fish.” Those seen by King were also without hooks or nets.t Throughout the continent they were ignorant both of slings and bows and arrows. On the other hand, they had spears, clubs (fig. 206) , shields, and two very peculiar instruments, namely, the throwing-stick (fig. 207) , and the boomerang ( fig.

• l. c. p . 266. + l. c. vol. ii. p. 137.

444 THROWING-STICKS. FIG. 207 . 208) . The spear, however, is their Fig. 205 FIG. 206 . national weapon. These are about ten feet long, and very slender, made of cane or wood, tapering to a point, which is barbed. They are light, and one would scarcely be inclined to believe that they could be darted with any force ; this, however, is effected by the aid of the wummera, a straight flat stick, three feet in length , terminating in a socket of bone or hide, into which the end of the spear is fixed. The wummera is grasped in the right hand by three fingers ( fig. 207), the spear lying be tween the forefinger and the thumb. Previous to throwing it, a tremulous or vibratory motion is given to it, which is supposed to add to the accuracy of the aim : in projecting the spear, the wummera is retained in the hand, and the use of this sim ple contrivance adds greatly to the projectile force given to the spear. They are well practised in the use of these weapons. * Indeed, Capt. Grey tells us that he has often seen them kill a pigeon with a spear at a distance of thirty yards ; and Captain Cook says that " at a distance of fifty yards these Indians were more sure of their mark than we could be with a single bullet.” + The “ wummera'

• United States Explor. Exped. vol. i. + Cook, 1. c. 642.

Australian Australian Australian Knife . Club, Spear-caster. p. 191. THE BOOMERANG. 415 FIG. 208 . seems to have been used by almost all the Australian tribes. It was, however, according to Flinders, * unknown at King George's Sound. The very long Aus tralian spears are not thrown with the wummera, but by the strength of the arm alone. They are of several kinds : those used for striking turtle or dugong have a movable, barbed blade, which is attached by a string to the butt-end of the spear ; when the turtle is struck , the shaft becomes detached from the point, which remains fixed in the body, while the shaft serves partly to impede the motions, and partly as a float to indi cate the position of the turtle. ” + A similar weapon is used by the Esqui maux, the Mincopies, the Fuegians, the Brazilian Indians, and other savages. But the most extraordinary weapon, and one quite peculiar to Australia, is the boomerang This is a curved stick, generally rounded on one side, flatter on the other, about three feet long and two inches wide, by three-quarters of an inch thick. At first sight it looks some Boomerang. thing like a very rude wooden sword . It is used both in the chase and in war. “ It is grasped at one end in the right hand, and is thrown sickle- wise, either upwards into the air, or downwards so as to strike the ground at some dis tance from the thrower. In the first case it flies with a rotatory motion, as its shape would indicate ; after ascending to a great

• Voy. to Terra Australis, vol. ii.

p. 66 . + Hawkesworth's Voyages, vol . iii. p. 636. See also Eyre, vol . ii. p. 305 ; McGillivray, vol. i. p. 147. 446 THE BOOMERANG . height in the air, it suddenly returns in an elliptical orbit to a spot near its starting - point. On throwing it downwards on the ground, it rebounds in a straight line, pursuing a ricochet motion until it strikes the object at which it is thrown. Birds and small animals are killed with it, and it is also used in killing ducks. The most singular curve described by it is when thrown into the air above the angle of 45° ; its flight is always then backwards, and the native who throws it stands with his back , instead of his face, to the object he is desirous of hitting.” * Mr. Merry, a gentleman who resided for some time in Australia, informs me that on one occasion, in order to test the skill with which the boomerang could be thrown, he offered a reward of sixpence for every time the boomerang was made to return to the spot from which it was thrown. He drew a circle of five or six feet on the sand, and although the boomerang was thrown with much force, the native suc ceeded in making it fall within the circle five times out of twelve. Eyre also says that this weapon is particularly useful in war, “ as it is almost impossible, even when it is seen in the air, to tell which way it will go, or where descend. I once nearly had my arm broken by a wangno, whilst stand ing within a yard of the native who threw it, and looking out purposely for it.” + Mr. Oldfield, f on the contrary, speaks much less favourably of the boomerang. It is, he says, but little used in war ; nor do the natives “ ever attempt to kill a solitary bird or beast by means of” it. On the other hand, in swampy localities, where waterfowl “ congregate largely, the boomerang is of essential use ; for a great number of them being simultaneously hurled into a large flock of waterfowl, ensures the capture of considerable numbers. " According to McGillivray, the boomerang is unknown on the north coast

• United States Explor. Exped. I Trans. Ethn . Soc. , New Series,

1. c. vol. iii. p . 264. + 1.c. vol. ii. p. 308. FIRE. 447 from Cape York to Port Essington. * Mr. W. D. Campbell has suggested that the idea of the boomerang was given by the leaf of the “ Blue Gum ,” Eucelyptus, which is very similar in form . The Australians obtain fire by rubbing together two pieces of wood. The process, however, being one of considerable labour, particularly in damp weather, great care is taken to prevent the fire, when once lighted, from becoming extin guished. For this reason they often carry with them a cone of banksia, which burns slowly, like amadou.t Mr. Stuart informs me that some of the northern tribes had no means of re - lighting their fires, but if they ever became simultaneously extinguished, used to go to a neighbouring tribe for a fresh light. So also, according to M. Angas, some of the western tribes “ have no means of kindling fire. They say that it formerly came down from the north ,” and if it happens to go out they procure it again from some neighbour ing encampment. I According to Capt. Cook, the Australians had no idea of traffic, nor,” he says, “ could we communicate any to them : they received the things which we gave them , but never appeared to understand our signs when we required a return. The same indifference which prevented them from buying what we had, prevented them also from attempting to steal : if they had coveted more, they would have been less honest.” S In other parts, however, they are more advanced in this respect. Various kinds of pigments, feathers, shells, implements, and especially flints, are the principal articles of barter. The Australians observed by Cook, Dampier and Flinders, were entirely destitute of clothing, and their principal orna ment consisted of a bone, five or six inches long, and half an inch thick, thrust through the cartilage of the nose. They

• Voy. of the Rattlesnake, vol. i. I Savage Life and Scenes, vol. i.

P. 92. p. 112. + D'Urville, vol. i. p. 194. § 1. c. p . 635. 448 CLOTHES. ORNAMENTS. TATTOOING . did not tattoo. On the north-west coast, King observed some of the natives with a very peculiar decoration. At every three inches between the upper part of the chest and the navel, the body was scarified in horizontal bands, the cicatrices of which were at least an inch in diameter, and raised half an inch from the body. * Some of them fastened to their hair, by means of gum, teeth of kangaroos or of men, dogs' tails, fish - bones, bits of wood, and other objects which they regarded as ornamental. Frequently they wore pieces of opossum, or kangaroo -skin - not for decency, but for warmth, and, while hunting, as a protection from thorns. According to D'Urville, however, the natives of New South Wales did not think it decent that young children should go quite naked.t McGil livray also mentions a very similar idea at Moreton Bay. In many parts of Australia the natives also paint themselves, red and white being the favourite, or at least the commonest colours. The red is laid on in broad patches, the white gene rally in stripes or spots, a circle often being drawn round each eye. Some tribes, but not all, tattoo themselves on the back and breast in rows, rings, and semicircles. Among the females on the Murray, the only ceremony of importance with which Eyre was acquainted was that of scarring the back. Eyre indeed calls it tattooing, but “ crimping” would, I think, be a more correct expression. It takes place at the age of puberty, and is extremely painful. The young woman kneels down and places her head between the knees of a strong old woman, and the operator, who is always a man, cuts the back with a piece of shell or flint in rows of long, deep gashes from left to right quite across the back, and completely up to the shoulders. The whole scene is most revolting : the blood gushes out in torrents, and saturates the ground, while the cries of the poor victim gradually rise into screams of agony. Still the girls submit voluntarily, as a well- carved back is

• I. c. p. 42. + Voyage de l'Astralabe, vol. i. p. 471 .

INITIATION CEREMONIES. GAMES. SUPERSTITION . 449 men much admired. The lads also generally have to undergo a ceremony of initiation before they are permitted to rank as This sometimes consists in circumcision , * sometimes in another almost incredible ceremonial, t or frequently in punching out one of the front teeth. Other tribes have pecu liar and distinctive incisions, such as scars running across the chest, circles on the shoulders, or various combinations of small dots. In the Adelaide district, according to Mr. Moorhouse, there are five distinct stages of initiation, before the native is admitted to all the privileges of a man. Yet the Australians cannot be said to have any form of government, nor have any distinctions of rank , or recognized chiefs, ever been found amongst them. The children have a game with string something like our cat’s -cradle, but their principal amusements consist in learn ing to hunt, fish, etc. The elder people are fond of dances, which may be divided into war-dances, hunting-dances, and love-dances, —the two latter being most common. These generally take place when tribes meet, and are held at night. Their songs are rude, with simple and generally extempore words. They have no systematized religion, nor any worship or prayer ; but most of them have an indistinct dread of evil beings, which, though mysterious, cannot, I think , be said to be regarded as supernatural. They all have a great fear of the dark, and of witchcraft. In fact, they believe that no one ever dies a natural death. Captain Wilkes describes an Australian funeral as follows. Almost immediately after death the corpse was arranged in a sitting posture, the knees bent up close to the body, the head

• Eyre, vol. ii. p. 332.

+ Finditur usque ad urethram à parte inferâ penis. I l. c. vol. ii. p. 195 ; Fitzroy, 1.c. vol. ii. p. 628. 2 G 450 MODES OF BURIAL. LANGUAGE. pressed forwards, and the whole body closely tied up in a blanket. An oval grave was then dug, about six feet long, three wide, and five deep. At the bottom was a bed of leaves, covered with an opossum-skin cloak , and with a stuffed bag of kangaroo -skin for a pillow ; on this the body was laid with its implements and weapons. Above the corpse were strewn leaves and branches, and the hole was then filled up with stones. Finally, the earth which had been removed was put over the whole, making a mound eight or nine feet high. According to D'Urville, the natives of New South Wales bury the young, and burn the old . * Other tribes dispose of their dead in other ways ; but none of them were addicted to can nibalism as a matter of habit or choice, although they were not unfrequently driven to it by the scarcity of other food, and sometimes ate portions of enemies whom they had slain . No single fact, perhaps, gives us a more vivid idea of the low condition of these miserable savages, than the observation that they have no numerals enabling them to count their own fingers- not even those of one hand. Mr. Crawfurdt has examined the numerals of thirty Australian languages, “ and in no instance do they appear to go beyond the number four. ” Mr. Scott Nind, indeed, has given an account of the Australians of King George's Sound, to which a vocabulary is annexed, containing the numerals, which are made to reach the number five. The term for this last unit, however, turns out to be only the word “ many." In fact, the word “ five " is used by them to express the idea of a great number, just as a “ thousand " sometimes is by us. Their language, moreover, contains “ no generic terms, as tree, fish , birds, etc., but only specific ones, as applied to each particular variety.” " +

• Vol. i. p.

472. + Transactions of Ethn. Soc. , New Series, vol. ii . p. 84. I Eyre, vol. ii. p. 392. MARRIAGE. 451 Though they are apparently fond of their children, even Eyre admits that there is little affection between husband and wife. " After a long absence, ” he says, “ I have seen natives upon their return, go to their camp, exhibiting the most stoical indifference, never take the least notice of their wives, but sit down, and act and look as if they had never been out of the encampment." * Women , in fact, are regarded as mere pro perty. There is no ceremony of marriage, and chastity is entirely disregarded, wives being valued principally for their services as slaves, and terribly ill - treated. “ No one,” says Eyre, “ ever attempts to take the part of a female. ” of Beauty only makes matters worse. “ The early life, ” says Captain Grey, “ of a young woman at all celebrated for beauty is gene rally one continued series of captivity to different masters, of ghastly wounds, rapid flights, and bad treatment from other females" # jealous of her superior attractions. Few women in Australia, it is said, live to thirty. Yet with all this lawless ness and tyranny, marriage is regulated by certain very curious prohibitions. Thus a man may steal another man's wife if he can , but, as already mentioned, he may not under any circum stances marry a woman of the same clan, even though not related in the remotest degree. There are certain great fami lies, such as the Ballaroke, Tdondarup, Ngotak, Nagarnook, Nogonyuk, Mongalmy, and Narrangur, which occur over a great portion of the continent, and within which marriage is not permitted. Indeed, it appears that every tribe is divided into clans, and that no man may marry a woman belonging to his own clan. In one sense every man is regarded as a husband of every woman belonging to any clan into which he might legally marry. These “ communal marriages, ” however, as I have elsewhere proposed to call them, are often more or less

• 1. c. pp. 2 , 215. See also P: 320, $ Eyre, vol. ii. p. 329. For fur

+ l. c. vol. ii . p. 387. ther particulars, see my“ Origin of I l. c. vol. ii. 249. Civilisation . " 2 G 2 452 THE TASMANIANS. theoretical, and a man has also his own special wife or wives. There are many other cases of prohibitions ; “ indeed ,” says Mr. Lang,* “ instead of enjoying perfect personal freedom , as it would at first appear, they are governed by a code of rules and a set of customs which form one of the most cruel tyrannies that has ever, perhaps, existed on the face of the earth, subjecting not only the will, but the property and life of the weak to the dominion of the strong. The whole tendency of the system is to give everything to the strong and old, to the prejudice of the weak and young, and more particularly to the detriment of the women. They have rules by which the best food, the best pieces, the best animals, etc. , are prohibited to the women and young men, and reserved for the old. The women are generally appropriated to the old and powerful, some of whom possess from four to seven wives ; while wives are altogether denied to young men, unless they have sisters to give in exchange, and are strong and courageous enough to prevent their sisters from being taken without exchange." The Tasmanians. The inhabitants of Van Dieman's Land belonged to quite a different race, but were just as wretched as those of Australia. According to Captain Cook's account, they had no houses, no clothes, no canoes, no instrument to catch large fish, no nets, no hooks ; they lived on mussels, cockles, and periwinkles, and their only weapon was a straight pole, sharpened at one end. + Mr. Dove informs us that they are entirely without any s moral views and impressions.” Indeed, he scarcely appears to regard them as rational beings. I Like the Australians, they have no means of expressing abstract ideas ; they have

• The Aborigines of Australia.

G. S. Lang, p. 7. + Third Voyage, vol. i. p . 100 . I Tasmanian Jour. of Nat. Sci. vol. i. p. 249. FIJI ISLANDERS. 453 not even a word for a “ tree.” Although fire was well known to them, some tribes, at least, appear to have been ignorant whence it was originally obtained, or how, if extinguished, it could be re- lighted. “ In all their wanderings,” says Mr. Dove, FIG . 209 . Tasmanian Firesticks . " * “ they were particularly careful to bear in their hands the materials for kindling a fire. Their memory supplies them with no instances of a period in which they were obliged to draw on their inventive powers for the means of resuscitating an element so essential to their health and comfort as flame. How it came originally into their possession is unknown. Whether it may be viewed as a gift of nature, or the product of art and sagacity, they cannot recollect a period when it was a desideratum. .... It was the part of the females especially to carry a firebrand in their hands, which was studiously re freshed from time to time as it became dull and evanescent. Fig. 209 represents a pair of Tasmanian firesticks, presented to me by Mr. Robinson. Fiji Islanders. The islands of the Pacific contain two very distinct races of men—the Negrito and the Polynesian. My space does not permit me to enter into the interesting question of their relationships and affinities. The Fijians belong to the former category, and in many respects resemble Negroes. They are darker than the Poly nesians. The jaws are larger, and the hair, though not exactly woolly, is frizzled. They are a powerful race, but not so grace

• Tasmanian Journal of Nat. Sci. vol. i. P. 250.

454 FIJI ISLANDERS. ful as the Polynesians. Their language is, however, more Polynesian than Negrito. Their institutions, customs, and manners, were partly Polynesian, partly Negrito .* It is re markable that they did not use the consonants “ b , ” “ d ,” or " g,” without placing “ m ” or “ n ” before them, as for instance Mbau, Nduandua, Ngata. It is well known how frequent these sounds are in Negro names. The food of the Fiji Islanders consisted of fish, turtle, shell fish, crabs, human flesh whenever it could be obtained, taro, yams, mandrai, bananas, and cocoa -nuts ; in addition to which , the higher classes occasionally indulged in pigs and fowls. They drank ava habitually, and at all their ceremonies. Their weapons consisted of spears, slings, clubs, bows and arrows. The spears were from ten to fifteen feet long, and were generally made of cocoa-nut wood ; the end was pointed and charred ; sometimes, though not often, a sharp bone was used for the point. They had several kinds of clubs, all made of iron wood. That most esteemed was about three feet long, with a heavy knob at the end. Another kind was somewhat shovel- shaped, and might rather be called a short sword. The ula was a short heavy club, about eighteen inches long, with a large and heavy knob. It was used as a missile, and the natives threw it with great accuracy and force. These were their principal weapons, the bows and arrows being weak and light. They were, however, used in war, as well as in killing fish. The fortified towns of the Fijians had an earthen " ram part, about six feet thick, faced with large stones, surmounted by a reed fence of cocoa-nut trunks, and surrounded by a muddy moat.” + Their houses were oblong , from twenty to thirty feet long, and fifteen feet high. They were made of cocoa-nut wood and tree fern, and were sometimes very well built. They had

• Latham , Varieties of Man, p. 226.

+ Williams, Figi and the Figians, vol. i . p . 48. HOUSES. TEMPLES . RELIGION. 455 two doorways on opposite sides, from three to four feet high and four feet wide. The sides were made of posts about three feet apart, and filled in with wicker- work. The roof had a steep pitch ; the rafters were generally of palm wood, thatched with wild sugar - cane, under which they placed fern leaves. A mat served as a door, and a few flat stones near the middle of the house served as the fire - place. The houses were seldom divided by partitions, but the two ends were raised about a foot, and were covered with layers of mats on which the natives slept. Their temples were pyramidal in form , and were often erected on terraced mounds, like those of Central America . * They also venerated certain upright stones, t resembling those which we call Druidical. “ The Feegeeans," says Mr. Hazle wood, “ consider the gods as beings of like passions with them selves. They love and hate ; they are proud and revengeful, and make war, and kill and eat each other ; and are, in fact, savages and cannibals like themselves." “ Cruelty ,” says Captain Erskine,I “ a craving for blood , and especially for human flesh as food , are characteristic of the gods.” Yet the Fijians looked upon the Samoans with horror, regarding them as having no religion , because they had no belief in any such deities, nor any of the sanguinary rites which prevailed in other islands. The Fiji canoes were very well constructed. They were generally double, of unequal size, the smaller one serving as an outrigger. The larger ones were sometimes more than a hundred feet in length. The two canoes were connected by a platform , generally about fifteen feet wide, and projecting two or three feet beyond the sides. The bottom of each con sisted of a single plank ; the sides were fitted by dovetailing,

• B. Seemann, in the Vacation Tourist for 1861 , p. 269.

+ Figi and the Figians, vol. i. p. 220. I Journal of a Cruise in the Western Pacific, p. 247. 456 CANOES. POTTERY. GAMES. women. and closely united by lashings passed through flanges left on each of the pieces. The joints were closed by the gum of the bread -fruit tree. The sails were large and made of mats. The mast was generally about half the length of the canoe, and the yard and boom usually twice as long as the mast. Their principal tool was an adze, formerly of stone, but now generally of iron. For boring holes they used the long spines of the echina, pointed bones, and, when they could get them, nails. Small teeth, such as those of rats and mice, were used for carving ; and their knives were made of the outside of a piece of bamboo, shaped into form while green . After being dried, it was charred, and thus became very hard and sharp, so that it might even be used in surgical operations. They differed from the Polynesians in using earthenware pots for cooking. These were graceful and well inade, though the potter's-wheel was unknown. The pottery was all made by Their tools were very simple, consisting of a small round flat stone to fashion the inside, and a flat mallet or spatula for the surface, which they made almost as round as if it had been turned in a lathe. Forks appear to have been long in use among the Fijians; a remarkable fact, if we remember that they were unknown in Northern Europe until the seventeenth century. The Fijians have several kinds of games. They are fond of swinging, and of throwing stones or fruits at a mark. They have also a game resembling skittles. Their dances, like those of so many other nations, are anything but decorous. Their musical instruments are the conch -shell, the nose - flute, pipes, a Jew's-harp made of a strip of bamboo, and several sorts of drums. They are also fond of poetry. Their agricultural implements have been described by Mr. Williams. The digging - sticks are made of a young mangrove tree. They are about the size of an ordinary hay - fork, and the lower end “ is tapered off on one side, after the shape AGRICULTURE. WOMEN. 457 of a quill toothpick. In digging, this flattened side is kept downwards. When preparing a piece of ground for yams, a number of men are employed, divided into groups of three or four. Each man being furnished with a digging -stick, they drive them into the ground so as to enclose a circle of about two feet in diameter. When, by repeated strokes, the sticks reach the depth of eighteen inches, they are used as levers, and the mass of soil between them is thus loosened and raised. " * The clods are then broken up by boys with short sticks. Weeding “ is accomplished by means of a tool used like a Dutch hoe, the workman squatting so as to bring the handle nearly level with the ground. The blade used formerly to be made of a bone from the back of a turtle, or a plate of tortoise -shell, or the valve of a large oyster, or large kind of pinna. In the Windward Islands they use a large dibble, eight feet long, about eighteen inches in circumference, and tapering to a point. They had also pruning knives of ” tor toise- shell lashed to the end of a rod ten feet long. They are skilful in basket-making, and have good strong nets made of creepers or of sinnet. The women are kept in great subjection . " The men fre quently tie them up and flog them . Like other property, wives might be sold at pleasure, and the usual price is a musket. Those who purchase them may do with them as they please, even to knocking them on the head.” Erskine, however, gives a more satisfactory account of the position held by the women ; and it appears that they are on the whole more chaste than is the case in some of the other Pacific Islands, which is saying something for them , but cer tainly not much. Although so lax in some things, they were very strict in others, and it was thought improper in some of these islands for husband and wife to spend the night under the same roof.

• Figi and the Figians, vol . i. p. 63.

458 DRESS. TATTOOING . BURIAL. Although but scantily clothed, the Fijians were very par ticular about their garments and their paint. They were specially proud of their hair, and if it was short they wore a wig as a substitute. Some of these wigs were most elaborate. The men wore “ tapa, ” which is a kind of cloth obtained from the inner bark of the paper-mulberry, and made into a sash, from three to one hundred yards in length. Six or ten yards is, however, the usual quantity, and it is passed between the legs and round the waist. * The women are not permitted to use “ tapa,” and their dress is more scanty than that of the men , consisting, indeed, only of the “ liku , ” a kind of band, made of the bark of the hibiscus, and fastened round the waist. It ends in a fringe, which is worn short by the girls, but longer after marriage. Nevertheless, though almost naked , the Fijians are said to have been very modest, and if any one were found entirely without clothes, Captain Wilkes thinks that the offender would be immediately put to death. Tattooing is confined to the women , who are ornamented in this maner on the fingers, the corners of the mouth, and, oddly enough, on those parts of the body which are covered by the “ liku .” The process is very painful, but submission to it is regarded as a religious duty, t any neglect of which will assuredly be punished after death. I The graves of the common people are only marked by a few stones, but over those of chiefs they build small houses, from two to six feet high, or in some cases erect large cairns of stone ; these also are sometimes " set up to mark the spot where a man has died .” ] The body is buried in a sitting posture. The usual sign of mourning is to crop the hair or beard, or both. Very often, also, they burn the skin into

• Figi and the Figians, vol. i. I A Mission to Viti, p. 112.

P. 156. Figi and the Figians, vol. i. + Ibid . p. 160 ; Wilkes, 1. c. p. 192. p. 355. CUSTOMS. PARRICIDE. 459 blisters, and cut off the end - joints of the small toe and little finger. Among the Fijians, parricide is not a crime, but a custom. They believe that was they die, such will be their condition in the next world. ” Moreover, the road to Mbulu is long and difficult. Hence it would be cruel to allow a beloved relative to become old and infirm . We are assured that so deeply rooted was this conviction, that as a matter of fact parents were generally killed by their children . Sometimes the aged people make up their minds that it is time to die ; sometimes it is the children who give notice to their parents that they are a burden to them. In either case, the friends and relatives are summoned, a consultation takes place, and a day is fixed for the ceremony, which commences with a great feast. The missionaries have often witnessed these horrible tragedies. On one occasion, a young man invited Mr. Hunt to attend his mother's funeral, which was just going to take place. Mr. Hunt accepted the invitation ; but when the funeral procession started, he was surprised to see no corpse, and accordingly made inquiries, when the young savage " pointed out his mother,* who was walking along with them as gay and lively as any of them present, and apparently as much pleased. ... He added that it was from love for his mother that he had done so ; that in consequence of the same love, they were now going to bury her, and that none but themselves could or ought to do so sacred an office. ... She was their mother, and they were her children, and they ought to put her to death . ” In such cases, the grave is dug about four feet deep, the relatives and friends begin their lamenta tions, take an affectionate parting, and bury the poor victim alive. It is surprising after this to hear that Mr. Hunt regarded the Fijians as being kind and affectionate to their parents ; but in fact " they consider this custom so great a

• Wilkes, 1. c. c. p. 95.

460 HORRIBLE RITES . proof of affection , that none but children could be found to perform it. ” So general in fact was this custom, so powerful the influence which it had upon them, that in one town, containing several hundred inhabitants, Capt. Wilkes did not see one man over forty years of age ; and, on asking for the old people, he was informed that they were all buried. Again, during the first year of Mr. Hunt's residence at Somo-somo, there was only one instance of natural death, all the aged and diseased having been strangled or buried alive. When a chief died, it was usual to " send with him ” some of his women and some slaves. At the death of Ngavindi, Mr. Calvert went to Mbau, hoping “ to prevent the strangling of women, but was too late. Three had been murdered. Thakombau proposed to strangle his sister, the chief wife of the deceased, as was the usual custom ; but the Lasakau people begged that she might be spared, and that her child might become their chief. Ngavindi's mother offered herself as a substitute, and was strangled. The dead chief lay in state, with a dead wife by his side, on a raised platform ; the corpse of his mother on a bier at his feet, and a murdered servant on a mat in the midst of the house. A large grave was dug in the foundation of a house near by, in which the servant was laid first, and upon her the other three corpses, wrapped and wound up together.” * In these cases the wives generally die voluntarily, believing that thus only can they hope to go to heaven. Horrible as are these facts, they at least show how strong must be the belief felt in a future state of existence. Still, though we may allow the goodness of the motive to extenuate some of these atrocities, it must be allowed that human life was but little regarded in Fiji. Not only infan ticide, but also human sacrifices, were very common , and, in fact, scarcely anything was undertaken without the latter.

• Figi and the Figians, vol. ii . p. 301 .

CANNIBALISM . 461 When the king launched a canoe, ten or more men were slaughtered on the deck, in order that it might be washed with human blood. But there is even worse to be told . The Fijians were most inveterate cannibals, and so fond were they of human flesh , that “ the greatest praise they can bestow on any delicacy is to say that it is as tender as a dead man . ” Nay, they were even so fastidious as to dislike the taste of white men, * to prefer the flesh of women to that of men , and to consider the arm above the elbow and the thigh as the best joints ; and so greedy, that human flesh was reserved for the men, being considered too good to be wasted upon the women. When the king gave a feast, human flesh always formed one of the dishes, and though the bodies of enemies slain in battle were always eaten, they did not afford a sufficient supply, but slaves were fattened up for the market. Sometimes they roasted them alive and ate them at once, while at others they kept bodies until they were far gone in decay. Ra Undre- undre, Chief of Rakiraki, was said to have eaten nine hundred persons himself, permitting no one to share them with him.t It was not from any want of food that the Fijians were cannibals. On one occasion they offered to the God of War “ ten thousand yams (weighing from six to twelve pounds each) , thirty turtles, forty roots of yaquona ( some very large), many hundreds of native puddings (two tons), one hundred and fifty giant oysters, fifteen water - melons, cocoa-nuts, a large number of violet land - crabs, taro, and ripe bananas." At a public feast Mr. Williams once saw “ two hundred men employed for nearly six hours in collecting and piling cooked food. There were six mounds of yams, taro, vakalolo, pigs, and turtles : these contained about fifty tons of cooked yams » +

• So also did the Australians, + Figi and the Figians, vol. i.

the Tongans, and the New Zea landers. p. 213. I Ibid. vol. i. p. 44 . 462 CHARACTER OF THE FIJIANS. and taro, fifteen tons of sweet pudding, seventy turtles, five cartloads of yaquona, and about two hundred tons of uncooked yams. One pudding, at a Lakemba feast, measured twenty one feet in circumference." Yet so habitual has cannibalism become, that they have no word for a corpse which does not include the idea of something edible. Human flesh is known as “ puaka balava, ” or “ long pig . “ On contemplating the character of this extraordinary people," says Erskine, † “ the mind is struck with wonder and awe at the mixture of a complicated and carefully -conducted political system , highly finished manners, and ceremonious politeness, with a ferocity and practice of savage vices which is probably unparalleled in any other part of the world.” “ Murder," says Mr. Williams, “ is not an occasional thing in Figi, but habitual, systematic, and classed among ordinary transactions. ” I Elsewhere he tells us that no Fijian ever feels safe with a stranger at his heels, and that to be " an acknowledged murderer is the object of the Figian's restless ambition. ” || On the island of Vanua Levu, even among the women, there were “ few who had not in some way been murderers.” To this they are trained up from infancy. “ One of the first lessons taught the infant is to strike its mother.” At Somo- somo, Mr. Williams saw mothers leading their children “to kick and tread upon the dead bodies of enemies. ” ** No wonder that under these circumstances " a happy and united household is most rare. ” Indeed it is nearly impossible, for by an arrangement, which seems almost incredible, “ brothers and sisters, first cousins, » * 1

• Erskine, l. c. p. 260. Other

mammalia, when introduced into + Erskine, l. c. p. 272. the South Sea Islands, received I Figi and the Figians, vol. i. names indicative of their similarity p. 134. to this their principal quadruped : § 1. c . p. 133. thus the horse was called the " man- || 1. c. p. 112. carrying pig ” in Tahiti ; the sheep T l . c. p . 180. was the “ hog with teeth on its fore- ** l. c. p. 177. head " (Forster, 1.c. p. 384 ). THE MAORIES. 463 " * fathers and sons- in-law, mothers and daughters-in-law, and brothers and sisters-in-law, are severally forbidden to speak to each other, or to eat from the same dish .” Yet amid so much that is horrible, there is still something in the Fijian which redeems his character from utter atrocity. If he hates deeply, he also loves truly ; if his revenge never dies, his fidelity and loyalty are strong and enduring. Thakombau was a thorough Fijian. Almost to the last he opposed the missionaries. He was not only heathen , but anti-Christian. At length being converted, he called his people together, and, says Mr. Calvert, “ What a congregation he had !-husbands whose wives he had dishonoured ! widows whose husbands he had slain ! sisters whose relatives had been strangled by his orders ! relatives whose friends he had eaten ! and children, the descendants of those he had murdered, and who had vowed to avenge the wrongs inflicted on their fathers !" + Yet even this man - an adulterer, a parricide, and a cannibal, whose hands were stained with a hundred murders—had still some thing noble and lovable about him ; so much so, indeed, that, in spite of his crimes, he secured the affection, the friendship, even the respect, of a man so excellent as Mr. Calvert. The Maories. The New Zealanders are the southernmost representatives of the great Polynesian family. Their principal food consisted of fern roots, which they scorched over the fire, and then beat with a stick, till the bark and dry outside fell off ; the re mainder being a soft substance, rather clammy and sweet, not unpleasant to the taste, but mixed with numerous stringy fibres which are very disagreeable. I In the northern districts were large plantations of yams and sweet potatoes. They also cultivated gourds, which were used for vessels, as they had no

• l. c. p. 136. + Figi and the Figians, vol. ii. p. 357.

I Dieffenbach's New Zealand, vol. ii. p. 11 , 464 DRESS . pottery. Their only instrument for tillage was “ a long narrow stake sharpened to an edge at one end, with a short piece fastened transversely at a little distance above it, for the con venience of pressing it down with the foot." Their animal food consisted principally of fish and shell - fish , and Captain Cook observed large shell-mounds near their houses. They sometimes also, though rarely, killed rails, penguins, shags, and other birds. They obtained fire from two pieces of wood in the usual manner. * A New Zealand stone adze is repre sented in figs. 111-113, p. 103. The only quadrupeds in the islands were dogs and rats. They had no hogs, and the dogs were kept entirely for food. They were skilful in fishing, having excellent lines, hooks made of bone and shell, and very large nets, which were made of the leaves of a kind of flax, split into strips of the proper breadth and tied together. In making the lines the leaves are " scraped by a shell, which removes the upper or green part, and leaves the strong white fibres, that run longitudi nally along the under side.” + This kind of cordage has even been preferred to that made of European hemp. Of these leaves also they made most of their clothes, for though acquainted with the manufacture of bark - cloth, it was very scarce, and worn only as an ornament. The leaves were split into three or four slips, which were interwoven into a kind of stuff, something between netting and cloth. Dog's wool was also used for the same purpose. I The dress was alike in both sexes, and consisted of two parts ; one piece of their rude cloth (if so it may be called) was tied over the shoulders and reached to the knees, being fastened in front by a piece of string or a bone bodkin ; the other piece was wrapped round the waist, and reached nearly to the ground.

• D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 479.

+ Fitzroy's Voyage of the “ Adventure ” and “ Beagle," vol. ii. p. 599. I D'Urville, vol. ii . p. 500. ORNAMENTS. TATTOOING . HOUSES. 465 This garment, however, was worn by the men only on parti cular occasions. For ornament they wore combs of wood or bone, feathers, necklaces, bracelets, and anklets of bones and shells, and ear rings of jade or albatross - down. Many of them had also small grotesque figures of jade, which were suspended from the neck and were regarded as very precious. The New Zea landers were also tattooed with great dexterity and elegance ; not only on the body, but even on the face, the general effect of which was in many cases far from unpleasant. The process, however, was extremely painful, so much so, indeed, that it could not be supported all at once, but was sometimes spread over several months, or even years. The lips and the corners of the eyes were the part that hurt most. To have shrunk from it would, however, have been a great disgrace. Their houses were about eighteen or twenty feet long, eight or ten broad, and five or six high. The sides sloped quite down to the ground, differing in this respect from those of Tahiti, which are left open at the sides. This was done, however, not for the sake of privacy, but to keep out the wind and rain . The sides were made of sticks, closely thatched with grass and hay, and the door was at one end , just high enough to admit a man on all fours. Another hole served both for window and chimney. The roof was often carved, and they frequently attached to the end of the ridge pole a monstrous representation of the proprietor.* Their villages were all fortified. They chose the strongest natural situations, and surrounded the houses with a palisade about ten feet high. The weaker sides were also defended " by a double ditch, the innermost of which has a bank, and an additional palisade. ” The stakes were driven obliquely into the ground, so that they projected over the ditch, which “from the bottom to the top or crown of the bank is four-and

• Dieffenbach, I. c. p. 69.

2 H 466 FORTIFICATIONS. WEAPONS. CANOES. FIG. 210 twenty feet. Close within the innermost palisade is a stage, twenty feet high, forty feet long, and six broad ; it is sup ported by strong posts, and is intended as a station for those who defend the place, from which they may annoy the assail ants by darts and stones, heaps of which lay ready for use . Another stage of the same kind commands the steep avenue from the back, and stands also within the palisade.” * Within the palisades they had reduced the ground, “ not to one level, but to several, rising in stages one above the other, like an amphitheatre, each of which is enclosed within its separate palisade.” These different platforms communicated only by narrow passages, so that each one was capable of separate defence ; and they were provided with large stores of dried fish, fern - roots, etc. As the natives, when first discovered , had no bows and arrows, nor even slings, in fact, no “ missile weapon except the lance, which was thrown by hand,” such positions as these must have been almost impregnable. Their principal weapon was the patoo patoo (fig . 210) , which was fas tened to the wrist by a strong strap, lest it should be wrenched from them . They had no defensive armour, but besides their weapons the chiefs carried a “ staff of dis tinction. " Their canoes were well built, and resembled those of the other islands. Many of them , however, were broad enough to sail without an outrigger. The two ends were often in geniously carved.t The dead were wrapped in native cloth, and either buried in a contracted posture, or exposed for a while on small square platforms; when the flesh had decayed away, the bones were

• Cook's First Voyage, p. 343. + Forster, 1. c . p. 326 .

Patoo Patoo. BURIAL, MUSIC. CHARACTER, 467 ( 6 washed, and finally deposited in a small covered box, which was generally elevated on a column in or near the village. * In some districts, however, they were usually thrown into the sea, except indeed those that were killed in battle. These were generally eaten by their enemies. None of the objects used by the dead during his last illness were ever employed again ; † they were generally broken or buried with the deceased. In one case a moa's egg has been found in the hands of a dead Maori, who was buried in the usual sitting posture. The egg was perfect, $ and may have been intended to serve as food for the dead. In the Taranaki district, according to Taylor, the natives were buried in their houses, the door was tied up and painted with ochre to show that it was ' taboo. " In most of the Pahs or fortified villages half the houses belonged to the dead, and these being never repaired gave the village a very neglected appearance. S Their principal musical instrument was the flute, of which they had three or four varieties. D'Urville also observed among them a kind of lyre, with three or four strings. They used large shells, too , as a kind of trumpet. They were very fond of singing, of poetry, and of dances. The latter were of two kinds, warlike and amorous. In character the New Zealanders were proud, jealous, irri table, cruel, and implacable; but at the same time sensible, generous, sincere, hospitable, and affectionate. Like other Polynesians, the Maories were much given to infanticide.T The girls before marriage were allowed great freedom . When once married, however, the women were faithful and affec tionate to their husbands, by whom, on the other hand, they

• Dieffenbach, 1.c. p.63; Fitzroy, § Taylor, New Zealand and its

1. c. p. 579. Inhabitants, p. 101 . + D'Urville, vol. ii. P. 536. || 1. c. vol. ii. p. 501 . I Zoologist, February, 1865 , p. Dieffenbach, 1. c. p. 16. 9454. 2 1 2 468 RELIGION. CANNIBALISM . were generally treated with both kindness and respect. On the whole, it must be admitted that the position of the women among the New Zealanders was far from unsatisfactory. The Maories were perpetually at war during life, and hoped to continue so after death. Heaven they regarded as a place where there would be continual feasts of fish and sweet potatoes ; where they would be always fighting, and always victorious. Whether they can be said to have had a religion , or not, depends upon the meaning we attach to the word. They believe in the survival of the soul, but not in the resurrection of the body, an article of faith which, as Mr. Marsden tells us, the missionaries could not induce them to accept. They had no idea of an Almighty Deity. Speaking to Mr. Taylor, Te Heuheu , chief of Taupo, ridiculed the idea. “ Is there,” he asked, “ one maker of all things amongst you Europeans ? Is not one a carpenter, another a blacksmith, another a ship-builder, and another a house -builder ? So it was in the beginning ; one God made this, another that : Tane made trees, Ru mountains, Tangaroa fish , and so forth . Your religion is of to- day, ours from remote antiquity. Do not think, then, to destroy our ancient faith with your fresh - born religion . " * Their principal deity was known as the Atoua, who was a cruel cannibal like themselves. When any one was ill, Atoua was supposed to be devouring his inside, and they endeavoured to frighten him away by curses and threats.f This we may regard as a kind of negative worship ; but on other occasions they certainly offered human and other sacri fices, in the vain hope of appeasing his wrath. They did not worship idols, but many of the priests seem to have really thought that they had been in actual communication with the Atoua ; and some of the early missionaries were inclined to believe that Satan might have been permitted to practise

• Dieffenbach, 1, c . p. 13. + Missionary Register, Nov. 1819.

RELIGION. CANNIBALISM . 469 a deception upon them in order to strengthen his power ! However extraordinary this may appear, the same was the case in Tahiti. “ In addition ,” says Mr. Ellis, “ to the firm belief which many who were sorcerers, or agents of the infernal powers, and others who were the victims of incantation, still maintain, some of the early missionaries are disposed to think this was the fact.” * Even Mr. Ellis himself was of the same opinion. With such low ideas of the Divinity, it is perhaps not surprising that some of the chiefs were looked upon as gods even during life. Watches and white men also were at first regarded as deities ; the latter not, perhaps, unnaturally, their fire - arms being regarded as thunder and lightning. The New Zealanders had but little regard for human life. Earle relates that a young chief named Atoi, who is described as having “ a handsome open countenance," on one occasion recognized a pretty girl of about 16, who had been working for Mr. Earle, and claiming her as a runaway slave, took her back with him to his village, where he killed and ate her. The next day he showed Mr. Earle “ the post to which she had been tied, and laughed to think how he had cheated her . ” “ For,” said he, “ I told her I only intended to give her a flog ging ; but I fired, and shot her through the heart. ” “ Yet," adds Mr. Earle, “ I again affirm , that he was not only a hand some young man, but mild and genteel in his demeanour, and a general favourite with us all.” + Although the New Zealanders were addicted to cannibalism, it was with them a very different habit from that of the Fijian. No doubt the Maori enjoyed his meals of hunian flesh . But the cannibalism of a New Zealander, though often a mere meal, was also sometimes a ceremony ; in these cases the object was something very different from mere sensual gratification ; it must be regarded as a part of his religion , as

• Polynesian Researches, vol. ii . p. 226.

+ Residences in New Zealand, p. 117.

470 CANNIBALISM . a sort of unholy sacrament. This is proved by the fact that, after a battle, the bodies which they preferred were not those of plump young men or tender damsels, but of the most cele brated chiefs, however old and dry they might be. * In fact, they believed that it was not only the material substance which they thus appropriated, but also the spirit, the ability, and the glory of him whom they devoured. The greater the number of corpses they had eaten , the higher they thought would be their position in the world to come. The Fans of Central Africa are said to entertain a similar idea. Under such a creed, there is a certain dignity about the habit, which is, at any rate, far removed from the sensuality of ordinary cannibalism. To be eaten was, on the other hand, the greatest misfortune that could happen to a New Zealander ; since he believed that the soul was thus destroyed as well as the body. The chief who could both kill and devour his enemy had nothing more to fear from him either in this world or the next ; on the contrary, the strength, ability, and prestige against which he had had to contend, were not only con quered, but, by this dreadful process, incorporated with and added to his own. In other cases, slaves were killed and eaten in honour of the gods. The New Zealanders declared that criminals alone were thus treated. The celebrated chief, E'hongui, evidently considered that the whole analogy of nature was in favour of cannibalism. He was surprised at the horror of it felt by D'Urville. Big fish, he said, eat little fish ; insects devour insects ; large birds feed upon small ones ; it is in accordance with the whole analogy of nature that men should eat their enemies. Tahiti. Tahiti, the queen of islands, has excited the wonder and admiration of almost all those by whom it has been visited.

• D'Urville, vol . ii. p. 547. † Ibid. p. 548.

TAHITI. 471 In some respects the Tahitians were surpassed by other South Sea Islanders ; the Fijians, for instance, being, as we have seen, acquainted with pottery ; but on the whole they may be taken as representing the highest stage in civilization to which man has in any country raised himself before the discovery or introduction FIG. 211 of metallic implements. It is not, indeed, at all pro bable that anyinhabitants of the great continents were so far advanced in civilization during their Stone Age. Doubtless, the Society Islanders would not have remained with out metal, if the country had afforded them the means of obtaining it. On the other hand , the ancient inhabitants of Europe were confined to the use of stone weapons only until they became acquainted with the supe riority of, and acquired the art of working in, copper, bronze, or iron ; and it is evident that a nation would in all pro bability discover the use Stone Axe with Wooden Handle of metal before attaining the highest pitch of civilization, which, without such aid , it would be possible for it to attain . The tools of the Tahitians when first discovered were made of stone, bone, shell, or wood. Of metal they had no idea. 472 IMPLEMENTS. When they first obtained nails, they mistook them for the young shoots of some very hard wood, and, hoping that life might not be quite extinct, planted a number of them care fully in their gardens. In a very short time, however, the earlier weapons were entirely replaced by those of iron ; and in his last voyage Captain Cook tells ust that “ a stone hatchet is, at present, as rare a thing amongst them as an iron one was eight years ago ; and a chisel of bone or stone is not to be seen .' The stone axes, or rather adzes, were of various sizes ; those in tended for cutting down trees weighed six or seven pounds, the little ones, which were used for carving, only a few ounces. All of them required continual sharpening, and a stone was always kept in readiness for this purpose. The natives were very skilful in the use of their adzes ; nevertheless, to fell a tree was a work of several days. Some of the South Sea axes have beautifully carved handles, as in fig. 212, representing a specimen in my own collection. These were axes of state. The chisels, or gouges, were of bone, generally that of a man's arm between the wrist and elbow. Pieces of coral were used as rasps, and splinters of bamboo for knives. For cultivating the ground they had instruments of hard wood, about five feet long, narrow , with sharp edges and pointed. These they used as spades or hoes. They had fish - hooks made of mother -of pearl, and every fisherman made them for himself. They generally served for the double purpose of hook and bait. " The shell is first cut into square pieces by the edge of another shell, and wrought into a form corresponding with the outline of the hook by pieces of coral, which are sufficiently rough to perform the office of a file ; a hole is then bored in

• Ellis, Polynesian Researches,

p . 298. + Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, vol. ii. p. 137. I Wilson, Missionary Voyage to the South Pacific, p. 245. § Cook’sVoyage round theWorld , vol. i. p. 483 ; vol. ii. p. 218. FISH - HOOKS. 473 FIG . 212 . the middle, the drill being no other than the first stone they pick up that has a sharp corner ; this they fix into the end of a piece of bamboo, and turn it between the hands like a chocolate mill ; when the shell is perforated and the hole suffi ciently wide, a small file of coral is introduced, by the application of which the hook is in a short time completed, few costing the arti ficer more time than a quarter of an hour. From the bark of the Poerou, a species of Hibiscus, they made ropes and lines, from the thickness of an inch to the size of a small pack thread ; with these they make WW South Sea Axe of Ceremony, in my Collection . 474 MODES OF FISHING . BASKETS. MATS. FIG . 213. nets for fishing.” They had also a kind of seine net, made “ of a coarse broad grass, the blades of which are like flags : these they twist and tie together in a loose manner, till the net, which is about as wide as a large sack, is from sixty to eighty fathoms long ; this they haul in shoal- smooth water, and its own weight keeps it so close to the ground that scarcely a single fish can escape.” They also used certain leaves and fruit which, when thrown into the water, inebriated the fish to such a degree that they might be caught by the hands. * Their fishing lines were made of the bark of the Erowa, a kind of nettle which grows in the moun tains, and were described as “ the best fish ing -lines in the world," better even than our strongest silk lines. They also used the fibres of the cocoa - nut for making threads, with which they fastened together the various parts of their canoes. They were very dexterous in making basket and wicker- work, “ of a thousand different pat terns, many of them exceedingly neat; " they also made many sorts of mats from rushes, grass, and bark , which were woven with greatneatness and regularity, although South Sea Fish - hook. entirely by hand and without any loom or machinery.f But their principal manufacture was a kind of cloth, made from bark, and of which there were three varieties, obtained respectively from the paper-mulberry, which was the best, the bread - fruit tree, and a kind of fig. This last, though less ornamental, was more useful than either of the others,

• Forster, Observations made during a Voyage round the World,

p. 463 ; Ellis, vol. ii. p. 288. + Ellis, vol. ii. pp. 179, 180. BARK -CLOTH . 475 because it resisted water, which they did not. All three kinds of cloth were made in the same way, the difference between them being only in the material. When the trees were of a proper size, that is to say, about six or eight feet high, and somewhat thicker than a man's thumb, they were pulled up and the roots and branches were cut off. The bark being slit up longitudinally, it peeled off readily, and was then soaked for some time in running water. After this, the green outside bark was carefully scraped off with a shell, and the strips were laid out in the evening to dry, being placed one by the side of another “ till they are about a foot broad, and two or three layers are also laid one upon the other . " By the morning a great part of the water had drained off or evapo rated, and “ the several fibres adhere together, so as that the whole may be raised from the ground in one piece.” It was then placed on the smooth side of a long piece of wood, and beaten by the women - servants with a wooden instrument, shaped like a square razor- strap, and about a foot long. The four sides of this instrument were “ marked lengthways with small grooves or furrows, of different degrees of fineness ; those on one side being of a width and depth sufficient to receive a small packthread, and the others finer in a regular gradation, so that the last are not more than equal to sewing silk . ” They beat the cloth first with the coarsest side, and afterwards with the others, ending with the finest : under this treatment it expanded greatly, and might be made almost as thin as a muslin . The different pieces of bark by this treat ment were so elosely fastened together, that the cloth might be washed and wrung out without any fear of tearing; but even if it were accidentally broken, it was repaired without difficulty, by pasting on a patch with a gluten prepared from the root of the pea : this was done so nicely that it could not be discovered . This cloth was cool and agreeable to the touch , being even softer than our broadcloth. It is hardly necessary 476 DRESS. to say that the fineness was regulated according to the purpose for which it was intended. The two first kinds were easily bleached, and then dyed of various colours, generally red and yellow. Both of these were vegetable colours, and not very fast. They had various strange and complicated dresses for great occasions, but their ordinary clothes were very simple, and consisted of two parts. One of them was a piece of cloth with a hole “ in the middle to put the head through ," and long enough to reach from the shoulder to the knee. The other was wrapped round the waist so as to hang down like a petticoat as low as the knee ; this was called the Parou. Frequently also they wore a piece of cloth tied round the head like a turban . The dress of the Queen is thus described by Ellis : * “ She was attired in a light, loose, and flowing dress of beautifully white native cloth, tastefully fastened on the left shoulder, and reaching to the ankle ; her hair was rather lighter than that of the natives in general; and on her head she wore a light and elegant native bonnet, of green and yellow cocoa -nut leaves ; each ear was perforated, and in the perforation two or three flowers of the fragrant Cape jessamine were inserted. ” The dress of the men was very similar, but instead of the petticoat, they brought the cloth between the legs ; this was called the Maro. In hot weather , t and at noon, both sexes went almost naked, wearing only the cloth round the waist. Besides the turbans and head - dresses of leaves, they sometimes wore long plaits of human hair, which they wound about the head in such a manner as to produce a very pretty effect. They were very clean both in their persons and their clothes ; constantly washing three times a day. Ornaments were worn by the men as much as by the women,

• 1. c . p. 148.

+ The Sandwich Islanders had small square fans of mat or wicker work , with handles of the same or of wood. DRESS. CANOES. 477 and consisted of feathers, flowers, pieces of shells, and pearls. Tattooing also was almost universal; and a person not pro perly tattooed would be as much reproached and shunned , as if with us he should go about the streets naked . ” * They anointed their heads frequently with perfumed cocoa - nut oil, but had no combs, which in so hot a country must have been much wanted. Notwithstanding this, the hair of the grown up people was very neatly dressed. Their houses were used principally as dormitories. They were made of wood, and were generally about twenty - four feet long, eleven wide, and nine feet high. They had no side walls, but the roof reached to within about three feet and a half of the ground. Palm leaves took the place of thatch, and the floor was generally covered with soft hay. The canoes resembled those of the Fijians, but are said to have been scarcely so well built. “ To prepare the planks was no easy task , but the great difficulty was to fasten them together. This was effected by strong thongs of plaiting, which are passed several times through holes that are bored with a gouge or auger of bone.” + The length of the canoes varied from ten up to ninety feet, “ but the breadth is by no means in proportion ; for those of ten feet are about a foot wide, and those of more than seventy are scarcely two." I These larger ones were not, however, used singly, but were fastened together side by side, in the manner already described. A canoe without an outrigger seemed to them an impossibi lity. S The labour of constructing these canoes must have been very great ; nevertheless, the South Sea Islanders pos sessed large numbers of them. On one occasion Captain Cook saw more than three hundred in one place ; and, without counting the smaller vessels, he estimated the whole naval

• Wilson, 1. c. p. 355.

+ Cook's First Voyage, p. 225 ; Forster, 1. c. p. 459. I Cook's First Voyage, p. 221. § Ellis, 1. c. vol. ii. p. 55. 478 MUSIC. GAMES. FURNITURE force of the Society Islands at one thousand seven hundred war canoes, manned by sixty -eight thousand men. * Their principal musical instrument was the drum ; it was made from a piece of solid wood, hollowed out, and covered over with shark's skin . They had also a kind of trumpet made of a large shell, with a hole at the small end, into which they fastened a bamboo cane about three feet long. Their flutes were of bamboo, and were blown with the nose. They had various kinds of games, some of which appear to have resembled our hockey and football. They were also very fond of dancing They were quite ignorant of pottery, but had large dishes made of polished wood. The shells of cocoa -nuts were used as water - bottles and cups. They were scraped thin, polished, often very ingeniously carved, and kept extremely clean. Generally the natives of Tahiti sat cross-legged on mats spread on the floor ; but the chiefs had often four- legged stools. Chairs and tables were unknown. They slept also on mats and used a wooden pillow, very much resembling a small stool. The upper side was curved like the seat of the stool, to admit the neck. Each house also contained a light post, planted in the floor, and with several projections, from which the various dishes, calabashes of water, baskets of food , etc., were hung + Their weapons were formidable, though simple. They con sisted of slings, pikes headed with stone, and long clubs made of hard, heavy wood. With the former they were very skilful. Their sling -stones were of two kinds, “either smooth, being polished by friction in the bed of a river, or sharp, angular and rugged ; these were called ofai ara — faced or edged stones." ! We have already mentioned ( p. 105) that two sorts of sling- stones, closely corresponding to these, were used

• Cook's Second Voyage, vol. i. + Ellis, l. c. vol. ii. p. 184 .

p. 349. I Ibid . vol. ii. p. 49. WEAPONS. FOOD. 479 by the ancient inhabitants of Europe. It would be interesting to know the relative advantage of the two classes, which surely cannot have been used for exactly the same purposes. They had also bows and arrows, which, however, were not sufficiently strong to be used in warfare. The bow -strings were made of Roava bark. * The Society Islanders are said to have been cruel in war, but according to Captain Cook “ they are seldom disturbed by either foreign or domestic troubles." Though not cowards, they regard it as “ much less disgraceful to run away from an enemy with whole bones, than to fight and be wounded.” + “ Of tame animals they had only hogs, dogs, and poultry ;; neither was there a wild animal in the island, except ducks, pigeons, parroquets, with a few other birds, and rats, there being no other quadruped, nor any serpent." The dogs were kept entirely for food , and Captain Cook assures us that “ a South Sea dog was little inferior to an English lamb : their excellence is probably owing to their being kept up and fed wholly on vegetables.” The natives preferred dog to pork. From the sea they obtained excellent fish and shell- fish . They had also bread - fruit, bananas, plantains, yams, cocoa - nnts, potatoes, the sugar - cane, a fruit not unlike an apple, and several other plants which served for fruit, and required very little culture. The bread - fruit tree supplied them with abundance of fresh fruit for eight months, and during the other four they used " mahie, ” which is a kind of sour paste, prepared from the fermented ripe fruit. It is probable that nine -tenths of their diet consisted of vegetable food ; and the common people scarcely ever tasted either pork or dog, although the hogs appear to have been very abundant.

• Wilson, I. c. p. 368.

+ Ibid . p. 363. I Wallis's Voyage round the World ; Hawkesworth's Voyages, vol. i. p. 482. $ Cook'sVoyage round the World, p. 187. 480 FOOD. FIRE. They obtained fire by friction . When the wood was quite dry, the process did not take longer than two minutes, but in wet weather it was very tedious. Having no pottery, they did not boil their food. “ It is impossible,” says Wallis, " to describe the astonishment they expressed when they saw the gunner, who, while he kept the market, used to dine on shore, dress his pork and poultry by boiling them in a pot ; having , as I have before observed, no vessel that would bear the fire, they had no idea of hot water.” * Captain Cook also expressly states that “ they had but two ways of applying fire to dress their food, broiling and baking. ” + Mr. Tylor, however, has pointed out | that they were acquainted with the use of boiling stones, and that they could not therefore have been entirely ignorant of hot water. In order to bake a hog, they made a small pit in the ground, which they paved with large stones, over which they then lighted a fire. When the stones were hot enough, they took out the embers, raked away the ashes, and covered the stones with green cocoa-nut leaves. The animal which was to be dressed, having been cleaned and prepared, was wrapped up in plantain leaves, and covered with the hot embers, on which again they placed bread - fruit and yams, which also were wrapped up in plantain leaves. Over these they spread the rest of the embers, and some hot stones, finally covering the whole with earth . The meat thus cooked is described as being tender and full of gravy ; in fact, both Wallis and Cook considered that it was “ better in every respect than when it is dressed in any other way. ” For sauce they used salt water, without which no meal was ever eaten, and a kind of thick paste made from the kernels of cocoa -nuts. At their meals they drank either water or cocoa-nut juice. The Sandwich Islanders were very fond of salt meat, and had regular salt-pans on the sea- shore.S

• l. c. vol. i. P. 484. + Second Voyage, vol. ii. p. 197.

I Early History of Mankind, p. 266. § Cook’s Third Voyage, vol. iii. p. 151. COOKERY. AVA . 481 The only intoxicating liquor was the ava, an infusion made from the root, stalks, and leaves of a kind of pepper, which, however, fortunately for them, was entirely forbidden to the women, and seldom permitted to the lower classes. In some of the other islands this liquid is prepared in a very disgusting way. The roots were broken in pieces, cleaned, chewed, and then placed in a wooden bowl, mixed with a certain quantity of water, and stirred up with the hands. In Tahiti, however, the chewing was dispensed with. The wooden bowls out of which the chiefs drank their ava were often very fair speci mens of carving. In the Sandwich Islands they are described as having been “ usually about eight or ten inches in diameter, perfectly round, and beautifully polished. They are supported by three, and sometimes four, small human figures, in various attitudes. Some of them rest on the hands of their sup porters, extended over the head : others on the head and hands ; and some on the shoulders." These figures are said to have been “ accurately proportioned and neatly finished, and even the anatomy of the muscles, in supporting the weight, well expressed. * Captain Cookt gives an interesting description of the manner in which the chiefs dined. They had no table, and each person ate alone and in silence. Some leaves were spread on the ground to serve as a table -cloth , and a basket was set by the chief containing his provision, which, if fish or flesh , was ready dressed and wrapped in leaves. Two cocoa - nut shells were put by the side, one containing salt water and the other fresh. He first washed his hands and mouth thoroughly with the fresh water, and this he repeated almost continually through the meal. He then took part of his provision out of the basket, which generally consisted of a small fish or two, two or three bread - fruits, fourteen or fifteen ripe bananas, or six or seven apples. He began by eating

• Third Voyage, vol. iii . p. 148. † First Voyage, vol. ii. p. 200.

21 482 A CHIEF'S DINNER. some bread -fruit, at the same time breaking one of the fishes into the salt water. He then took up the bits of fish in his fingers, in such a manner as to get with it as much salt water as possible, and very frequently he took a mouthful of the salt water, either out of the cocoa-nut or in his hand. Some times, also, he drank the juice of a cocoa-nut. When he had done his bread - fruit and fish , he began his plantains or apples, after which he ate some more bread - fruit, beaten into a sort of paste, and generally flavoured with banana or some other fruit. For a knife he used either a shell or a piece of split bamboo, and in conclusion he again washed his hands and mouth. They were quite unacquainted with forks, and Cap tain Wallis * tells us that, during his visit, one of the natives who “ tried to feed himself with that instrument, could not guide it , but by the mere force of habit his hand came to his mouth and the victuals at the end of the fork went away to his ear. ” Nor did they use plates. Poulaho, Chief of the Friendly Islands, dining one day on board the ship, was so much struck by the pewter plates that Captain Cook gave him one. He did not, however, intend to employ it in the usual manner, but said that “ whenever he should have occa sion to visit any of the other islands, he would leave this plate behind him at Tongataboo, as a sort of representative in his absence . ” + Captain Cook was much surprised to find that a people who were so sociable, and who enjoyed so much the society of women, never made their meals together. Even brothers and sisters had each their own basket, and when they wished to eat would go out, “ sit down upon the ground, at two or three yards' distance from each other, and, turning their faces different ways, take their repast without interchanging a single word . ” They ate alone, they said, “ because it was right,” but why it was right they were unable to explain. We must,

• Voyage round the World, p. 482. + Third Voyage, vol. i . P. 326.

SOLITARY MEALS. 483 however, remember that these islanders were together much more than we are. We enjoy a sociable meal, because the nature of our occupations keeps us apart so much at other times ; but among a people whose wants were supplied with so little exertion on their part, who were all day long together, and had no rooms into which they could retire and be alone, it must have been a great thing to have some way of escaping from their friends and being quiet without giving offence. As there were no stated times for meals, a man who wished to be alone need only to take out his basket of provisions, and he might be sure that he would not be disturbed. This custom, therefore, seems to have been both ingenious and convenient. * Although they usually went to bed soon after dark, still the natives of Tahiti were not entirely without candles, for which they used the “ kernels of a kind of oily nut, which they stick one over another upon a skewer that is thrust through the middle of them . ” These candles burn a con siderable time, and are said to have given a pretty good light. The Society Islanders had no knowledge of medicine as dis tinct from witchcraft ; but some wonderful stories are told of their skill in surgery. I will give perhaps the most extra ordinary. “ It is related ,” says Mr. Ellis, “ although,” he adds with perfect gravity, “ I confess I can scarcely believe it, that on some occasions, when the brain has been injured as well as the bone, they have opened the skull, taken out the injured portion of the brain , and, having a pig ready, have killed it,

• Since the above was written, ways retired the moment my dinner I have met with the following pas. or breakfast was brought to me.

sage in Burchell : “ I had sufficient This gave me a few moments' relief reason for admiring one of the cus- from the fatigue of incessant con toms of the Bachapins; that, not- versation .” --Travels in Southern withstanding they never at any Africa, vol. ii . p. 408. other time left me alone , they al 2 1 2 484 SURGERY. MODES OF BURIAL. taken out the pig's brains, put them in the man's head, and covered them up. ' The nostrils of the female infants were often pressed or spread out during infancy, because they looked on a flat nose as a mark of beauty. In the same way the boys sometimes had their forehead and the back of their head pressed upwards, so that the upper part of the skull appeared in the shape of a wedge. This was supposed to make them look more formi dable in war. The dead were not buried at once, but were placed on a platform raised several feet above the ground, and neatly railed in with bamboo. The body was covered with a cloth, and sheltered by a roof. By the side were deposited the weapons of the deceased, and a supply of food and water. When the body had entirely decayed, the bones were collected, carefully cleaned and buried, according to the rank of the deceased, either within or without a “ morai.” ! The largest morai seen by Captain Cook was the one prepared for Oamo and Oberea, who were the then reigning sovereigns. This was indeed the “ principal piece of architecture in the island. It was a pile of stonework, raised pyramidically, upon an oblong base, or square, two hundred and sixty- seven feet long, and eighty -seven wide. It was built like the small pyramidal mounts upon which we sometimes fix the pillar of a sun- dial, where each side is a flight of steps ; the steps, however, at the sides, were broader than those at the ends, so that it terminated not in a square of the same figure with the base, but in a ridge, like the roof of a house : there were eleven of these steps, each of which was four feet high, so that the height of the pile was forty -four feet; each step was formed of one course of white

• Ellis, 1. c . vol. ii. p. 277.

+ l. c. vol. i. p. 343. I In some cases the head is not buried with the other bones, but is deposited in a kind of box. OBEREA'S MORAI. 485 coral stone, which was neatly squared and polished ; the rest of the mass, for there was no hollow within, consisted of round pebbles, which, from the regularity of their figure, seemed to have been wrought." * A very similar account of this structure has been more recently given by Wilson , t who makes the size and height a little greater ; and when it is considered that this was raised without the assistance of iron tools to shape the stones, or of mortar to fasten them together, it is impossible not to be struck with admiration at the mag nitude of the enterprize, and the skill with which it appears to have been carried out. It is, perhaps, the most important monument which is positively known to have been constructed with stone tools only, and renders it the less unlikely that some of the large tumuli and other ancient monuments of Europe may belong to the Stone Age. When a chief died, his relations and attendants cut and mangled themselves in a dreadful manner. They ran spears through their thighs, arms, and cheeks, and beat themselves about the head with clubs “ till the blood ran down in streams." They also frequently cut off the little finger on these occasions ; a curious custom , which is common also in the Friendly Islands. In Tiarrabou, Captain Cook saw a rude figure of a man , made of basket - work and about seven feet high. This was intended as a representation of one of the inferior gods, but was said to be the only one on the island ; for the natives, when first discovered, though they worshipped numerous deities, to whom also human sacrifices were sometimes offered , yet were not idolaters. At a later period, however, Ellis saw

• Cook's Voyage round the World, a similar mausoleum built with

vol. ii. p. 166. Similar but some- blocks of stone, some of which were what smaller morais were observed twenty feet long, six or eight broad , in the Sandwich Islands ( Third and two in height. They were Voyage, vol. iii. p. 6) . In the neatly squared. 1. c. vol. iv. p. 106. Friendly Islands, D'Urville saw + 1. c. p. 207. 486 RELIGION . among them many rude idols . * rude idols. * Captain Cook found their religion , “ like that of most other countries, involved in mystery, and perplexed with apparent inconsistencies.” + They believed in the survival of the soul, and in “ two situations of different degrees of happiness, somewhat ana logous to our heaven and hell; " but, far from regarding them as places of reward and punishment, thought that the happiest lot was of course intended for the chiefs and superior classes, the other for the people of inferior rank. Indeed, they did not suppose that their actions here in the least influenced their future state ; so that their religion did not act upon them by promises or threats, and their “ expressions of adoration and reverence, whether by words or actions, arise only from a humble sense of their own inferiority, and the ineffable excellence of divine perfection. ” However mistaken they may have been on many points, however wrong many of their customs doubtless appear to us, surely under such a creed as this, good actions become doubly virtuous, and virtue itself shines the brighter. They had no laws, nor courts of justice. Personal security and the rights of private property were but little regarded among them. The chiefs and priests exercised an authority founded on fear and superstition. They were, in fact, governed by custom rather than by law, for which, indeed , they had no word in the language . It is only fair to the chiefs to add that they were above being idle, and thought it a disgrace if they did not excel in all departments of labour.|| In character the inhabitants of Tahiti, according to Captain Cook, “ were liberal, brave, open, and candid , without either suspicion or

• Ellis, 1. c. vol. i. p. 526 ; Wil son , l. c. p. 242.

† See also Forster, 1. c. p. 539. I Cook's First Voyage, vol. ii. p. 239 ; Ellis, vol. i. P. 518, § Ellis, l. c. vol. ii. p. 427. || Ibid . vol . ii . p. 178. GOVERNMENT. 487 treachery, cruelty or revenge. * They were very anxious for education. The women were affectionate, tender, and obedient ; the men mild, generous, slow to take offence, and easily satis fied. Both sexes were very healthy. “ I never saw any one,” says Forster,” + “ of a morose, peevish, discontented disposition in the whole nation ; they all join to their cheerful temper a politeness and elegance which is happily blended with the most innocent simplicity of manners. ” Murders were very rare among them ; and though much licence was permitted to the young women before marriage, the married women , according to Captain Cook, were as well behaved “ as in any other country whatever.” They were very thievish ; but we must consider the immense temptations to which they were subjected, and the, to them, inestimable value of the articles which they stole. Like other savages, they resembled children in many respects : their sorrows were transient, their passions suddenly and strongly expressed. On one occasion, Oberea, the queen, who was then about forty years old, took a parti cular fancy to a large doll, which was accordingly presented to her. Shortly afterwards they met Tootahah, one of the principal chiefs, who became so jealous of Oberea's doll, that they were obliged to give him one also. There are scarcely any nations, whether barbarous or civi lized, in which the relations of the two sexes are on the whole satisfactory. Savages, almost without exception, treat their women as slaves, and civilized nations too often avoid this error only to fall into others. The inhabitants of Tahiti are said to have been absolutely without any ideas of decency, or rather, as Captain Cook puts it, perhaps more correctly, “ of indecency ,” that is, at least, in our sense of the term. This no doubt arose in part from their large open houses, which were not divided into separate rooms.

• First Voyage, vol. ii. p. 188. I Voyage to the South Pole,

+ 1. c. p. 582. vol . i . p. 187. 488 IDEALS OF RIGHT AND WRONG. However this may be, where there was no sin, they saw no shame, and it must be confessed that in many points their idea of sin was very different from ours. Before, however, we con demn them, let us remember that a dinner-party would have seemed as wrong to them as many of their customs do to us. If the freedom , both in language and in action, which they per mitted to themselves, seems to us in many respects objection able, we must not forget that our ideas of delicacy shut out from general conversation numerous subjects of great interest and importance, and throw round many matters of the utmost importance an air of mystery which is not without serious disadvantages. A considerable number of the principal people of both sexes in Tahiti were formed into an association called the “Arreoy, ” all the members of which were regarded as being married to one another. If any of the women of the society had a child, it was almost invariably killed : but if it was allowed to live, the father and mother were regarded as having definitely engaged themselves to one another, and were ejected from the association ; the woman being known from that time as a “ bearer of children ,” which was among this extraordinary people a term of reproach. The existence of such a society shows how fundamentally the idea of virtue may differ in different countries. Yet the married women were faithful to their husbands, and beautifully modest. It is impossible, indeed, to acquit even them of the charge of infanticide, for which we may find a cause, though not an excuse. I do not allude to the curious custom, that a child, as soon as it was born, inherited the titles, rank , and property of its father, so that a man who was yesterday a chief might be thus at once reduced to the condition of a private person ; nor to the fact that any Arreoy who spared her infant was at once excluded from that society. We cannot suppose that such customs were without their effect; but a more powerful reason may perhaps be found THE ARREOY SOCIETY. 489 for in the fact, that their numbers were already large, the means of subsistence limited, and that, as but few were carried off either by disease or in war, the population would soon have outgrown their supplies, if some means were not taken to check the natural increase of numbers. * However this may be, infanticide appears to have been dreadfully prevalent amongst them . It has been estimated that two-thirds of the children were destroyed by their own parents, † and both Mr. Nott and Mr. Ellis agree that, during the whole of their resi dence in the island, until the adoption of Christianity, they did not know a single case of a mother who had not been guilty of this crime. According to Wilson, their language contained no word thanks, ” and even Cook admits that they had no respect for old age. Fitzroy goes still farther, and assures us that “ they scrupled not to destroy their aged or sick-yes, even their parents, if disabled by age or sickness.” S No such accusation is, however, brought against them by earlier writers, so that such actions are probably very rare, and the result, as among the Fijians, of misdirected affection rather than of deliberate cruelty. They had no money ; and though it was easy to obtain the necessaries of life, to accumulate property was almost impos sible. Again, the absence of spirituous liquors, and the rela tions between the sexes (however unsatisfactory in some respects) , took away from them some of the principal incen tives to crime. On the whole, then, if we judge them by a South Sea standard , the natives of the Society Islands appear to have been very free from crime. In spite of the differences which sometimes arose in conse quence of their thievish disposition, and also perhaps in great

• See, for instance, Kotzebue's

New Voyage, vol. i . p. 308. + Ellis, vol. i . pp. 334, 336. I l. c. p. 365. § 1. c. vol. ii . p. 551 . 490 GENERAL CHARACTER. measure from their not being able perfectly to understand each other, Captain Cook and his officers lived with the natives “ in the most cordial friendship ,” and took leave of them with great regret. Mr. Ellis, on the contrary , assures us that “ no portion of the human race was ever perhaps sunk lower in brutal licentiousness and moral degradation than this isolated people.” * Such a statement is surely quite inconsistent with the account he gives of their anxiety to possess copies of the Bible when it was translated into their language. “They were, ” he says, “ deemed by them more precious than gold-yea, than much fine gold ,” and “ became at once the constant companion of their possessors, and the source of their highest enjoyment.” + The inhabitants of the Friendly, or Tonga, and of the Sandwich Islands, are also very well described by Captain Cook, but they belonged to the same race as those of Tahiti and New Zealand, and resembled them in religion, language, canoes, houses, weapons, food, habits, etc. It is somewhat remarkable that the Sandwich Islanders, in many respects, as for instance in their dances, houses, tattooing, etc., resembled the New Zealanders even more than their nearer neighbours in the Society and Friendly Islands. In the Friendly Islands Captain Cook observed a very singular luxury in which the chiefs indulged themselves. When one of them wished to go to sleep, two women came and sat by him, “ beating briskly on his body and legs with both fists, as on a drum, till he fell asleep, and continuing it the whole night, with some short intervals. ” When the chief is sound aleep they sometimes rest themselves a little, “ but resume it if they observe any appearance of his waking. ” I A similar statement is made by Wilson in his Missionary Voyage. In all the islands the chiefs appear to have been treated with respect, none the less

• Ellis, 1. c. vol. ii . p. 25. I Third Voyage, vol. i . p. 323.

+ Ibid. vol . i . pp. 393—408. § 1.c. p . 237. THE TONGANS. 491 profound because shown in ways which seem to us peculiar. One of them was to uncover the body from the waist, and it seems to have been a matter of indifference, or rather of con venience, whether this was done upwards or downwards. * In the Friendly Islands it was accounted a striking mark of rudeness to speak to the king while standing up. There was also a certain amount of commerce between the different islands. Bora -bora and Otahaw produced abundance of cocoa -nut oil, which was exchanged at Tahiti for cloth . The Low Islands, again, could not successfully grow the paper mulberry ; but they had a breed of dogs with long silky hair, which was much prized in the other islands.

• Cook's First Voyage, vol. ii. p. 125,

( 492 ) CHAPTER XIV. MODERN SAVAGES — continued. THE Esquimaux. THE Esquimaux, and the Esquimaux alone among savage races, occupy both the Old and the New World. They inhabit the shores of the Arctic Ocean from Siberia to Green land ; and throughout this great extent of country the language, appearance, habits, occupations, and weapons of the natives are very similar, and it must be added that the latter are most ingenious. The language of the Innuit, or Esquimaux, is akin to that of the North American Indians in structure, while their appearance has a decided likeness, particularly about the eyes, to the Chinese and Tartars. Their dwellings are of two kinds. The summer they pass in tents or wigwams, with the entrance to the south or south east. In those observed by Captain Parry, the tent-poles were, in the absence of wood, formed of stags' horns, or bones lashed together. The lower borders of the skins were held down by large stones. These were sometimes built up into regular circles, eight or nine feet in diameter, and four or five feet high. * These circles were at first supposed to be the remains of winter-houses ; but it was subsequently ascertained that they were exclusively used for extending the skins of the summer - tents. Near these “ hut circles ,” long rows of stand ing stones were several times observed.t The winter- houses

• Parry's Voyage, 1821-23, pp. 17, 51 .

+ 1.c. pp. 62, 285 , 363. TENTS. HOUSES. 493 in the southern districts are constructed of earth or drift timber, which is very abundant in some places. In the north , however, wood becomes extremely rare. The Esquimaux at the northern end of Baffin's Bay, * who had no wood, except ing twigs of a dwarfish heath, were so little acquainted with the nature of timber that several of them successively seized spare top -mast of the “ Isabella,” evidently with the intention of stealing it, and quite unconscious of its weight. In the absence of wood, their houses were built of ice and snow ; those of ice are beautiful, and almost transparent, so that even at some little distance it is possible to see every thing that takes place in them. They are, however, much colder than those of snow, which therefore are generally pre ferred. West of the Rocky Mountains the winter- houses were usually under- ground. A Kamskatchadale “ yourt ” is thus described by Captain Cook : f “ An oblong square, of dimen sions proportionate to the number of persons for whom it is intended ( for it is proper to observe that several families live together in the same jourt) , is dug into the earth to the depth of about six feet. Within this space strong posts, or wooden pillars, are fastened in the ground, at proper distances from each other, on which are extended the beams for the support of the roof, which is formed by joists resting on the ground with one end, and on the beams with the other. The inter stices between the joists are filled up with a strong wicker work, and the whole covered with turf ; so that a jourt has externally the appearance of a low round hillock . A hole is left in the centre, which serves for chimney, window, and entrance, and the inhabitants pass in and out by means of a strong pole (instead of a ladder) notched deep enough to afford a little holding for the toe, ” as in fig. 141 (p. 137). on the

• Ross, Baffin's Bay, p. 122. vol. iii. p. 374. See also vol. iii.

+ Voyages to the Pacific Ocean, p. 450. 494 INTERIOR OF AN ESQUIMAUX HOUSE. More often, however, the entrance consisted of a sunken passage, as in fig. 141 * (p. 139) or fig . 143 ( p. 163). As a general rule we may say that the western yourts are subterranean, while those of the tribes who live east of the Rocky Mountains are generally above- ground. The manner in which the Esquimaux construct their snow igloos has been well described by Captain Parry. They choosef a drift of hard and compact snow , and from this they cut oblong slabs, six or seven inches thick and about two feet in length. With these they build a circular wall, inclining inwards so as to form a dome, which is sometimes as much as nine or ten feet high, and from eight to fifteen feet in diameter. A small door is then cut on the south side. It is about three feet high, two and a half wide at the bottom , and leads into a passage about ten feet long, and with a step in the middle, the half next the hut being lower than either the floor of the hut or the outer passage. For the admission of light, a round hole is cut on one side of the roof, and a circular plate of ice, three or four inches thick and two feet in diameter, is let into it. If several families intend to live together, other chambers are constructed which open into the first, and then, after a quantity of snow has been shovelled up on the outside, the shell of the building is regarded as finished. The next thing is to raise a bank of snow two and a half feet high all round the interior of the building, except on the side next the door. This bank forms the bed. Over it is laid some gravel, upon that again paddles. tent-poles, pieces of whale -bone, twigs of birch and of andro meda, etc. , and finally a number of deer -skins, which form a soft and luxurious couch. They have no fireplace, properly so called, that is to say, no hearth, but each family has a separate lamp or shallow vessel generally made of lapis ollaris , in which they burn seal's oil, with a wick made of dry moss. + Parry, 1. c. p. 500. ABSENCE OF CLEANLINESS. 495 Although they had no knowledge of pottery, Captain Cook saw at Oonalashka vessels “ of a flat stone, with sides of clay, not unlike a standing pie." * We here obtain an idea of the manner in which the knowledge of pottery may have been developed. After using clay to raise the sides of their stone vessels, it would naturally occur to them that the same sub stance would serve for the bottom also, and thus the use of stone might be replaced by a more convenient material. The natives of the Lower Murray cook their food in a hollow in the ground, which they line with clay, and in other cases gourds and wooden vessels are coated with clay in order to enable them to stand heat. Thus we see three ways in which pottery may have been invented . The snow- houses melt away every spring ; but in some places the Esquimaux construct their dwellings on a similar plan, but with the bones of whales and walruses on a founda tion of stones, and with a covering of earth. The snow-houses are of course pretty clean at first, but they gradually become very filthy. The bone huts are even dirtier, because more durable. “ In every direction round the huts ,” says Captain Parry , “ were lying innumerable bones of walruses and seals, together with skulls of dogs, bears, and foxes, on many of which a part of the putrid flesh still remaining sent forth the most offensive effluvia.” + He even observed a number of human bones lying about among the rest. The inside of the huts, “ from their extreme closeness and accumulated filth, emitted an almost insupportable stench, to which an abundant supply of raw and half - putrid walrus flesh in no small degree contributed." S On the north -western coast of America the natives find plenty of drift -wood, and the floors of their yourts are, ac

• Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, I See also Lyon's Journal, p. 236.

vol. ii. p. 510. § Parry, 1. c . p. 358. + Parry, 1.c. p. 280. 496 STORES OF FOOD. cording to Belcher, made of split timber, nicely smoothed and carefully caulked with moss. Underneath is often a large store-room, for in summer they kill many reindeer, whales, walrus, seals, swans, ducks, etc., the greater part of which are laid by for winter use. One of these winter stores is thus expressively, though somewhat hastily, described by Sir E. Belcher : * “ It was frozen into a solid mass beneath, but loose from those on the surface, and seemed to be incorporated, by some unexplained process, into a gelatinous snow, which they scraped up easily with the hand and ate with satisfaction fish oil predominating. It was not offensive nor putrid. How many years the lower mass may have remained there I could not determine. ” He estimates the quantity of solid meat in this storehouse alone at 71,424 pounds. Captain Ross also mentions + the large stores of food laid up by the Esquimaux of Boothia Felix during the summer for winter use. The habit does not, however, appear to be general among the Esquimaux, though they all of them make “ caches " of meat under stone cairns. Charlevoix derives the name " Esquimaux” from the Indian word Eskimantsik, which means eaters of raw food; " many of these northern tribes being in the habit of eating their meat uncooked. We must in justice to them remember that several of our Arctic Expeditions have adopted the same custom , which seems indeed in those latitudes highly conducive to health. I Their food, if cooked at all, is broiled or boiled. Their vessels being of stone or wood cannot, indeed, be put on the fire ; but heated stones are thrown in until the water becomes

• Trans. Ethn. Soc. , New Ser. , vol. ii. p. 311 ; Kane's Arctic Ex

vol. i. p. 132. plorations, vol. ii . p. 133. + Narrative of a Second Voyage, I See, for instance, Kane's Arctic p. 251 ; and Appendix, p. 21. See Explorations, vol. ii. p . 14. also Hall's Life with the Esquimaux, COOKERY. FOOD. 497 hot enough, and the food is cooked. Of course, the result is a mess of soot, dirt, and ashes, which would, according to our ideas, be almost intolerable ; but if the stench of their houses does not take away a man's appetite, nothing else would be likely to do so. They never wash their pots or kettles ; the dogs save them this trouble. Those who have arrived at a dim consciousness of their dirtiness, do generally but make matters worse, for if they wish to treat a guest " genteelly, they first lick the piece of meat he is to eat clean from the blood and scum it has contracted in the kettle, with their tongue ; and should any one not kindly accept it, he would be looked upon as an unmannerly man for despising their civil ity. ” * The Esquimaux observed by Dr. Rae at Repulse Bay were, however, mueh cleaner in their habits. Their food consists principally of reindeer, musk ox, walrus, seals, birds, and salmon. They will, however, eat any kind of animal food. They are very fond of fat and marrow, to get at which they pound the bones with a stone. The southern tribes get a few berries in summer, but those who live in the north have scarcely any vegetable food except that which they obtain in a half-digested form from the stomach of the rein deer, and this they regard as a great delicacy ; t the northern most of all, being unable to kill reindeer, are entirely deprived of vegetable food. " I was once present," says Captain Cook, " when the chief of Oonalashka made his dinner of the raw head of a large halibut, just caught. Before any was given to the chief, two of his servants ate the gills, without any other dressing besides squeezing out the slime. This done, one of them cut off the head of the fish, took it to the sea and washed it, then came with it and sat down by the chief: first pulling up some grass,

• Crantz, p. 168 ; Parry , Second + Ross, Narrative of a Second

Voyage, p. 293 ; Lyon's Journal, Voyage, p. 352. p. 142. I Third Voyage, vol. ii . p. 511 . 2K 498 FOOD . DIFFICULTY OF OBTAINING WATET.. upon a part of which the head was laid, and the rest was strewed before the chief. He then cut large pieces off the cheeks, and laid these within the reach of the great man, who swallowed them with as much satisfaction as we should do raw oysters. When he had done, the remains of the head were cut in pieces, and given to the attendants, who tore off the meat with their teeth, and gnawed the bones like so many dogs." A feast among some of the more civilized Esquimaux of Greenland is thus described by Crantz : * " A factor being invited to a great entertainment with several topping Green landers, counted the following dishes : 1. Dried herrings. 2. Dried seal's flesh . 3. Boiled ditto. 4. Half -raw and rotten ditto, called Mikiak. 5. Boiled willocks. 6. A piece of a half rotten whale's tail : this was the dainty dish or haunch of venison to which the guests were properly invited 7. Dried salmon. 8. Dried reindeer venison. 9. A dessert of crow berries mixed with the chyle out of the maw of a reindeer. 10. The same, enriched with train oil. ” Their drink consists of blood or water : during the greater part of the year they have considerable difficulty in obtaining sufficient water to satisfy their thirst, and it is much too pre cious to be used for washing. It may seem surprising that people who are surrounded by snow and ice should suffer from want of water, but the amount of heat required to melt snow is so great, that a man without the means of obtaining fire might die of thirst in these Arctic regions as easily as in the sandy deserts of Africa. Any direct “ resort to snow ,” says Kane, “ for the purpose of allaying thirst, was followed by bloody lips and tongue ; it burnt like caustic. ” + When the Esquimaux visited Captain Parry, they were always anxious for water, which they drank in such quantities that

• History of Greenland, vol. i. + Arctic Explorations, vol. i .

p. 172. p. 190 . DIFFICULTY OF OBTAINING WATER. 499 it was impossible to furnish them with half as much as they desired. ” * In the extreme north, one of the principal duties of the women in the winter is to thaw snow over their lamps, feeding the wick with oil if it does not rise well of its own accord ; t the natural heat of the room is not sufficient to melt snow, as the temperature of the huts is always kept, if possible, below the freezing -point. In South Greenland, how ever, the huts are built of turf, etc., and are very warm . I But we must remember that coolness, rather than heat, is required by the Esquimaux who live in snow dwellings, because if the temperature rises to thirty -two degrees, the continual dripping from the roof produces extreme inconvenience, and, in fact, the most unhealthy season is the spring, when the weather is too warm for snow huts and too cold for tents. Thus, there fore, the Esquimaux, though living in a climate so extremely rigorous, would be debarred from the use of fires by the very nature of their dwellings, even if they were enabled to obtain the necessary materials. They never, says Simpson, “ seem to think of fire as a means of imparting warmth ; " S their lamps are used for cooking, for light, and for melting snow and drying clothes, rather than to warm the air, | ] and as, nevertheless, the body temperature of the Esquimaux is almost the same as ours, it is evident that they must require a large amount of animal food. The quantity of meat which they consume is astonishing; and it is worthy of remark that, from the scarcity of wood in the far north, they use the same substance for food and fuel ; the calorific material being the same-namely, blubber — whether the heat is to be obtained by digestion or combustion ; whether the material is to be placed in a lamp and burnt, or to be eaten and digested. In summer, however, when it is less necessary to keep down the

• 1. C.c. p. 188. § Discoveries in North America,

+ Osborn's Arctic Journal, p. 17. I Egede, 1.c. p. 116. || Kane, 1. c. vol. ii . p. 202. p. 346 . 2 K 2 500 IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS.

general temperature, they sometimes burn bones well satu rated with oil. For obtaining fire the Esquimaux generally use lumps of iron pyrites and quartz, from which they strike sparks on to moss which has been well dried and rubbed between the hands. * They are also acquainted with the method of obtaining it by friction , t which is a slower and more laborious process. It appears, however, to be the one generally pursued by the Greenland Esquimaux. I It has been generally assumed that man could scarcely live in temperate climates, and certainly not in the Arctic regions, without the advantage of fire. From the above facts, however, as well as from others which will presently be recorded, it may be doubted whether this is really the case. Esquimaux do not use fire to warm their dwellings, and cookery is with them a refinement. In fact, those Esquimaux who live on reindeer more than on seal, having little blubber, make hardly any use of fire. In the south the men have bows and arrows, harpoons, spears, lines, fish - hooks, knives, snow- knives, ice - chisels, snow - shovels, groovers, drill -bows, drills, etc. The women have lamps and stone kettles, lamp moss, pieces of iron pyrites, bone needles, pieces of sinew, scrapers (figs. 105—107), horn spoons, sealskin vessels, pointed bones, marrow-spoons, and knives (figs. 214–216). They have generally also, accord ing to Dr. Rae, a small piece of stone, bone, or ivory, about six inches long and half an inch thick ; this is used for arrang ing the wicks of the lamps. Kane gives the following inventory of an Esquimaux hut visited by him : a sealskin cup, for gathering and holding water ; the shoulder- blade of a walrus, to serve as a lamp ; a large flat stone to support it ; another large, thin flat stone to support the melting snow ; a lance-head, with a long coil

• Kane, 1.c. vol. i. p. 379 ; Parry, + Lyon's Journal, p. 290.

1. c. p. 504 ; Ross, 1. c. p. 513. I Egede, 1.c. p. 138 . IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. 501 of walrus line; a stand for clothes; and the clothes them selves completed the whole worldly goods of this poor family .* FIG . 214. FIG. 215 . FIG . 216. WW Esquimaux Knife. Esquimaux Knife. On their travelling expeditions, even less than this is neces sary ; raw meat and a fur bag are all they require. The implements of the Esquimaux are very ingenious. Besides knives resembling those figured above, the women use others of a semicircular form , and very similar to the curious semi-lunar knives ( pl. 1 , fig . 3) which are so common

• Kane's Arctic Explorations, vol. i. p. 381.

502 IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. FIG . 217. in Denmark. They are, however, now made of metal, which the southern Esquimaux have been enabled to obtain, though in small quantities, from the Europeans. Some few of them also break off bits of meteoric iron, which they hammer to an edge, and then fix in a handle of horn or bone. The arrow heads are of several kinds and shapes. Those of stone ( fig . 217) are made, not by blows, but by pressure, for which pur pose they use the point of a reindeer's horn, set in bone; bone itself would not be tough enough. Other arrow -heads are of horn ; these often bear " owners' marks," as may be seen by fig. 2 ( p. 11). The shafts of the arrows are short, straightened by steam , and provided with feathers at the butt end. These are fastened on by deer sinews. The bows are generally of wood, either made of one piece steamed into the right form , or of three parts most ingeniously fastened together, and strengthened by pieces of bone or sinew . When wood cannot be obtained, they use bone or horn . They do not appear to be particularly good shots : but Captain Parry * thinks that Arrow -head . they would generally hit a deer from forty to forty - five yards, if the animal stood still. Moreover, against large game they are, after all, not very effective. Sir J. C. Ross gives an interesting account of a musk - sheep hunt which he witnessed. At length becoming impatient, as the Esquimaux continued to shoot without apparent effect, finding his opportunities for an aim with much difficulty, and losing much time afterwards in recovering his arrows, Sir James fired, and broke the animal's shoulder -blade, to the immense astonishment of his companion .” I

• l. c. p. 511 . also their ancient habits have been

+ The Esquimaux of Greenland modified , and their condition greatly have long abandoned the bow and improved, by this intercourse. arrow , using guns obtained from I Sir J. Ross' Arctic Expedition , the Danes. In many other respects 1829-33, p. 350. HUNTING . 503 FIG . 218. The spears are made like the arrows, but are larger; the heads also are frequently barbed, and in many cases fit loosely into the shaft, but are securely fastened to a long leathern thong, which is tied to the butt end of the spear. For throwing the harpoon they use a short handle or throwing-stick, about two feet long, narrow below , four inches wide above, and with a notch on each side for the thumb and forefinger. With these weapons they attack not only seals and wal ruses, but even whales. They strike the whale, if possible at the same time, with many harpoons, " to which bladders are hung, made of great sealskins, several of which so encumber and stop the whale, that it cannot sink deep. When he is tired out, they de spatch him quite with their little lances. ” Kane gives the figure of a lance, the blade of which closely resembles one of the longer " axes” from the Danish shell-mounds. * The Esquimaux have three principal ways of killing seals. The commonest is with the harpoon and bladder. When an Esquimaux in his kayak “ spies a seal, he tries to surprise it unawares, with the wind and sun in his back, that he may not be heard or seen by it. Spear-head . He tries to conceal himself behind a wave, and makes hastily but softly up to it till he comes within four, five, or six fathoms of it ; meanwhile he takes the utmost care that the harpoon, line, and bladder lie in proper order.” + As soon as the seal is struck, the point of the spear detaches itself from the shaft, and at the same moment the Esquimaux throws the large air -bladder on to the water. This is often dragged

• Arctic Explorations, vol. ii. p. 129. + Crantz, p. 154.

504 MODES OF HUNTING AND FISHING. under water a little way, but it is so great an impediment, that the seal is soon obliged to come up. “ The Greenlander hastens to the spot where he sees the bladder rise up, and smites the seal as soon as it appears” with the great lance or " angovigak." This is not barbed, and does not therefore remain in the seal's body, but can be used again and again FIG . 219. Bone Harpoon. until the animal is exhausted. The second way is the " clapper hunt. ” If the Esquimaux find, or can drive any seals into the creeks or inlets, they frighten them by shouting, clapping, and throwing stones every time they come up to breathe, until at last they are exhausted and easily killed. In winter, when the sea is frozen, the seals, which are obliged to come ир from time to time for the sake of air, keep open certain breathing- holes for this purpose, and the Esquimaux, when he has found one of these, waits patiently till the seal makes its appearance, when he kills it instantly with his harpoon. The Esquimaux are excellent deerstalkers, and are much assisted by the skill with which they can imitate the cry of the reindeer. Fish are caught sometimes with the hook and line, sometimes by means of small nets when they come to the shore in shoals to spawn, or finally with the spear. The nets are made of “ small hoops or rings of whalebone, firmly lashed together with rings of the same material. ” * The fishing lines are also made of whalebone. Salmon are sometimes so abundant, that in Boothia Felix, Captain Ross bought a ton weight for a single knife. For killing birds they use an instrument in some respects like the " bolas” of South

• Parry, l. c. p. 100 . † Egede, 1. c. p. 107.

MODES OF HUNTING AND FISHING. 505 America : a number of stones or walrus teeth being fastened to short pieces of string, and all the strings then tied together at the other end. * The spears, which are intended to be thrown at birds or other small animals, have a double fork at the extremity, and three other barbed points near the middle. These diverge in different directions, so that if the end pair should miss, one of the central trio might strike the victim. Aquatic birds are also caught in whalebone nooses ; but the “ moulting season is the great bird - harvest, as a few persons wading into the shallow lakes can soon tire out the birds and catch them by hand. ” + The so -called “ Arctic Highlanders,” however, are said to have no means of killing the reindeer, though it abounds in their country ; nor have they the art of fishing, although, curiously enough, they catch large numbers of birds in small hand- nets. Seals, bears, walrus, and birds, constitute almost the whole of their diet. Neither the American nor Green land Esquimaux have succeeded in taming the reindeer. Dogs are their only domestic animals, and are sometimes used in hunting, but principally to draw the sledges. The sledges vary much both in materials and form : accord ing to Captain Lyon, the best are made of the jaw -bones of the whale, sawn to about two inches in thickness, and from six inches to a foot in depth. These are the runners, and are shod with a thin plank of the same material. The sides are connected by pieces of bone, horn , or wood, firmly lashed together. In Boothia, Captain Ross saw sledges in which the runners were made of salmon, packed into a cylinder, rolled up in skins, and frozen together. In spring the skins are made into bags, and the fish are eaten . Altogether these Simpson, 1.c. vol. ii. p. 25 ; Simpson's Discove + Lyon's Journal, p. 338. ries in North America, p. 347 ; I Kane, Arctic Explorations, Ross, 1. c. p. 585. vol. ii. pp. 208, 210. See also $ 1.c. Appendix, p . 24 . Richardson's Arctic Expedition ,

C. p. 156 . 506 SLEDGES. BOATS. sledges are well constructed, when it is considered with what simple tools they are made. The dogs by which these sledges are drawn are by no means easy to manage. Each has a separate trace attached to the front of the sledge, passing between the legs, and fastened in front to a collar. The dogs therefore are nearly abreast, and the traces are very liable to becoine entangled. The team is guided by throwing the lash of the whip on one side or the other, and repeating certain words. Wooa,” as among our carters, means “ Stop. Their boats are also very ingeniously built, and are of two kinds, the kajak or men's boat, and the umiak or women's boat. The kajak is from eighteen to twenty feet long, eighteen inches broad in the middle, tapering to both ends, and scarcely a foot deep. It has no outriggers, and is therefore very diffi cult to sit. It is quite covered over at the top, with the exception of a hole in the middle, into which the Esquimaux puts his legs. The boat therefore cannot fill with water, and even if it upsets, they can right it again by a sudden jerk of the oar, or rather paddle. Indeed, a skilful Esquimaux will turn somersaults in the water, in his boat, with great ease . In spite of this, they are frequently drowned ; and indeed so dangerous is the navigation that they generally go in pairs, so as to assist one another on an emergency , for the skin sides of the kajak are very thin, and if they come in contact with any of the floating ice or drift- timber which abound in the Green land seas, are liable to be torn open, in which case the unfor tunate Esquimaux has little chance of saving himself. The umiak is much larger, and has a flat bottom. It is made of slender laths, fastened together with whalebone, and covered over with sealskins. The Esquimaux observed by Ross, at the northern end of Baffin's Bay, were entirely without canoes, and were “ iguorant, even traditionally, of the existence of a

• Parry's Three Voyages for the Discovery of a N.W. Passage, vol. iv.

P. 310. BOATS. SCRAPERS. 507 " * boat. " It is, as he justly observes, an extraordinary thing to find “ a maritime and a fishing tribe unacquainted with any means of floating on the water ;" but we must remember that they had no wood, and that there were only a few weeks in the year when the sea was unfrozen. No wonder that Ross's ships were mistaken for living creatures, t and that his boats excited the most unbounded astonishment and admira tion. Kane also confirms the absence of boats, but he adds “ that the kayak was known to them traditionally ." In the preparation of skins the Esquimaux use certain stone instruments ( figs. 105–107), which have frequently been overlooked on account of their simplicity, but which yet are interesting because they are exactly similar to certain ancient implements which are very common in various parts of Europe, and have been already described in page 101. The collection bequeathed by my lamented friend, Mr. Christy, to the nation, and which is now in the British Museum , contains four of these skin -scrapers, three of which were obtained from the Esquimaux north of Behring Straits. These are set in fossil ivory. The fourth was found in a Greenland grave, probably not older than the fifteenth century, and belonging to the Stone period which supervened when the intercourse with Norway was suspended. Some archæologists had considered that the " scrapers ” were “ probably knives, the prolonged thick ends of which were intended for handles, to be held between the finger and thumb, or possibly for attachment to a short wooden shaft. ” S The true nature and use of the ancient skin -scrapers has, however, been entirely explained by these modern specimens, with which they are absolutely iden tical. The method of preparing skins is curious and ingenious, but very disgusting.

• Ross, Baffin's Bay, p. 170. + 1. c. p. 118.

I Arctic Explorations, vol. ii. pp. 135, 210. $ See Archæologia, vol. xxxviii. p. 415. 508 CLOTHES. ORNAMENTS. CHEEK- STUDS. The clothes of the Esquimaux are made from the skins of reindeer, seals, and birds, sewn together with sinews. For needles they use bones either of birds or fishes ; yet with these simple instruments they sew very strongly and well. The outer dress of the men resembles a short great -coat, with a hood that can be pulled over the head if necessary , and which serves as a substitute for a hat or cap. Their under garments or shirts are made of bird-skins with the feathers inwards ; or of skins with the hair inside ; sometimes, how ever, they wear in addition another shirt made of seal's entrails. Their breeches, “ of which in winter they also wear two pair, and similarly disposed as to the fur," * are either of seal- skin or reindeer- skin, and their stockings of skins from very young animals. The boots are of smooth black dressed seal's leather, and sometimes when at sea they wear a great overcoat of the same material. Their clothes are generally very greasy and dirty, and swarm with lice. The dress of the women does not differ much from that of the men. Among the Western tribes the prin cipal ornaments are cheek- studs ( fig . 220) , or pieces of polished stone or bone, which are worn in the lower lip or cheeks. The hole is made in early infancy, and gradually enlarged by a Esquimaux Cheek -stud . series of " guides. ” + These “ labrets,” however, are not worn by the Eastern tribes. According to Richardson, they are in use from Behring Straits to the Mackenzie river. They are worn exclusively by the men . The women paint their eye brows ; and tattoo the face, and especially the chin, in blue lines. The other ornaments consist of strips of variously FIG . 220 .

• Parry, l. c. p. 495.

+ Vancouver's Voyage, vol. ii. p. 280 ; see also p. 408 ; Belcher, 1. c. p. 141. I Arctic Expedition, vol. i. p . 355. $ Beechey's Voyage, vol. i. p. 280. GAMES. BONE IMPLEMENTS. 509 coloured fur, and fringes of pierced teeth, generally those of the fox or wolf. Among the Esquimaux visited by Captain Lyon, the ornaments were all appropriated by the men. * Some of the families are in the habit of tattooing themselves. The men hunt and fish. They make the weapons and implements, and prepare the woodwork of the boats. The woment are the cooks, prepare the skins, and make the clothes. They also repair the houses, tents, and boats, the men doing only carpenter's work. Though they do not appear to be very harshly treated, still the women have certainly " a hard and almost slavish life of it,” although perhaps, after all, not more so than the men. The Esquimaux are not altogether without music. They have a kind of drum, and sing both alone and in chorus. They are acquainted with several kinds of games, I both of strength and skill, and are fond of dances, which are often very indecent. One of their games resembled our cat's cradle, 8 and Kane saw the children in Smith's Sound play ing hockey on the ice. The Esquimaux have also a great natural ability for drawing. In many cases they have made rude maps for our officers, which have turned out to be substantially correct. Many of their bone implements are covered with sketches. Figs. 221 to 223 represent three bone drill- bows presented to the Ashmolean Museum by Captain Beechey, and which I presume to be some of those which he obtained in Hotham Inlet, Kotzebue Sound, and described in his Voyage to the Pacific . In fig. 223 we see yourts, or winter-houses, in two cases, with dogs standing on them ; men armed with bows and arrows, and others dragging seals home over the ice, and one man about to spear a reindeer with a movable-headed harpoon . In fig. 222 are reindeer, geese, a baidar, or flat- bottomed boat, a tent, round which various

• Lyon's Journal, p. 314.

+ Crantz, p. 164. I Egede, 1.c. p. 162. § Hall, 1. c . vol . ii . p. 316. 510 DRAWINGS. FIG . 222. FIG . 223. FIG . 221. LIHL nhanhurnarft பயA Wh

一, til Ala RELIGION . MODES OF BURIAL . 511 articles of clothing are hung up to dry, a woman, apparently engaged in the preparation of food, and a hunting scene. A decoy, roughly representing the head and antlers of a reindeer, has been put up ; and a real reindeer, while unsuspiciously browsing close by, is about to be shot by an Esquimaux hunter. In fig. 221 are represented two animals, apparently intended for crocodiles ; the draughtsman must, I think, have seen drawings of this animal in some European vessel. According to Crantz, the Greenland Esquimaux “ have neither a religious nor idolatrous worship, nor so much as any ceremonies to be perceived tending towards it.” * This statement has been confirmed by many other observers.t Their burial ceremonies have, however, been supposed to indi cate a belief in the resurrection. They generally bend the body into a sitting posture, bringing the knees up under the chin, and then wrap the corpse in one of their best skins. For the grave they choose some high place, and over the corpse they make a heap of stones. Near the body some of them place the implements of the deceased, and even some times, if he was a man, his kajak ; believing, as it has been said, that they will be of use to him in the new world. Egede, I however, expressly denies that it is done with any such idea. This view is also confirmed by Hall, according to whom the Esquimaux have a superstitious objection to use, or even touch, anything which has been in a house containing a dead body. It is, perhaps, the same idea which induces them to remove a corpse, not through the ordinary entrance, but by way of the window. || In other cases, when a person is evi dently dying, they place by him everything which can soothe Arctic Expedition, vol. ii. p. 44 ; + Graah's Voyage to Greenland, Egede, 1.c. p. 183. p. 123 ; Ross, Baffin's Bay, vol. i. I l. c. p. 151 . p.175 ; Voyage of Discovery, p. 128 ; § 1.c. vol. i. p. 201 , vol. ii . p. 221 . Parry, l. c . p . 551 ; Richardson's || Graah, 1. c. p. 128 ; Ross, Arctic Expedition, 1829-33, p. 290.

• 1. cc.. p. 197.

512 THINGS BURIED WITH THE DEAD. and comfort his last moments, and then leave the igloo, or house, which they close up, thus converting it into a tomb. * Crantz tells us that they “ lay a dog's head by the grave of a child , for the soul of a dog can find its way everywhere, and will show the ignorant babe the way to the land of souls, ” and this is admitted by Egede. Moreover, the custom of occasionally burying models of implements, instead of the implements themselves, tends to the same conclusion . Captain Cook saw burial mounds of earth or stone at Oonalashka. One of the latter was near the village, and he observed that, in accordance with a custom which seems to prevail all over the world, every one who passed threw a stone on it.t Infants, if unfortunate enough to lose their mothers, are always buried with them ; and sickly aged people are sometimes buried alive, as it is considered a kindness to spare them the pain of a lingering death. The Esquimaux observed by Captain Parry had a superstitious idea that any weight pressing upon the corpse would give pain to the deceased. I Such a belief would naturally give rise, in a more favoured country, to vaulted tumuli; but in the extreme north, the only result is that the dead bodies are but slightly covered up, in consequence of which the foxes and dogs frequently up and eat them. This the natives regard with the utmost indifference ; they leave the human bones lying about near the huts, among those of animals which have served for food ; another reason for doubting whether their burial customs can be regarded as satisfactory evidence of any very definite and general belief in a resurrection, or whether the objects which they bury with their friends are really supposed to be of actual use to them. On the whole, the burial customs of the Esquimaux are curiously like those of which we find dig them

• Graah, 1. c. p. 126.

+ Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, vol. č. p. 519. I l. c. pp. 395, 417, 550. CHARACTER. 513 evidence in the ancient tumuli of northern and western Europe. In character the Esquimaux are a quiet, peaceable people. Those observed by Ross, in Baffin's Bay, “ could not be made to understand what was meant by war, nor had they any war like weapons." * Like other savages, they resemble children in a great many respects. They are such bad arithmeticians that the " enumeration of ten is a labour, and of fifteen an impossibility with many of them .” + Dr. Rae, whose partiality for the Esquimaux is well known, assures us that if a man is asked the number of his children , he is generally much puzzled. After counting some time on his fingers, he will probably consult his wife, and the two often differ, even though they may not have more than four or five. I Amongst the Esquimaux both polygamy and polyandry appear to occur. A strong or skilful man has often more than one wife, a beautiful or clever woman in some cases more than one husband. S Again, the temporary loan of a wife is considered a mark of peculiar friendship ; in which, however, the advantage is not all on one side, as a large family, far from being any incumbrance, is among the Esquimaux a great advantage. || Apart, moreover, from these recognized customs, it does not appear that the Esquimaux set any very high value on the virtue of chastity. They are excessively dirty. Considering the difficulty in obtaining enough water even to drink during the greater part of the year, we cannot, perhaps, wonder that they never dream of washing. Their word for dirt, eberk, conveys no idea of anything disagreeable or offensive ; T but, in justice to them, we must remember that the extreme cold, by preventing

• l. c. p. 186. § Ross, 1. c. p. 273.

+ Parry, l. c. p. 251 . ll Ib. 1. c. p. 515. I See, for a curious instance of Kane, Arctic Explorations, this, Graah, 1. c . p. 131 . vol. ii. p. 116. 2 L 514 CHARACTER . putrefaction, removes one of our principal inducements to cleanliness, and at the same time induces so great a scarcity of liquid water, as to render washing almost an impossibility. As a general rule, it is impossible to put any dependence on their promises, not so much that they are intentionally deceitful, as on account of the wavering and inconstant dis position which they possess in common with so many other savages. Among themselves a successful huntsman or fisher man is always ready to share his seal or walrus with his less fortunate neighbours ; but he expects, as a matter of course, that sufficient return will be made to him when an oppor tunity occurs. They give away nothing themselves without expecting to receive as much again, and, being unable to imagine any other line of conduct, are naturally very deficient in gratitude. Captain Ross, however, and Dr. Rae consider that the Esquimaux encountered by them were neither un grateful nor particularly selfish . In other respects also these appear to have been very favourable specimens of the race. Though not cruel, the Esquimaux seem to be a somewhat heartless people. They do not, indeed, feel any actual plea sure in the infliction of pain, but they will take little trouble to remove or relieve suffering. They are also great thieves ; but, as Captain Parry truly observes, * we must “ make due allowance for the degree of temptation to which they were daily exposed, amidst the boundless stores of wealth which our ships appeared to them to furnish. ” According to Hall, + moreover, they are strictly honest among themselves, kind, generous, and trustworthy. Parry thus describes them : “ In the few opportunities we had of putting their hospitality to the test , we had every reason to be pleased with them. Both as to food and ac commodation, the best they had were always at our service ; and their attention, both in kind and degree, was everything

• 1. c. p. 522. + 1. c. vol. ii. p. 312.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 515 that hospitality and even good breeding could dictate. The kindly offices of drying and mending our clothes, cooking our provisions, and thawing snow for our drink, were performed by the women with an obliging cheerfulness which we shall not easily forget, and which commanded its due share of our admiration and esteem. While thus their guest, I have passed an evening not only with comfort, but with extreme gratifica tion ; for, with the women working and singing, their husbands quietly mending their lines, the children playing before the door, and the pot boiling over the blaze of a cheerful lamp, one might well forget for the time that an Esquimaux hut was the scene of this domestic comfort and tranquillity ; and I can safely affirm with Cartwright that, while thus lodged beneath their roof, I know no people whom I would more confidently trust, as respects either my person or my property, than the Esquimaux. " * Dr. Rae also has a very high opinion of them , and they seem from all accounts to present the remarkable pheno menon of a really high state of morality, without anything which can be called religion . The North American Indians. The aboriginal, or at least the pre - Columbian inhabitants of North America, fall naturally into three divisions. The Esquimaux in the extreme north, the Indian tribes in the centre, and the comparatively civilized Mexicans in the south The central tribes, which occupied by far the greater extent of the continent, were again divided by the Rocky Mountains into two great groups ; that on the western side being in much the most abject condition. Though no doubt there was and is an immense difference between different tribes -and parti cularly between the semi- agricultural nations of the west, and

• Parry's Three Voyages for the Discovery of a North -west Passage,

vol. v. p. 13. .2 1 2 516 DRESS. the filthy barbarians of Northern California - still, as Mr. Schoolcraft, to whom we are indebted for an excellent work on the “ History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes," * truly says, “ their manners and customs, their opinions and mental habits, had, wherever they were inquired into, at the earliest dates, much in common . Their modes of war and worship, hunting and amusements, were very similar. In the sacrifice of prisoners taken in war; in the laws of reta liation ; in the sacred character attached to public transactions solemnized by smoking the pipe; in the adoption of persons taken in war, in families; in the exhibition of dances on almost every occasion that can enlist human sympathy ; in the meagre and inartificial style of music ; in the totemic tie that binds relationships together, and in the system of symbols and figures cut and marked on their grave -posts, on trees, and sometimes on rocks, there is a perfect identity of principles, arts, and opinions. The mere act of wandering and petty warfare kept them in a savage state, though they had the element of civilization with them in the Maize.” + As regards dress, many of the Indian chiefs had magnificent dresses of skins and feathers. Some of the tribes, indeed, wore no clothes; but this was rarely the case with the women, and even the men had generally at least a loin- cloth . The amount of clothing, however, depended very much on the temperature. In the plains and forests of the tropical and southern latitudes, “ the Indian wears little or no clothing during a large part of the year ; " but it is very different on the mountains and in the north, where the common dress was the breech - cloth and mocassins, with a buffalo -skin thrown over the shoulders. The inhabitants of Vancouver's Island had mats, made either of dog's -wool alone, of dog's-wool and goose-down together, or of threads obtained from cedar- bark.

• Published by authority of Congress. Philadelphia, 1853.

+ 1. c. vol. ii . p. 47. ORNAMENTS. LABRETS. 517 They often wore “ necklaces of shells, claws, or wampum ; feathers on the head and armlets, as well as ear and nose jewels.” * Many of the Indian tribes are clean in their persons, and frequently use both the sweat - house and cold bath ; others are described as repulsive in countenance and filthy both in person and habit. Among the western tribes tattooing is very general with the women, though not carried to any great extent. The eastern tribes do not generally disfigure themselves artificially, except indeed by the use of paint ; but it is very different in the west. The Sachet Indians of De Fuca's Straits wear pieces of bone or wood passed through the carti lage of the nose ; the Classet Indians cut their noses when they capture a whale ; among the Babines, who live north of Columbia River, the size of the under-lip is the standard of female beauty.t A hole is made in the under -lip of the infant, in which a small bone is inserted ; from time to time the bone is replaced by a larger one, until at last a piece of wood three inches long and an inch and a half wide, is inserted in the orifice, which makes the lip protrude to a frightful extent. The process appears to be very painful. Owing to the almost universal custom of fastening babies to a cradle-board, the American skulls are characterized by a flattened occiput. This peculiarity does not now occur in European heads, but it is found in many ancient skulls from various parts of the old continents, and indicates, as pointed out by Vesalius, Gosse, and Wilson, that the cradle- board, though long abandoned, was at one time used in Western Europe, as it is even now among the Indians of North Ame rica. The extraordinary practice of moulding the form of the head was common to several of the Indian tribes. vailed in Mexico and Peru, in the Carib Islands, and among

• Schoolcraft, vol. iii. p. 65. rica, p . 242; Vancouver, 1.c. vol. ii.

+ Kane's Indians of North Ame pp. 280, 408. It pre 518 THE PRACTICE OF HEAD - MOULDING . the savage tribes of Oregon. Among the Natchez the deform ity is described by the historian of De Soto's expedition as consisting of an upward elongation of the cranium , until it terminated in a point or edge. The Choctaws, though enemies of the Natchez, “ improved ” their heads in the same way. Their children were placed upon a board, and a bag of sand was laid upon the forehead, “ which, by continual gentle com pressure, gives the forehead somewhat the form of a brick from the temples upwards, and by these means they have high and lofty foreheads sloping off backwards.” * The Waxsaws, Muscogees or Creehs, Catawbas, and Altacapas, are described as having had a similar custom. It was, however, only the male infants which were treated in this manner. Among the Nootka - Columbians the practice of flattening the head was universal. The child was placed in a box or cradle lined with moss. The occiput rested on a board at the upper part of the box, and another board was brought over the forehead, and tied firmly down on the head of the infant. The process continued until the child was able to walk , at which time it is described as presenting a most hideous appearance. The eyes “ stand a prodigious way asunder;" the eyeballs project very much, and are directed upwards ; the head is very wide, and has almost the form of a wedge. The Newatees, a tribe residing on the north end of Vancouver's Island, forced the head into a conical shape by means of a cord of deer- skin padded with the inner bark of the cedar- tree. This cord, which is about as thick as a man's thumb, is wound round the infant's head, and gradually forces it to take the shape of a tapering cone.t Among the Peruvians the forehead was pressed downwards and backwards by tight bandages, of which there seem to have been generally two, leaving a space between them, and thus producing a well -marked ridge run

• Schoolcraft, 1. c. vol. ii . p. 324.

+ Wilson on Physical Ethnology, Smithsonian Report, 1862, p. 288. RELIGION. SOCIAL POSITION OF WOMEN . 519 ning transversely across the skull. Thus, while the forehead was prevented from rising, and the sides of the head from expanding, the occipital region was allowed full freedom of growth, and the development of the brain was forced to take an unnatural direction. So great was the change produced, so extraordinary is the shape of these abnormal skulls, that many ethnologists have been disposed to regard them as belonging to a peculiar race. This theory, however, has been clearly proved to be erroneous, and is now universally abandoned. It is very remarkable that this unnatural process does not appear to have any prejudicial effect on the minds of the sufferers. * Hearne states that the Northern Indians had no religion ; even the celebrated “ five nations ” of Canada, according to Colden, had no religion , nor any word for God. Burnett never found any semblance of worship among the Comanches. In the central parts of North America, however, the Indian tribes generally believed in the existence of a Great Spirit, and the survival of the soul ; but they seem to have had scarcely any religious observances, still less any edifices for sacred purposes. The Dacotahs never pray to the Creator ; if they wish for fine weather, they pray to the weather itself. They believe that the Great Spirit made all things except thunder and rice, but we are not told the reason for these two curious exceptions. The social position of the women seems to have been very degraded among the aboriginal tribes of North America. Their wives, or dogs, as some of the Indians term them ," are indeed well treated as long as they do all the work , and there is plenty to eat ; but throughout the continent, as indeed among all savages, the domestic drudgery falls to their lot,

• Beecher's Voyage round the World, vol. i. p. 308 ; Wilson ,

Smithsonian Report, 1862, p. 287. + Schoolcraft, vol . i . p. 237. See also Richardson's Arctic Expedi tion, vol. ii . p. 21 . 520 CHARACTER. while the men hunt and make war ; though in justice to them we must remember that the former at least of these two occu pations was of the greatest possible importance, and that upon it depended their principal means of subsistence. Polygamy generally prevailed ; the husband had absolute power over his wives, and the marriage lasted only as long as he pleased. Among some of the North Californian Indians it is not thought right to beat the wives, but the men “ allow themselves the privilege of shooting such as they tired of. ” * Among the Dogribs and other northern tribes, the women are the property of the strongest. Every one is considered to have both a legal and moral right to take the wife of any man weaker than he is. In fact, the men fight for the possession of the women, just like stags and the males of other wild beasts.f Lending wives is a frequent custom. I Imperturbability. S in all situations, is one of the most striking and general traits of the Indian character. To still his muscles to resist the expression of all emotion, seems to be the point of attainment ; and this is particularly observed on public occasions. Neither fear nor joy are permitted to break this trained equanimity.” Even among relations “ it is not customary to indulge in warm greetings. The pride and stoicism of the hunter and warrior forbid it. The pride of the wife, who has been made the creature of rough endur ance, also forbids it.” But perhaps the most remarkable evidence of this is the fact that the Algonquin language, although one of the richest, contained no word for “ to love ; " and when Elliott translated the Bible for them in 1661, he was obliged to coin one. He introduced the word “ womon ” to supply the want. Again,

• Col. M'Kee in Schoolcraft's I Hearne, 1. c . p. 128 ; Carver's

Indian Tribes, vol. iii. p. 127. Travels, p. 131 ; James' Expedition + See Hearne's Journey to the to the Rocky Mountains, vol i. Copper- Mine River, p. 104. $ Schoolcraft, vol. iii. p. 58. p. 212. CRUELTY. INFANTICIDE. 521 the Tinnè language * contains no word to express “ dear” or “ beloved. ” It is only fair to add that Kane found the Cree Indians swearing in French, having no oaths in their own language.f Mr. Schoolcraft records, as an indication that they are in reality of affectionate disposition, that he “ once saw a Fox Indian on the banks of the Mississippi, near whose wig wam I had, unnoticed to him, wandered, take up his male infant in his arms, and several times kiss it." I The special mention of this fact conveys a different impression from that which was intended. Nevertheless, among the better tribes many no doubt are capable of feeling strong affection, and there are even cases on record in which the father has re deemed his son from the stake, and actually been burnt in his stead. Partly no doubt from the hatred produced by almost in cessant wars, partly perhaps encouraged by the stoical dis regard of pain which it was their pride to affect, the North American Indians were very cruel to captives taken in war. Scalping seems to have been an universal practice, and it is even said that the Sioux sometimes ate the hearts of their enemies, every one of the war-party getting a mouthful, if possible. Infanticide was common in the north, but does not seem to have prevailed among the southern tribes to any great extent ; and until the advent of Europeans they do not appear to have had any fermented liquors. The Sioux, Assiniboines, and other tribes on the Missouri, are said to have habitually abandoned those who from age or infirmities were unable to follow the hunting -camps. The same was frequently the case among the northern tribes. Copper is found native in the northern districts, and even before the advent of the Europeans was used for hatchets

• Richardson's Arctic Expedi

tion , vol . ii. p. 24. + 1. c. p. 339. I 1.c. vol. iii. p. 64. 522 IMPLEMENTS. WEAPONS. bracelets, etc. Nevertheless, it was used rather as a stone than as a metal; that is to say, the Indians did not heat it and run it into moulds, or work it when hot, but simply took advantage of its malleability and hammered it into form, without the assistance of heat. Metallic vessels were quite unknown to the aborigines of North America. The implements of the Shoshonees, or Snake Indians, are described by Wyeth. Their possessions were confined to “ the pot, bow and arrow , knives, graining tools, awls, root digger, fish -spears, nets, a kind of boat or raft, the pipe, mats for shelter, and implements to produce fire ." * The pot was made of “ long tough roots, wound in plies around a centre, shortening the circumference of the outer plies so as to form a vessel in the shape of an inverted bee hive. " They were so well made as to be quite water -tight, and though of course they could not be put on the fire, still they were used for boiling, in the manner already described as practised by other savages. The Dacotahs are said to have sometimes boiled animals in their own skins, taking the skin off whole, suspending it at the four corners, and making use of boiling stones as usual. They had also stone vessels, but these were rare, and probably used only as mortars. Their bows are very skilfully made of the horns of the mountain sheep and elk, or sometimes of wood. “ The string is of twisted sinew, and is used loose, and those using this bow require a guard to protect the hand which holds it. " The arrow is driven with such force that it will pass right through the body of a horse or buffalo, + and in the account of De Soto's expedition, it is stated that on one occasion an arrow went through the saddle and housings of a horse and penetrated one - third of its length into the body. Although

• Schoolcraft, vol. i . p. 212.

+ Ibid. 1. c. vol. iii. pp. 35, 46 ; Kane's North American Indians, p. 141 ; Catlin, 1.c. vol. i. p. 31 , vol. ii . p. 212 ; McKean and Hall's Indian Tribes, vol. ii. p. 4. KNIVES . SPEARS . 523 on the whole far inferior to the rifle, still, in hunting , the bow has the one great advantage of silence. Among several of the tribes , arrow - making was a distinct profession. The arrow -heads are of obsidian , about three - fourths of an inch long and half an inch wide, and quite thin . The base is expanded and is inserted into the split end of the shaft, being kept in its place by sinews . The shaft is about two feet and a half long

when intented for hunting it is expanded at the

end , so that when it is drawn out of the wound the arrow head is extracted also

but the shafts of war

- arrows taper to the end , so that when they are drawn out the head remains behind . The sling does not appear to have been much used . The knives are rudely made of obsidian , and are sometimes fastened in handles of wood or horn . The graining tools for preparing skins are sometimes of bone , sometimes of obsidian. Mr. Wyeth does not describe their form . Awls were made of bone

large thorns also being sometimes used

for the purpose . Root - diggers are either made of horns, or of crooked sticks pointed and hardened by fire. “The fish spear is a very simple and ingenious implement. The head is of bone , to which a small strong line is attached near the middle, connecting it with the shaft about two feet from the point . Near the forward end of this head there is a small hole, which enters it ranging acutely towards the point of the head

it is quite shallow

. In this hole the front end of the shaft is placed . ” The shaft is of light willow , and about ten feet long. When the fish is struck , the shaft is withdrawn , and the string at once pulls the bone end into a transverse position. The fish -nets are made of bark, which gives a very strong line , and are of two kinds , the scoop and the seine. They are , however , unknown among the northern tribes west of the Mackenzie .

• The boats of the Shoshonees hardly

deserve the name , and seem to be used only for crossing

• Richardson's Arctic Expedition

, vol . ii. p . 25 . 3 1 524 BOATS. FIRE. rivers. They are about eight feet long, and made of reeds, but there is no attempt to make them water-tight. Other tribes, however, have much better canoes, made either of bark or of a log hollowed out. The pipes are large, and the bowl is generally of fuller's -earth, or of soap -stone. The mats are about four feet long, are made of rushes, and are used either as beds, or in the construction of wigwams. They obtain fire by rubbing a piece of wood in a hole. The Chippeways and Natchez tribes had an institution for keeping up a perpetual fire, certain persons being set aside and devoted to this occupation. The Dacotahs used a drill bow ( fig. 224) for the purpose of obtaining fire. This instrument, as shown in the accompany ing figure, is a small stiff bow , the string of which forms a loop round the upright stick, and thus, when the bow is moved backwards and forwards, gives it a rotatory movement. The Iroquois had effected a still further improvement, and worked with an instrument (fig. 225) closely resembling that FIG . 226 . FIG. 224 . Dacotah Fire Drill Bow . Iroquois Fire Pump Drill. used in Western Europe, and also in Samoa , * and Ceylon , t to drill holes in earthenware and metal.

• Turner, Nineteen Years in + Davy's Ceylon, p. 263.

Polynesia, p . 274. DWELLINGS. 525 cone. The huts or wigwams of the North American Indians are of two kinds, one for summer, and the other for winter The winter wigwam of the Dacotahs is thus described by School craft : “ To erect one of them it is only necessary to cut a few saplings about fifteen feet in length, place the large ends on the ground in a circle, letting the tops meet, thus forming a The buffalo -skins, sewed together in the form of a cap, are then thrown over them and fastened together with a few splints. The fire is made on the ground in the centre of the wigwam , and the smoke escapes through an aperture at the top. These wigwams are warm and comfortable. The other kind of hut is made of bark, usually that of the elm . " * The huts of the Mandans,t Minatarees, etc., were circular in form , and from forty to sixty feet in diameter. The earth was removed to a depth of about two feet. The framework was of timber, covered with willow boughs, but leaving a space in the middle to serve both as chimney and window . Over the woodwork was placed a thick layer of earth , and at the top of all some tough clay, which was impervious to water, and in time became quite hard , as in fine weather the tops of the huts were the common lounging - place for the whole tribe. Though these dwellings were sometimes kept very clean and tidy, this was not always the case. Speaking of the Nootka Sound Indians, Captain CookS says : “ The nastiness and stench of their houses are, however, at least equal to the con fusion. For, as they dry their fish within doors, they also gut them there, which, with their bones and fragments thrown down at meals, and the addition of other sorts of filth , lie everywhere in heaps, and are, I believe, never carried away till it becomes troublesome, from their size, to walk over them .

• 1. c. vol. ii. p. 191.

+ This tribe, one of the most in teresting, has been entirely swept away by the small-pox. | Catlin's American Indians, vol. i. p. 82. § Third Voyage, vol. i . p. 316. 526 DWELLINGS. AGRICULTURE. In a word, their houses are as filthy as hog- sties : everything in and about them stinking of fish, train -oil, and smoke." The Wallawalla Indians * of Columbia dig a circular hole in the ground about ten or twelve feet deep, and from forty to fifty feet in circumference, and cover it over with drift wood and mud. A hole is left on one side for a door, and a notched pole serves as a ladder ( see fig . 141, p. 137). Here twelve or fifteen persons burrow through the winter, requiring very little fire, as they generally eat their salmon raw , and the place is warm from the numbers collected together, and the absence of ventilation . In summer they use lodges made of rushes or mats spread on poles. This tribe lives principally on salmon, preferring it putrid. South of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and west of the Rocky Mountains almost all the tribes seem to have grown more or less maize. In the Carolinas and Virginia the Indians raised large quantities, and “ all relied on it as one of their fixed means of subsistence.” + The Delawares had extensive maize fields at the time of the discovery of America. In 1527, De Vaca saw it in small quantities in Florida, and De Soto , twelve years later, found it abundant among the Muscogees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Cherokees. On one occasion his army marched through fields of it for a distance of two leagues. It is known to have been cultivated by the Iroquois in 1610, and, though only in small quantities, “ by the hunter communities of the Ohio, the Wabagh, the Miami, and the Illinois," as well as by the natives along both banks of the Mississippi. The evidences of ancient agriculture have been already alluded to in the chapter on North American Archæ ology ; the maize appears to have been the only plant actually under cultivation ; but some of the tribes depended for their

• Kane's North American In

dians, p. 272 ; United States Ex ploring Expedition, vol. iv. p. 452 . + Schoolcraft, l. e . vol. i. p. 6. See also Richardson's Arctic Expe dition , vol . ii. p. 51. MAIZE. RICE. ANIMAL FOOD. 527 subsistence very much on roots, etc. The principal imple ment of agriculture seems to have been the hoe, for which they often used the shoulder-blade of the bison fixed into a handle of wood. Wild rice also grew abundantly in the shallow lakes and streams of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, as well as in the upper valleys of the Mississippi and Missouri. It was gathered by the women, and formed one of their principal articles of food. They went into the rice - fields in canoes, and bending the stalks in handfuls over the sides of the canoe, beat out the grain with paddles. The North American Indians, however, depended mainly on the animal kingdom for their subsistence. They are essentially hunters and fishermen ; the buffalo, the deer, and the salmon supplying them with their principal articles of food. The buffaloes were sometimes driven into pounds, sometimes shot on the open prairie with bows and arrows. Fish were speared, caught in weirs, etc., or shot with the bow . The Macaws and Clallums on the Pacific coast sometimes even killed whales. For this purpose they use large barbed harpoons of bone, with a string, and a strong sealskin bag filled with air. This apparatus was used in the same manner as among the Esquimaux (ante, p. 504). Like all carnivorous animals, the Indians alternate between seasons of great plenty and extreme want. Usually game is abundant, and Noka, one of their most celebrated hunters, is said to have killed in one day sixteen elks, four buffaloes, five deer, three bears, one porcupine, and one lynx. This of course was a very excep tional case. Still there is generally some season of the year when they kill more game than is required for immediate consumption. In this case the surplus is dried and made into pemmican. In winter, however, they are often very short of provisions. Back gives a terrible picture of their sufferings in famine times ; * and Wyeth tells us that the Shoshonees

• Arctic Land Expedition, pp. 194—226. See also Richardson's

Arctic Expedition, vol. ii. p. 96. 528 BURIAL. ART. “ nearly starve to death annually, and in winter and spring are emaciated to the last degree ; the trappers used to think they all eventually died from starvation, as they became old and feeble. ” * As might naturally be expected, the mode of burial varies much in different parts of North America. In Columbia, and among many of the Prairie tribes, the dead are generally sewn up in a skin or blanket, and placed either on the boughs of a tree or on a scaffold ; the personal property of each deceased individual being placed near the body . In some cases the bodies were placed in canoes, and deposited among the branches of trees. Many of the Eastern races, as already mentioned (ante, p. 135) , buried their dead under tumuli. Among the Clear Lake Indians, the Carriers, etc. , it was usual to burn them, while in Florida they were interred in a sitting posture. Among other tribes the bones of the dead were collected every eight or ten years, and laid in one common burial- place. The Redskins are not altogether deficient in art, being able to make rude carvings, and to trace equally rude drawings on their wigwams, robes, etc .; but about portraits they have some curious ideas. They think that an artist acquires some mysterious power over any one whose likeness he may have taken ; and on one occasion, when annoyed by some Indians, Mr. Kane got rid of them at once by threatening to draw any one who remained. Not one ventured to do so. If the like ness is good, so much the worse : it is, they fancy, half alive at the expense of the sitter. So much life, they argue, could only be put in the picture by taking it away from the original. Again, they fancy that if the picture were injured, by some mysterious connection the original would suffer also. But perhaps the oddest notion of all is recorded by Catlin. He excited great commotion among the Sioux by drawing one of

• Schoolcraft, vol . i. p. 216. + United States' Exploring Ex

pedition, vol . iv. p. 389. ART. THE PARAGUAY INDIANS. 529 their great chiefs in profile. “ Why was half his face left out ? " they asked ; “ Mahtocheega was never ashamed to look a white man in the face. ” Mahtocheega himself does not seem to have taken any offence, but Shonka, The Dog, took advan tage of the idea to taunt him . “The Englishman knows,” he said, “ that you are but half a man ; he has painted but one half of your face, and knows that the rest is good for nothing." This view of the case led to a fight, in which poor Mahtocheega was shot ; and as ill -luck would have it, the bullet by which he was killed tore away just that part of the face which had been omitted in the drawing. This was very unfortunate for Mr. Catlin , who had great difficulty in making his escape, and lived some months after in fear for his life ; nor was the matter settled until both Shonka and his brother had been killed in revenge for the death of Mahtocheega. Like so many other savage races, the North Americans are rapidly disappearing. Left to themselves they would perhaps have developed an indigenous civilization, but for ours they are unfit. Unable to compete with Europeans as equals, and too proud to work as inferiors, they have profited by inter course with the superior race only where the paternal govern ment of the Hudson's Bay Company has protected them both from the settlers and from themselves, has encouraged hunting, put an end to war, prevented the sale of spirits, and, in times of scarcity, provided food. Ere long almost the only remains of the Indian blood will, perhaps, be found in the territories of the Hudson's Bay Company. The Paraguay Indians. The Indians of Paraguay have been described by Dobritz hoffer * and by Don Félix de Azara , + who lived a long time among them. He found them divided into several different

• Dobritzhoffer, History of the + Voyages dans l'Amérique Mé

Abipones. ridionale, 1809. 2 M 530 THE PARAGUAY INDIANS. arrows. nations or tribes, with at least forty distinct languages, and with different customs. Some of them lived by fishing, but the greater number depended for their subsistence on the wild horses and cattle , and must therefore have had different habits before the discovery of America by the Europeans. Their principal arms were long spears, clubs, and bows and Some tribes, however, as, for instance, those of the Pampas, do not use bows and arrows, but prefer the bolas. In war, the Indians of Paraguay gave no quarter to men, but spared only the women and children. Their houses, if we can call them so, were of the simplest character ; they cut three or four boughs, stuck the two ends into the ground, and threw over them a cow-skin. Their bed consisted of another skin ; they had no chairs or tables, or any kind of furniture. The men seldom wore any clothes ; the dress of the women consisted usually of a poncho, although among some of the tribes, as the Nalicuégas, even this was dispensed with. The art of washing seems to have been entirely unknown, though Azara admits that in very hot weather they used sometimes to bathe, rather, however, as it would appear, for coolness, than for cleanliness. It is unne cessary therefore to say that they were excessively filthy. They had no domestic animals, nor any idea of agriculture. Their doctors had but one remedy, which they applied in all cases, and which had at least the great merit of being harm less --since it consisted " à sucer avec beaucoup de force l'estomac du patient, pour en tirer le mal.” * Many of the tribes painted their bodies in various ways, and it was usual to pierce the under-lip and insert a piece of wood, about four or five inches long, which they never removed. They had no established form of government, nor, accord

• Azara, 1.c. p. 25. Dobritzhoffer's History of the Abipones, vol. ji .

P. 251 . THE PATAGONIANS. 531 ing to Azara, any ideas of religion. He makes this latter statement generally for all the Indians, and repeats it parti cularly for the following tribes -- namely, the Charruas, Min uanas, Aucas, Guaranys, Guayanas, Nalicuégas, Guasarapos, Guatos, Ninaquiguilas, Guanas, Lenguas, Aguilots, Mocobys, Abipones, and Paraguas ; yet it appears from other passages that some at least of these tribes were believers in witchcraft and in mysterious evil beings. Azara describes the language of the Guaranys as being the most copious, and yet it was in many respects very deficient; for instance, they could only count up to four, and had no words for the higher numbers, not even for five or six. It is quite unnecessary to say that the marriage tie was little regarded among them ; they married when they liked, and separated again when they pleased. Infanticide was, in several of the tribes, the rule, rather than the exception ; the women brought up but one child each, and as they spared only the one which they thought likely to be the last, it often happened that they were left without any at all. The Patagonians. The inhabitants of the southern parts of South America, although they are divided into numerous different tribes, may be considered as falling into two great groups: the Patagonians, or Horse Indians, on the East, who have horses but no canoes ; and the Chonos and Fuegians, or Canoe Indians, who have canoes, but no horses, and who inhabit the tempestuous islands on the south and west. The Yacana -kunny, who inhabit the north-eastern part of Tierra del Fuego, are, properly speaking, not Fuegians, but Patagonians, and resemble them in colour, stature, and cloth ing, except the peculiar boots. They live now pretty much as the mainlanders probably did before the introduction of 2 M 2 532 STATURE. HUTS. assures us horses, and feed principally on guanacoes, ostriches, birds, and seals, which they kill with dogs, bows and arrows, bolas, slings , lances, and clubs. * The habits of the Patagonians must have been much altered by the introduction of the horse, but we can only deal with them as they now are. The Horse and Canoe Indians offer a great contrast in point of size; while the latter are short, ill - looking, and badly- pro portioned, the former are considerably above the average height, and are described by early travellers as being truly gigantic. They were first visited in 1519 by Magellan, who that many of them were above seven feet (French) in height. In 1525 they were seen by Garcia de Loaisa, who mentions their great stature, but does not seem to have mea sured them . Similar statements were made by Cavendish, Knevett, Sibald de Veert, Van Noort, Spilbergen, and Lemaire; in fact, out of the fifteen first voyagers who passed through the Magellanic Straits, not fewer than nine attest the fact of the gigantic size of the Patagonians ; in which they are con firmed by the testimony of several subsequent travellers, and especially of Falkner, who assures us that he saw many men who were over seven feet in height. It is difficult altogether to reject these statements, and as they are certainly not applicable to the present race, it is possible that there may have been a change of size owing to the introduction and general use of the horse. The huts, or “ toldos," of the Patagonians, are " rectangular in form , about ten or twelve feet long, ten deep, seven feet high in front, and six feet in the rear. The frame of the building is formed by poles stuck in the ground, having forked tops to hold cross pieces, on which are laid poles for rafters, to support the covering, which is made of skins of animals sewn together, so as to be almost impervious to rain or wind. The posts and rafters, which are not easily procured, are

• Fitzroy, l. c . vol. ii. p. 137.

HUTS. DRESS. 533 carried from place to place in all their travelling excursions. Having reached their bivouac, and marked out a place with due regard to shelter from the wind, they dig holes with a piece of pointed hard wood, to receive the posts : and all the frame and cover being ready, it takes but a short time to erect a dwelling They have no pottery, and for carrying water the only vessels they use are bladders. Their dress consists princi pally of skins, sewn together with ostrich sinews, and often curiously painted on one side ; but, according to Falkner, f some of the tribes “ make or weave fine mantles of woollen yarn, beautifully dyed with many colours. They have also a small triangular apron, two corners of which are tied round the waist, while the third passes between the legs and is fastened behind. When on horseback they use a kind of poncho or mantle, with a slit in the middle, through which they put their head. For boots they wear the “ skin of the thighs and legs of mares and colts ;" they clean the skins, and then, after drying, soften with grease, and so put them on without either shaping or sewing. They make brushes of grass, twigs, and rushes, and use the jaw of a porpoise for a comb. The women wear a mantle, fastened across the breast by a wooden skewer, or pin, and tied round the waist. They have also a kind of apron which reaches down to their knees, but which only covers them in front. Their boots are made in the same way as those of the men. Like other savages, they are fond of beads, feathers, and other ornaments. They also paint themselves with red, black, and white, which, however, to European eyes is anything but an improvement. Their defensive armour consists of a helmet and a shield, both

• Fitzroy, 1. c. vol. i. p. 93.

+ Falkner's Patagonia , p. 128. | When first visited they used the skin of the guanaco for this purpose, and it was on account of these shoes that Magellan called them “ Patagonians.” & Fitzroy , vol . i . p . 75. 534 WEAPONS. FOOD. made of thick hide, and strong enough to resist either arrows or lances. Bows and arrows have been abandoned by most of the Patagonian tribes. Where used, the bows are small, and the arrows, which are pointed with stone or bone, are said to be sometimes poisoned. They have also clubs and long cane lances, most of which are now tipped with iron. But the weapons which are most characteristic of the Patagonians, and which are indeed almost peculiar to them , are the bolas, of which there are two or three sorts. That used in war is a single rounded stone or ball of hardened clay, weighing about a pound, and fastened to a short rope or sinew of skin. This they sometimes throw at their adversary, rope and all, but generally they prefer to strike at his head with it. For hunting they use two similar stones fastened together by a rope, which is generally three or four yards long. One of the stones they take in their hand, and then whirling the other round their head, throw both at the object they wish to entangle. Sometimes several balls are used, but two ap pear to be the usual number. They do not try to strike their victim with the balls themselves, but with the rope, " and then of course the balls swing round in different directions, and the thongs become so‘laid up, ' or twisted, that struggling only makes the captive more secure.” + It is said that a man on horseback can use the “ bolas" effectually at a distance of eighty yards. They also use the lasso . On the coast their food consists principally of fish, which they kill either by diving or striking them with their darts Guanacoes and ostriches they catch with the bolas, and they also eat mare's flesh, as well as various sorts of small game, and at least two kinds of wild roots. They have no fermented liquor, and the only prepared drink which they use is a de

• Falkner, 1. c. p. 130.

+ Fitzroy, 1. c. vol. ii . p. 148. Darwin's Journal, p. 129. BURIAL. RELIGION. 535 coction of chālăs and the juice of berberries mixed with water. The death of a native is attended with peculiar ceremonies. The bones having been as much as possible freed from the flesh, are hung “ on high, upon canes or twigs woven together, to dry and whiten with the sun and rain .” One of the most distinguished women is chosen to perform the disgusting office of making the skeleton, and, during the process, “ the Indians, covered with long mantles of skins, and their faces blackened with soot, walk round the tent with long poles or lances in their hands, singing in a mournful tone of voice and striking the ground, to frighten away the Valichus or evil beings. The horses of the dead are killed, that he may have wherewithal to ride upon in the Alhue Mapu, or Country of the Dead. ” In about a year the bones are packed together in a hide, and placed upon one of the deceased's favourite horses, kept alive for that purpose, " and in this manner the natives bear the relics, sometimes to a very great distance, until they arrive at the proper burial place, where the ancestors of the dead man are lying. The bones are arranged in their proper positions, and fastened by string. The skeleton is then placed, with others, in a square pit, clothed in the best robes, and adorned with beads, fea thers, etc. The arms of the deceased are buried with him , and round the grave are ranged several dead horses, raised on their feet, and supported with sticks . * Sometimes a cairu of stones is raised over the grave.t Falkner regarded the Patagonians as Polytheists, but we do not know much about their religion. According to the missionaries, neither the Patagonians nor the Araucanians had any ideas of prayer, or “ any vestige of religious worship.” +

• Falkner's Patagonia, pp. 118,

119. + Fitzroy, vol. ii . p. 158. | The Voice of Pity, vol. ii. pp. 37, 95. 5:36 THE FUEGIANS. The Fuegians. The inhabitants of Tierra Del Fuego are even more de graded than those of the mainland : in fact, they have been regarded by many travellers as being the lowest of mankind.* Adolph Decker, who visited Polynesia and Australasia under Jaques le Hermite in 1624, describes them as “ rather beasts than men ; for they tear human bodies to pieces, and eat the flesh raw and bloody as it is. There is not the least spark of religion or policy to be observed among them : on the contrary, they are in every respect brutal” -of which he proceeds to give evidence so convincing, that I refrain from quoting it.f The men go altogether naked, and the women have only a bit of skin about their middles. .... Their huts are made of trees, in the shape of tents, with a hole at the top to let out the smoke. Within they are sunk two or three feet under the earth ; and the mould is thrown upon the outside. Their fishing -tackle is very curious, and their stone hooks very nearly the same shape as ours. They are differently armed, some having bows, and arrows headed with stone; others have long javelins, pointed with bone; some, again, have great wooden clubs ; and some have slings, with stone knives, which are very sharp .” Their arrows are of hard wood, straight and well polished. They are about two feet long, and are tipped with a piece of agate, obsidian, or glass. The bows are from three to four feet long, and quite plain . The string is made of twisted sinews. Forster ; found them “ remarkably stupid, being incapable of understanding any of our signs, which, however, were very intelligible to the nations of the South Sea. ” Wallis, in his

• Byron's Voyage round the Worlå, p. 80 ; Wallis's Voyage + Callander's Voyages, vol. ii .

round the World, p. 392 ; Cook's Voyage to the South Pole, vol. ü. I 1.c. p. 251 . p. 187 ; Darwin's Journal , p. 235. p. 307. FOOD. STATURE. 537 “ Voyage round the World,” * describes them as follows : “ They were covered with seal- skins, which stunk abominably, and some of them were eating the rotten flesh and blubber raw , with a keen appetite and great seeming satisfaction . ” And again he says: “ Some of our people, who were fishing with a hook and line, gave one of them a fish , somewhat bigger than a herring, alive, just as it came out of the water. The Indian took it hastily, as a dog would take a bone, and in stantly killed it, by giving it a bite near the gills: he then proceeded to eat it, beginning with the head, and going on to the tail, without rejecting either the bones, fins, scales, or entrails.” + Their cookery is, if possible, still more disgusting. Fitzroy tells us that it was “ too offensive” for description ; and the account given by Byron entirely confirms this state ment. The men, says Fitzroy, S “ are low in stature, ill- looking, and badly proportioned. Their colour is that of very old mahogany — or rather between dark copper and bronze. The trunk of the body is large, in proportion to their cramped or rather crooked limbs. Their rough, coarse, and extremely dirty black hair half hides, yet heightens, a villanous expres sion of the worst description of savage features. The hair of the women is longer, less coarse, and certainly cleaner than that of the men. It is combed with the jaw of a porpoise, but neither plaited nor tied ; and none is cut away, excepting from over their eyes. They are short, with bodies largely out of proportion to their height; their features, especially those of the old, are scarcely less disagreeable than the repulsive ones of the men. About four feet and some inches is the stature of these she -Fuegians - by courtesy called women.

• Hawkesworth's Voyages, 1.c. Byron's Loss of the “ Wager, "

p. 403. p. 132. + 1. c. p. 403. § Voyages of the “ Adventure ” and “ Beagle," vol. ii . p. 137. 538 HABITS. They never walk upright ; a stooping posture and awkward movement is their natural gait. They may be fit mates for such uncouth men, but to civilized people their appearance is disgusting The smoke of wood fires, confined in small wigwams, hurts their eyes so much that they are red and watery : the effects of their oiling or greasing themselves, and then rubbing ochre, clay, or charcoal over their bodies ; of their often feeding upon the most offensive substances, some times in a state of putridity ; and of other vile habits, may readily be imagined. ” * Their incisors are worn flat, + like those of the Esquimaux and of many ancient races. “ The men procure food of the larger kind, such as seal, otter, porpoise, etc.; they break or cut wood and bark for fuel, as well as for building the wigwams or canoes. They go out at night to get birds ; they train the dogs, and of course undertake all hunting or warlike excursions. The women nurse their children, attend the fire ( feeding it with dead wood rather than green, on account of the smoke), make baskets and water -buckets, fishing-lines and necklaces, go out to catch small fish in their canoes, gather shell- fish, dive for sea - eggs, take care of their canoes, upon ordinary occasions paddle their masters about while they sit idle, and do any other drudgery. " + “ When there is time, the natives roast their shell-fish, and half-roast any other food that is of a solid nature ; but when in haste, they eat fish, as well as meat, in a raw state. .. Both seals and porpoises are speared by them from their canoes. When struck, the fish usually run into the kelp, with the spear floating on the water, being attached by a short line to a movable barb : and then the men follow with their canoe, seize the spear, and tow by it till the fish is dead. To them the taking of a seal or a porpoise is a matter of as much

• l. c. c. p. 139.

I Ibid. l. c. P. 185. † Fitzroy, Appendix, p. 144. MODE OF FISHING, 539 consequence as the capture of a whale is to our countrymen. On moonlight nights birds are caught when roosting, not only by the men, but by their dogs, which are sent out to seize them while asleep upon the rocks or beach ; and so well are these dogs trained, that they bring all they catch safely to their masters, without making any noise, and then return for another mouthful. Birds are also frequently killed with arrows or by stones slung at them with unerring aim . Eggs are largely sought for by the natives ; indeed I may say that they eat anything and everything that is eatable, without being particular as to its state of freshness, or as to its having been near the fire. ” According to Byron, the dogs of the Chinos Indians assist in killing fish as well as birds. They are, he says, “ cur-like looking animals, but very sagacious, and easily trained to this business. .... The net is held by two Indians, who get into the water ; then the dogs, taking a large compass, dive after the fish, and drive them into the net ; but it is only in parti cular places that the fish are taken in this manner. ” He adds, that the dogs “enjoy it much, and express their eager ness by barking every time they raise their heads above the water to breathe. ” + “ In the winter, when the snow lies deep, the Tekeenica people assemble to hunt the guanaco, which then comes down from the high lands to seek for pasture near the sea . The long legs of the animal stick deeply into the snow and soft boggy ground, disabling him from escape, while the Fuegians and their dogs hem him in on every side, and quickly make him their prey. . . . . At other times of the year they some times get them by lying in wait, and shooting them with arrows, or by getting into a tree near their track, and spearing them as they pass beneath the branches. An arrow was

• Fitzroy , l. c. p. 184.

+ Byron's Loss of the " Wager, " in Kerr's Voyages and Travels, vol. xvii. pp. 339, 368, 463. 540 FOOD. FIG . 226 . shown to Low, which was marked with blood two-thirds of its length in wounding a guanaco, afterwards caught by dogs. Low held out his jacket, making signs that the arrow would not penetrate it ; upon which the native pointed to his eye. " * Fig. 226 represents the head of a Fuegian harpoon, which closely resembles the ancient Danish specimen figured in p. 110. Of vegetable food they have very little : a few berries, cranberries, those which grow on the arbutus, and a kind of fungus which is found on the beech, being the only sorts used . The wretched Fuegians often suffer greatly from famine. On one occasion, when the Chonos were in great distress on this ac count, a small party went away, and the natives said that in four sleeps they would return with food. the fifth day they came back almost dead with fatigue, and “ each man having two or three great pieces of whale- blubber, shaped like a poncho with a hole in the middle, on his shoulders. The blubber was half putrid, and looked as if it had been buried underground." Notwithstanding this, it was cut into slices, broiled, and eaten. On another occasion, masses of blubber were found in sand, doubtless laid in store for a season of want. Their principal food , however, consists of limpets, mussels, and other shell- fish . Admiral Fitzroy entertains no doubt that the Fue gians are cannibals. “ Almost t always at war with adjoining tribes, they seldom meet but a hostile encounter is the result ; and then those who are van quished and taken, if not already dead, are killed and eaten by the conquerors. The arms and breast are eaten by the women , the men eat the legs, and the Harpoon. trunk is thrown into the sea . ” Again, in severe winters, when

• Fitzroy, 1. c. p. 197. † l. c.

Bone c . p . 183. CANNIBALISM. ABSENCE OF RELIGION. 541 they can obtain no other food, they take “ the oldest woman of their party, hold her head over a thick smoke, made by burning green wood, and, pinching her throat, choke her. They then devour every particle of the flesh, not excepting the trunk, as in the former case.” When asked why they did not rather kill their dogs, they said, “ Dog catch iappo,” i.e. otters. Like Decker, Admiral Fitzroy " never witnessed or heard of any act of a decidedly religious nature.” * Still , some of the natives suppose that there is a powerful and mysterious being who resides in the woods. When a person dies, they carry the body far into the woods,t “ place it upon some broken boughs, or pieces of solid wood, and then pile a great quantity of branches over the corpse. ” Their canoes are large pieces of bark sewn together. In the bottom they make a fireplace of clay, for they always keep fires alight, though with the help of iron pyrites they soon obtain sparks if any accident happens. The Chonos Indians, who in most respects resemble the Fuegians, have much better canoes. These are formed of planks, which are generally five in number, two on each side and one at the bottom. Along the edges of each are small holes about an inch apart. The planks are sewn together with woodbine, the holes being filled with a kind of bark beaten up until it resembles oakum. Byron truly observes that in the absence of metal, “ the labour must be great of hacking a single plank out of a large tree with shells and flints, even though with the help of fire. ” The Fuegians have no pottery, but, like the North American Indians, use vessels made of birch, or rather of beech-bark. On the east coast many of the natives possess guanaco - skins, and on the west some of them wear seal- skins. " Amongst

• See also Weddell, Voyage to South Pole, p. 179 ; The Voice of Pity,

vol. vi. p. 92, &c. + 1.c. P. 181. 512 DRESS. FIRE. the central tribes the men generally possess an otter- skin , or some small scrap about as large as a pocket-handkerchief, which is barely sufficient to cover their backs as low down as their loins. It is laced across the breast by strings, and according as the wind blows, it is shifted froin side to side. " * Many, however, even of the women, go absolutely without clothes. Yet, as Captain Cook quaintly expresses it, “ al though they are content to be naked, they are very ambitious to be fine ; " for which purpose they adorn themselves with streaks of red, black, and white ; and the men as well as the women wear bracelets and anklets of shell and bone. Sir J. D. Hooker informs us that at the extreme south of Tierra del Fuego, and in mid -winter, he has often seen the men lying asleep in their wigwams, without a scrap of clothing, and the women standing naked, and some with children at their breasts, in the water up to their middles, gathering limpets and other shell- fish, while the snow fell thickly on them and on their equally naked babies. In fact, fire does not appear to be necessary with them , nor do they use it to warm the air of their huts as we do, though sometimes as a luxury they take advantage of it to toast their hands or feet. Doubtless, however, if deprived of this source of warmth, they would die of starvation rather oftener than is now the case. If not the lowest, the Fuegians certainly appear to be among the most miserable specimens of the human race, and the habits of this people are of especial interest from their probable similarity to those of the ancient Danish shell mound builders, who, however, were in some respects rather more advanced, being acquainted with the art of making pottery .

• Darwin's Researches in Geology and Natural History , p. 234 .

( 543 ) CHAPTER XV. MODERN SAVAGES — concluded . N reading almost any account of savages, it is impossible not to admire the skill with which they use their weapons and implements, their ingenuity in hunting and fishing, and their close and accurate powers of observation. Some savages even recognize individuals by their footsteps. Thus Mr. Laing mentions * that one day while travelling near Moreton Bay, in Australia, he pointed to a footstep, and asked whose it was. The guide " glanced at it, without stopping his horse, and at once answered, “ White fellow call him Tiger.'” This turned out to be correct, which was the more remarkable as the two men belonged to different tribes, and had not met for two years. Among the Arabs, Burckhardt assertst that some men know every individual in the tribe by his footstep. Besides this, every Arab knows the printed footsteps of his own camels, and of those belonging to his immediate neigh bours. He knows by the depth or slightness of the impression whether a camel was pasturing, and therefore not carrying any load, or mounted by one person only, or heavily loaded . ” The North American Indian will send an arrow right through a horse or even a buffalo . The African savage will kill the elephant, and the Chinook fears not to attack even the whale. Captain Grey tells us that he has often seen the Australians kill a pigeon with a spear, at a distance of thirty paces. I Speaking of the Chamisso Island Esquimaux, Beechey says

• Aborigines of Australia, p. 24. | Grey, l. c . vol. ii. p. 285.

+ Bedouins and Wahabys, p. 374. 544 SKILFULNESS OF SAVAGES. that one day a Diver was swimming at a distance of thirty yards from the beach, and a native was offered a reward if he could shoot it. He immediately frightened it so that it dived, and directly it reappeared, he transfixed both eyes with an arrow . * Speaking of the Australians, Mr. Stanbridge asserts that “ it is a favourite feat on the Murray to dive into the river, spear in hand, and come up with a fish upon it . " + Woodes Rogers says that the Californian Indians used to dive, and strike the fish under water with wooden spears, and Falkner tells us that some of the Patagonian tribes live chiefly on fish , “ which they catch either by diving, or striking them with their darts ." Tertre again says the same of the Caribs,|| and Wallace of the Brazilian Indians. T The South Sea Islanders are particularly active in the water. They dive after fish which “ takes refuge under the coral rock ; thither the diver pursues him, and brings him up with a finger in each eye. They are even more than a match for the shark, which they attack fearlessly with a knife. If they are unarmed , “ they all surround him and force him ashore, if they can but once get him into the surf;" but even if he escapes they continue their bathing without the least fear.tt Ellis more cautiously says only, that “ when armed they have some tiines been known to attack a shark in the water. " # The Andaman Islanders also are said to dive and catch fish under water ; SS and Rutherford makes a similar statement as regards the New Zealanders. Dobritzhoffer tells us that the Payajuas and Vilelas live principally on fish, using a small net with which they dive, “ and if they spy any fish at the bottom ,

• Beechey's Narrative, vol. ii.

p. 574. + On the Aborigines of Victoria. Ethn. Trans. New Ser. vol. i . p. 293. Caliander's Voyages, vol. iii. § Hist. of the Carriby Is. p. 305. | Travels on the Amazon, p. 488.

• • Wilson , I. c. p. 385.

++ l. c . p. 368 . II Polynesian Researches, vol . i . p. 331 . p. 178. § Patagonia, p. 111 . $$ Mouat. 1. c. pp. 310, 333. SKILFULNESS OF SAVAGES. 545 swim after it, catch it in the net ," and so bring it to shore. * The Esquimaux in his kayak can actually turn somersaults in the water. Skyringt saw a Fuegian who “ threw stones from each hand with astonishing force and precision. His first stone struck the master with much force, broke a powder-horn which hung round his neck, and nearly knocked him back wards. ” In his description of the Hottentots, Kolben says : that their dexterity in throwing the “ hassagaye and rackum stick strikes every witness of it with the highest admiration . .... If a Hottentot, in the chase of a hare, deer, or wild goat, comes but within thirty or forty yards of the creature, away flies the rackum - stick and down falls the creature, generally pierced quite through the body.” The death of Goliath is a well -known instance of skill in the use of the sling ; and we are told also that in the tribe of Benjamin there was a corps of “ seven hundred chosen men left -handed ; every one could sling stones at an hair- breadth, and not miss.” & The Brazilian Indians kill turtles with bows and arrows ; but if they aimed direct at the animal, the arrow would glance off the smooth hard shell ; therefore they shoot up into the air, so that the arrow falls nearly vertically on the shell, which it is thus enabled to penetrate . What an amount of practice must be required to obtain such skill as this ! How true also must the weapons be ! Indeed, it is very evident that each distinct type of flint im plement must have been designed for some distinct purpose. Thus the different forms of arrow -head, of harpoon, or of stone axe, cannot have been intended to be used in the same manner. Among the North American Indians the arrows used in hunting were so made that when the shaft was drawn out of the wound the head came out also ; while in the war

• History of the Abipones, vol. i.

p. 343. I Kolben, 1. c. vol. i. p. 243 . § Judges x. 16. + Fitzroy, l . c. vol. i. p. 398. || Wallace's Amazon, p. 466. 2 N 546 VARIETIES OF IMPLEMENTS . arrows the shaft tapered to the end, so that even when it was withdrawn the head of the arrow remained in the wound. Again, the different forms of harpoons are illustrated by the barbed and unbarbed lances of the Esquimaux (ante, p. 510) . Unfortunately, however, we have but few details of this kind ; travellers have generally thought it unnecessary to observe or record these apparently unimportant details ; and that our knowledge of flint implements is niost rudimentary, is well shown by the discussion between Professors Steenstrup and Worsaae, whether the so - called " axes ” of the shell -mounds were really axes, or whether they were not rather used in fishing We may hope, however, that in future those who have the opportunity of observing stone implements among modern savages will give us more detailed information both as to the exact manner in which they are used, and also about the way in which they are made ; that they will collect not only the well-made weapons, but also, and even more carefully, the humble implements of every -day life. Some archæologists have argued that the shell -mound builders of Denmark must have possessed more formidable weapons than any that have yet been found, because it was considered impossible that they could have killed large game, as, for instance, the bull and seal, with the simple weapons of bone and stone which alone have hitherto been discovered. Professor Worsaae * even goes so far as to say : " Against birds and other small creatures these stone arrows might prove effectual, but against larger animals, such as the aurochs, the elk, the reindeer, the stag, and the wild boar, they were evidently insufficient ; particularly since these animals often become furious as soon as they are struck . ” I can, however, by no means agree with Professor Worsaae in this supposi tion ; we know, on the contrary, that modern savages are able

• Page 18.

ART OF DRILLING . 547 to kill even the largest game with arrows and spears tipped with stone. Knives, again, of stone, are much more effective than might at first be expected, and many savage tribes readily cut flesh with pieces of shell or of hard wood. The neatness with which the Hottentots, Esquimaux, North American Indians, etc., are able to sew, is very remarkable, although awls and sinews would in our hands be but poor substitutes for needles and thread. As already mentioned in p. 331 , some cautious archæologists hesitated to refer the rein deer caves of the Dordogne to the Stone Age, on account of the bone needles and the works of art which are found in them. The eyes of the needles especially, they thought, could only be made with metallic implements. Professor Lartet ingeniously removed these doubts by making a similar needle for himself with the help of a flint ; but he might have referred to the fact stated by Cook* in his first voyage, that the New Zealanders succeeded in drilling a hole through a piece of glass which he had given them , using for this purpose, as he supposed, a piece of jasper. The Brazilians also use ornaments of imperfectly crystal lized quartz, from four to eight inches long and about an inch in diameter. Hard as it is, they contrive to drill a hole at each end, using for that purpose the pointed leaf-shoot of the large wild plantain, with sand and water. The hole is gene rally transverse, but the ornaments of the chiefs are actually pierced lengthways. This, Mr. Wallace thinks, must be a work of years.t The works of art found in the Dordogne caves are little ruder than those of the Esquimaux or the North American Indians. In fact, the appreciation of art is to be regarded rather as an ethnological characteristic than as an indication of any particular stage in civilization. We see, again, that in many cases a certain knowledge of agriculture has preceded

• Vol, iji. p. 464, + Travels on the Amazon, p. 278.

2 N 2 548 IMPORTANT WORKS ERECTED BY SAVAGES. the use of metals ; and the fortifications of New Zealand , as well as the large morais of the South Sea Islands, are argu ments in favour of the theory which ascribes some of our camps, our great tumuli, and other Druidical remains, to the later part of the Stone Age. The great morai of Oberea, in Tahiti, has been already described (p. 484) . Again, the cele brated statues of Easter Island are really colossal. One of them , which has fallen down, measures twenty- seven feet long, and others appear to be even larger. The houses of the Ladrone Islanders, also, are very remarkable. The larger ones were supported on strong pyramids of stone. These were, according to Freycinet, * in one piece, made of chalk , sand, or large stones, imbedded in a kind of cement. They were found in large numbers; in one case they formed a stone row four hundred yards long. They were first described by Anson , who saw many which were thirteen feet in height ; while one of those seen by Freycinet measured as much as twenty feet. They were square at the base, and rested on the ground. On each pillar was a hemisphere, with the flat side upwards. The South Sea Islanders afford, indeed, wonderful instances of what can be accomplished with stone implements. Their houses are large and often well built, and their canoes have excited the wonder of all who have seen them. Although, then, the use of stone as the principal material of implements and weapons may be regarded as characterizing an early stage in the development of civilization, still it is evident that this stage is itself susceptible of much subdivi sion. The Mincopie or the Australian, for instance, is not to be compared for an instant with the semi- civilized native of the Society Islands. So also in the ancient Stone Age of Europe we find evidences of great difference. The savage inhabitants of the South French caves had, according to MM. Christy and Lartet, no domestic animals, and no knowledge of . Vol. ii . p. 318. DIFFERENCES IN THE STONE AGE. 549 pottery or agriculture. The shell-mound builders of Denmark had the dog ; the Swiss Lake -dwellers also possessed this animal, together with the ox, sheep, and pig, perhaps even the horse ; they had a certain knowledge of agriculture, and were acquainted with the art of weaving. Thus, then, even when we have satisfied ourselves that any given remains belong to the Stone Age, we are still but on the threshold of our inquiry. Travellers and naturalists have varied a good deal in opinion as to the race of savages which is entitled to the unenviable reputation of being the lowest in the scale of civilization . Cook, Darwin, Fitzroy, and Wallis, were deci dedly in favour, if I may so say, of the Fuegian ; Burchell maintained that the Bushmen are the lowest ; D'Urville voted for the Australians and Tasmanians ; Dampier thought the Australians “ the miserablest people in the world ; " Forster said that the people of Mallicollo “ bordered the nearest upon the tribe of monkeys ;” Owen inclines to the Andamaners ; others have supported the North American Root-diggers ; and one French writer even insinuates that monkeys are more human than Laplanders. The civilization, moreover, of the Stone Age differs, not only in degree, but also in kind, varying according to the climate , vegetation, food, etc. , from which it becomes evident — at least to all those who believe in the unity of the human race—that the present habits of savage races are not to be regarded as representing exactly those which characterized the first men, but as depending also on external conditions, influenced indeed to a certain extent by national character, which, however, is after all but the result of the external conditions which have acted on previous generations. If we take a few of the things which are most generally useful in savage life, and at the same time most easily obtainable, such, for instance, as bows and arrows, slings, 550 DIFFERENT LINES OF CIVILIZATION. spear-casters, pottery , domestic animals, or a knowledge of agriculture, we night perhaps have expected à priori that the acquisition of them would have followed some regular succes sion. That this, however, was not the case is shown by the annexed table, which will, I think, be found interesting. It gives some idea of the progress made by various savage tribes at the time when they were first visited by Europeans. Some of the differences exhibited in this table may indeed be easily accounted for. The frozen soil and arctic climate of the Esquimaux would not encourage, would not even per mit, any agriculture. So, again, the absence of hogs in New Zealand, of dogs in the Friendly Isles, and of all mammalia in Easter Island, is probably due to the fact that the original colonists did not possess these animals, and that their isolated position prevented them afterwards from obtaining any. More over, we must remember that as a general rule the lowest savage can only use one or two weapons. He is limited to those which he can carry about with him, and naturally pre fers those which are of most general utility. * We cannot, however, in this manner account for all the facts. In Columbia, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, and elsewhere, agriculture was unknown before the advent of Europeans. Easter Island, on the contrary , contained large plantations of sweet pota toes, yams, plantains, sugar-canes, etc. Yet the Chinooks of Columbia had bows and arrows, fish -hooks, and nets ; the Australians had throwing-sticks, boomerangs, fish -hooks, and nets ; the Hottentots had bows and arrows, nets, fish - hooks, pottery, and at last even a certain knowledge of iron ; all of which seem to have been unknown to the Easter Islanders, though they would have been very useful, and, excepting the iron, might have been invented and used by them. If the case of Easter Island stood alone, the absence of bows

1. Weapons of war depending

very much on the caprice of chiefs, are probably more liable to change than those used in hunting. DIFFERENCES OF WEAPONS. 551 and arrows might, perhaps, be plausibly accounted for by the absence of game, the scarcity of birds, and the isolation of the little island , which rendered war almost impossible. But such an argument cannot be applied to other cases which are indi cated in the table. Let us compare, for instance, the Atlantic tribes of North American Indians, the Australians, Kaffirs, Bushmen, New Zealanders, and Society Islanders. All these were constantly at war, and the two first lived very much on the produce of the chase. They at least had therefore similar wants. Yet spears, and perhaps clubs, were the only weapons which they had in common ; the North Americans had good bows and arrows, the Society Islanders and Bushmen had bad ones — in fact, those of the former were so weak as to be use less in war ; the Australians, Kaffirs, and New Zealanders, had none. On the other hand, the Australians had the throw ing- stick and the boomerang; the Society Islanders used slings ; and the New Zealanders, besides very effective clubs, had numerous and extensive fortifications. It is certainly most remarkable that tribes so warlike, and in many respects so advanced, as the New Zealanders and Kaffirs, should have been ignorant of bows and arrows, which were used by many very low races, such as the Fuegians, the Chinooks, the Andamaners, and Bushmen ; particularly as it is impossible to doubt that the New Zealanders at least would have found bows of great use, and that any of their tribes, having invented them, would have had an immense advantage in the “ struggle for existence. ” Other similar contrasts will strike any one who examines the table ; but perhaps it may be said that some of these cases may be explained by the influence of more civilized neighbours; that the comparison above made, for instance, might be regarded as unfair, because the New Zealanders were an isolated race, while the Chinooks might have derived their knowledge of bows and arrows from the eastern tribes, and these again might have acquired the art of AUSTRALIANS . 552ESQUIMAUX . NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS . - EASTERN . ISLANDERS . FUEGIANS . BUSHMEN . HOTTENTOTS . ANDAMANERS NEW . ZEALANDERS Southern . FEEGEEANS Northern SOCIETY . ISLANDERS North. East FRIENDLY . ISLANDERS . West . West . East Arrows Bows and Weak Weak Weak Good .. .. Good .. Good Good Good Weak Weak .. Slings Yes .. Yes Yes Yes .. Yes Yes ? Throwing -sticks .. Yes Yes Yes ? .. .. .. .. Boomerangs . .. .. Yes Yes .. .. .. .. .. .. Bolas .. .. DIFFERENCES OF WEAPONS, ETC. . .. .. Yes .. .. .. .. Pottery .. Yes .. .. .. Yes .. Yes .. Canoes Bad Bad .. Good .. Bad Good Bad Very Middlinggood Very good Very good Very good Agriculture .. .. .. .. .. Maize Yes Yes Yes Yes Fortifications .. . .. .. Many Yes Yes Boneand shell Shell Yes Large Yes Large Yes Yes Yes ? Yes Small For wol For Forhunting draught &hunting For fod Fish hooks - Nets Stone Iron Neat Bone For bird Yes Good Neat catching For For For For For For Dogs Hoge Domestic (). Some Many ISOLATION OF SAVAGES. 553 making pottery from the semi- civilized nations of the south. No one can deny that this may be true in some instances, because we know that at the present day most savages possess hatchets, knives, beads, etc., which they have received from traders, and which they cannot yet manufacture for them selves. It is certainly possible that the Chinooks may have derived their knowledge of the bow from their northern neighbours ; but we can hardly suppose that they did so from the Red Indian tribes to the east, because in that case it is difficult to understand why they should not also have learnt from these the much simpler, and almost equally useful, art of making pottery. Moreover, there are some cases in which any such idea is absolutely out of the question ; thus, the spear - caster is used by the Esquimaux, the Australians, the New Cale donians, and some Brazilian tribes ; the bolas by the Esqui maux and the Patagonians; the boomerang is peculiar to the Australians . * The “ sumpitan ," or blow-pipe of the Malays, occurs again in the valley of the Amazon. Again, different races of savages have but little peaceful intercourse with one another. They are almost always at war. If their habits are similar, they are deadly rivals, fighting for the best hunting grounds or fisheries; if their wants are different, they fight for slaves, for women, for ornaments ; or if they do not care about any of these, for the mere love of fighting, for scalps, heads, or some other recognized emblems of glory. In this condition of society, each tribe lives in a state either of isola tion from , or enmity with, its neighbours. Delenda est Car thago is the universal motto, and savages can only live in peace when they have a little world of their own. Sometimes a broad sea or a high range of mountains, at others a wide

• The ancient Egyptians had, and which are thrown in war. But these

the Negroesof NiamNiam have, iron do not appear to possess the peculiar crescents resembling boomerangs, properties of the boomerang. 554 ISOLATION OF SAVAGES. “ march ” or neutral territory , supplies the necessary conditions and keeps them apart. They meet only to fight, and are there fure not likely to learn much from one another. Moreover, there are cases in which some tribes have weapons which are quite unknown to their neighbours. Thus, among the Brazilian tribes we find the bow and arrow, the blow-pipe, the lasso, and the throwing -stick. The first is the most general; but the Barbados use only the blow- pipe, the Moxos have abandoned the bow and arrow for the lasso, and the Purupurus are dis tinguished from all their neighbours by using, not bows and arrows, but the “ palheta,” or throwing - stick. Again, the Kaffirs have not generally adopted the bows and arrows of the Bushmen ; the Esquimaux have not acquired the art of making pottery from the North American Indians, nor the southern Columbian tribes from the northern Mexicans. Many, again, of the ruder arts, as, for instance, the manu facture of pottery and of bows, are so useful, and at the same time, however ingenious in idea, so simple in execution, as to render it highly improbable that they would ever be lost when they had once been acquired. Yet we have seen that the New Zealanders and Kaffirs had no bows, and that none of the Polynesians had any knowledge of pottery ; though it is evident from their skill in other manufactures, and their general state of civilization, that they would have found no difficulty in the matter if the manner had once occurred to them . Again, “ bolas ” are a most effectual weapon, and there is certainly no difficulty in making them , yet the knowledge of them appears to be confined to the Patagonians and the Esquimaux. The art of pottery, on the contrary, sometimes has been, I believe, communicated by one race to another. Nevertheless, there are cases, even among existing races,* in which we seem to find indications of an independent discovery ; at any rate, in which the art is in a rudimentary stage.

• See, for instance, p. 495.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SAVAGES. 555 On the whole, then, from a review of these and other similar facts which might have been mentioned , it seems to me most probable that many of the simpler weapons, implements, etc. , have been invented independently by various savage tribes, although there are no doubt also cases in which they have been borrowed by one tribe from another. The contrary opinion has been adopted by many writers on account of the undeniable similarity existing between the weapons used by savages in very different parts of the world. But however paradoxical it may sound, though the imple ments and weapons of savages are remarkably similar, they are at the same time curiously different. No doubt the neces saries of life are simple and similar all over the world. The materials also with which man has to deal are very much alike ; wood, bone, and to a certain extent stone, have every where the same properties. The obsidian flakes of the Aztecs resemble the flint flakes of our ancestors, not so much because the ancient Briton resembled the Aztec, as because the frac ture of flint is like that of obsidian. So also the pointed bones used as awls are necessarily similar all over the world . Similarity exists, in fact, rather in the raw material than in the manufactured article, and some even of the simplest im plements of stone are very different among different races. The adze- like hatchets of the South Sea Islanders are unlike those of the Australians or ancient Britons ; the latter again differ very much from the type which is characteristic of the Drift or Archäolithic period. Again, the habits and customs of savages, while presenting many remarkable similarities, which, as it seems to me, go far to prove the unity of the human race, still differ greatly, and thus give strong evidence of independent development. Many, indeed, of those differences which must have struck any one in reading the preceding part of the chapter, follow evidently and directly from the external conditions in which different 556 DIFFERENT USES FOR THE DOG . races are placed. The habits of an Esquimaux and a Hot tentot could not possibly be similar. But let us take some act which is common to many races, and is susceptible of being accomplished in several ways. For instance, most savages live in part on the flesh of birds; how is this ob tained ? Generally with bows and arrows ; but while the Australians catch birds with the hand, or kill them with the simple spear or the boomerang, the Fuegians have both the sling and the bow, while the Esquimaux use a complex spear with several points, or a projectile which consists of a number of walrus -teeth fastened together by short pieces of string, and thus forming a kind of bolas. The northern tribes visited by Kane practised a different method. They caught large numbers of birds, especially little auks, in small nets, resem bling landing-nets, with long ivory handles. Yet this very people were entirely ignorant of fishing. * Take, again, the use made of the dog. At first, probably, the dog and the man hunted together ; t the cunning of the one supplemented the speed of the other, and they shared the produce of their joint exertions. Gradually mind asserted its pre -eminence over matter, and the man became master. Then the dog was employed in other ways, less congenial to his nature. The Esquimaux forced him to draw the sledge ; the Chinook kept him for the sake of his wool ; the South Sea Islanders, having no game, bred the dog for food ; the Chonos Indians taught him to fish ; where tribes became shepherds, their dogs became shepherds also ; finally, it is recorded by Pliny that in ancient times troops of dogs were trained to serve in war. Even the ox, though less versatile than the dog, has been used for the first and the two last of these pur poses. Kane , Arctic Explorations, vol. ii. pp. 203, 243. + The low American Wood In dians, however, used the dog rather as a watch -dog than as a hound . i 1 MODES OF OBTAINING FIRE . 537 111 Again , in obtaining fire, two principal methods are followed

some savages , as for instance the Aleutians and Fuegians , using percussion , while others , as the South Sea Islanders , rub one piece of wood against another . The Aleutians rub two pieces of quartz with sulphur , and then strike them together , catching the sparks on dry grass.

• Opinions are divided

whether we have any trustworthy record of a people without the means of obtaining fire. It has been already mentioned (pp. 447, 453) that some of the Australians and Tasmanians, though acquainted with fire, did not know how to obtain it . In his history of the Ladrone Islands , Father Gobien asserts that fire, “ an element of such universal use , was utterly un known to them , till Magellan , provoked by their repeated thefts, burned one of their villages . When they saw their wooden houses blazing, they first thought the fire a beast which fed upon wood , and some of them who came too near , being burnt , the rest stood afar off, lest they should be de voured , or poisoned, by the violent breathings of this terrible animal.” This fact is not mentioned in the original account of Magellan's Voyage . Freycinet believes that the assertion of Father Gobien is entirely without foundation . The lan guage, he says, of the inhabitants contains words for fire , burning charcoal , oven , grilling , boiling, etc.; and even before the advent of the Europeans , pottery t was well known . It is difficult, however , to get over the distinct assertion made by Gobien , which moreover derives some support from similar statements made by other travellers . Thus Alvaro de Saavedra states that the inhabitants of certain small islands in the Pacific , which he called “ Los Jardines , ” but which cannot now be satisfactorily determined , stood in terror of fire be cause they had never seen it. I Again , Wilkes tells us that

• Bancroft, Nat

. Races of the Pacific States, vol. i. p. 91. † 1. c. vol. ii. p. 166. I Hakluyt Soc . 1862 , p . 178 . $ United States' Expl. Exped . vol . v . p . 18 . 1 558 MODES OF OBTAINING FIRE . on the island of Fakaafo, which he calls “ Bowditch ,” “ there was no sign of places for cooking, nor any appearance of fire. ” The natives also were very much alarmed when they saw sparks struck from flint and steel. Here, at least, we might have thought, was a case beyond question or suspicion ; the presence of fire could hardly have escaped observation ; the marks it leaves are very conspicuous. If we cannot depend on such a statement as this, made by an officer in the United States' Navy, in the official report of an expedition sent out especially for scientific purposes, we may well be disheartened, and lose confidence in ethnological investigations. Yet the assertions of Wilkes are questioned, and with much appearance of justice, by Mr. Tylor. * In the “ Ethnography of the United States' Exploring Expedition ,” Hale gives a list of Fakaafo words, in which we find a fi for “ fire . ” This is evidently the same word as the New Zealand ahi ; but as it denotes light and heat, as well as fire, we might suppose that it thus found its way into the Fakaafo vocabulary. I should not, therefore, attribute to this argument quite so much force as does Mr. Tylor. It is, however, evident that Captain Wilkes did not perceive the importance of the observation, or he would cer tainly have taken steps to determine the question ; and as Hale, in his special work on the Ethnology of the Expedition, does not say a word on the subject, it is clear he had no idea that the inhabitants of Fakaafo exhibited such an interesting peculiarity. The fact, if established, would be most impor tant ; but it cannot be said to be satisfactorily proved that there is at present, or has been within historical times, any race of men entirely ignorant of fire. It is at least certain that as far back as the earliest Swiss lake villages and Danish shell - mounds the use of fire was well known in Europe. On the other hand, as already mentioned, some of the Tas manian and Australian tribes, and of the Andaman Islanders,

• Early History of Mankind, p. 230.

DIFFERENT MODES OF BURIAL. 559 though well acquainted with the use of fire, know no way of kindling it . Consequently, they take great pains to keep it always burning ; and if by any mischance it should be extin guished, are obliged to get a fresh light from some neighbour ing tribe. There is, again, scarcely any conceivable way in which the dead could be disposed of, which has not been adopted in some part of the world. Among some races the corpse is simply buried ; by others it is burned. Some of the North American Indians expose their dead on scaffolds in the branches of trees. Some tribes deposit them in sacred rivers ; others in the sea. Among the Sea Dyaks, the dead chief is placed in his war canoe, with his favourite weapons and principal property, and is thus turned adrift. Other tribes gave their dead to be food for wild beasts ; and others preferred to eat them themselves. Some Brazilian tribes drink the dead. * The Tarianas and Tucanos, and some other tribes, about a month after the funeral, disinter the corpse, which is then much decomposed, and put it in a great pan or oven over the fire, till all the volatile parts are driven off with a most horrible odour, leaving only a black carbonaceous mass, which is pounded into a fine powder, and mixed in several large conches of caxiri : this is drunk by the assembled company, under the full belief that the virtues of the deceased will thus be transmitted to the drinkers. The Cobeus also drink the ashes of the dead in the same manner. Indeed, if there are two possible ways of doing a thing, we may be sure that some tribes will prefer one, and some the other. It seems natural to us that descent should go in the male line ; but there are very many races in which it is traced from the mother, not the father. The husband or father seems to us to be the natural head of the family ; in Tahiti the re verse is the case, and the son enters at once into the property

• Wallace, Travels on the Amazon, p. 498.

560 DESCENT OF PROPERTY. and titles of his father, who then holds them only as a guardian or trustee ; so that among this extraordinary people, not the father, but the son, is in reality the head of the family. So also in Australia, the father is called after the son, not the son after the father. At Cape York and in the neighbouring islands the youngest son has a double share . * Among the New Zealanders, Mr. Brown assures us that the youngest son succeeded to the property of the father.f Among the Wany ameuzi, property descends not to the legitimate, but to the illegitimate children . There are many races in which those holding certain relationships are forbidden to talk to one another, an extraordinary superstition which, as we have seen (p. 463) , reaches its climax among the Fijians. It seems natural to us that after childbirth the woman should keep her bed ; and that as far as possible the husband should relieve her for a time from the labours and cares of life. In this, at least, one might have thought that all nations would be alike. Yet it is not so. Among the Caribs the father, on the birth of a child, took to his hammock, and placed himself in the hands of the doctor, the mother mean while going about her work as usual. A similar custom has been observed on the mainland of South America, among the Abipones, Mundrucus, Fuegians, etc.; among the Arawaks of Surinam ; in the Chinese province of West Yunnan ; among the Dyaks of Borneo, and the Esquimaux of Greenland. It is mentioned by Xenophon as occurring in Asia Minor, and by Strabo among the Iberians; is found even in the present day among the Basques, among whom we are told that in some of the valleys the “ women rise immediately after childbirth , and attend to the duties of the household, while the husband goes to bed, taking the baby with him, and thus receives the

• McGillivray, Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, vol. ii . p . 28.

+ New Zealand and its Aborigines, p. 26. I Burton's Lake Regions of Africa, p. 198. DIFFERENCES IN PREVALENT SOUNDS. 561 neighbours' compliments . ” The same habit has been noticed also in the South of France ; according to Diodorus Siculus, it prevailed at his time in Corsica ; and, finally, it “ is said still to exist in some cantons of Bearn, where it is called faire la couvade. " Again , the love of life — the dread of death - are among the strongest of our feelings. “ Everything that a man hath he will give in exchange for his life . ” This is true, but by no means universally so. According to Azara, the Indians of Paraguay have a great indifference to death ; and we have already seen that this is the case with the Fijians; while Burton makes a similar statement as regards the Negroes of Dahomey. Among the Chinese it is said that a man con demned to death , if permitted to do so, inay always secure a substitute on paynıent of a moderate sum of money ; and a coffin is regarded as a most appropriate present for an aged relative. Again , the sounds of which language is constituted differ extremely in different parts of the world. The clicks of the Hottentots are a striking illustration of this. The Hurons did not use the labials ; the Indians of Port au Français in Columbia, according to M. de Lamanon,* make no use of the consonants b, f, x, j, d, p, or v. The Peruvian language wanted the letters b, d, f, g, s, and x.t The Australians did not use the sound conveyed by our letter s . Many of the Neyroes have no r . The Fijians do not use the letter c, the Somo- Somo dialect has no k, that of Rakiraki and other parts, no t . The Society Islanders and Australians exclude both s and coll In representing the New Zealand language, the

• Voyage de la Perouse, vol. ii. I Freycinet, vol. ii. p. 757 ; D'Ur.

ville, vol. i . pp. 188, 199, 481 . + Garcilasso de la Vega. Mark- $ Williams, Figi and the Figians, ham's Translation, Author's Pre- vol. i. p. v. 257. face, p. x . || Ellis, Polynesian Researches, vol. i . P. 77. p. 211 . 20 562 DIFFERENCES IN SIGNS. missionaries found themselves able to discard no less than thirteen letters, namely, b, c, d, f, g , j, 1, 9, s, v, x, y, and 2.* Schaaffhausen observes that the labials are especially difficult to prognathous races. Shortland asserts that whistling was unknown in New Zealand.f Even the symbols by which the feelings are ex pressed are very different in different races. Kissing appears to us the natural expression of affection. “ ' Tis certain ," says Steele, “ nature was its author, and it began with the first courtship. ” On the contrary, it was entirely unknown to the Tahitians, the New Zealanders, f the Papouans, and the aborigines of Australia, nor was it in use among the Somals,|| or the Esquimaux. The Hill Tribes of Chittagong do not say “ Kiss me,” but “ Smell me. " ** The Malays, t + Fijians,11 Tongans, and many other Polynesians, always sit down when speaking to a superior ; the inhabitants of Mallicollo testify “admiration by hissing like a goose,” SS the sound being per haps like our " hush ,” a call for silence, and hence a mark of interest ; the mode of showing respect among the Todas of the Neilgherry hills is by raising the open right hand to the face, resting the thumb on the bridge of the nose ; at Vatavulu ||| it is respectful to turn one's back on a superior, especially in addressing him. The same custom occurs in Congo ;17 Denham found it in Central Africa ; *** and Speke among the Wahuma

• Brown, New Zealand and its ++ Marsden, Memoirs of a Ma Aborigines, p. 100 . layan Family, p. 37.

+ Traditions of the New Zea- II Williams, Figi and the Figi landers, p. 134. ans, vol. i. p. 38. I D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 561 ; $$ Cook's Second Voyage, vol. ii. Voyage of the Novara, vol. iii. II || Figi and the Figians, vol. i. ſ Freycinet, vol. ii. p. 56 . || Burton's First Footsteps in 1T Astley's Voyage and Travels, Africa, p. 123. vol. iii. p. 72. Lyon's Journal, p. 353. *** Travels and Discoveries in ** Lewin , Hill Tribes of Chit- Africa, vol. ii. p. 27, vol. iii. p. 15. tagong, p . 46. p. 36 . P. 106. p. 154. IDEAS OF DECENCY. 563 in the East. * The people of Iddah shake their clenched fist, + while on the White Nile and in Ashantee they spit on you as a compliment. According to Freycinet, tears were regarded in the Sandwich Islands as a sign of happiness ; # and some of the Esquimaux pull noses as a token of respect. Spix and Martius assure us that blushing was unknown among the Brazilian Indians ; and that only after long intercourse with Europeans, does a change of colour become in them any indi cation of mental emotion.|| Again , we find the most striking differences of feeling in the matter of clothing. The Turk thinks it highly improper for a woman to show her face. The sculptures on early Indian temples show that a race may attain to a considerable degree of civilization without perceiving any necessity what ever for clothing. This is the case with the women listening to Buddha while preaching, and even Buddha's wife and Maya his mother T are habitually so represented ; indeed, Mr. Fergusson does not hesitate to say that “ before the Mahome dan conquest nudity in India conveyed no sense of indecency." The ideas of virtue also differ extremely. Neither faith , hope, nor charity, enters into the virtues of a savage. The Sichuana language contains no expression for thanks; the Algonquin had no word for love ; the Tinnè no word for be loved ; mercy was with the North American Indians a mistake, and peace an evil; theft, says Catlin, they “ call capturing ;" humility is an idea which they could not comprehend. Among the Koupouees the greatest misconduct, says Major McCulloch, “ is to forgive an enemy, the first virtue is revenge.” **

• Discovery of the Source of the T See, for instance, Fergusson's

Nile, p. 206. Tree and Serpent Worship. Pl . + Allen and Thompson, Exped. lxxiv. and passim. to the Niger, vol. i. p. 290. ** Selection from the Records I l. C. vol. ii . pp. 542, 589. of the Government of India, by § Ross, Baffin's Bay, p. 118. Major W. McCulloch, p. 75. || Vol. i. P: 376. 2 0 2 564 IDEAS OF VIRTUE. Among the ancient Greeks, we see in Homer that the deceitful cunning of Ulysses was looked upon with approval “ Is a man to starve,” said an African, indignantly , to Capt. Burton, “ while his sister has children whom she might sell ? " This sentiment reads at first like the acme of selfishness, but this impression would perhaps be unjust. Marsden records a Sumatran Malay as saying, in admiration of an European watch, “ Is it not fitting that such as we should be slaves to people who have the ingenuity to invent, and the skill to construct, so wonderful a machine ? " * Chastity before marriage was not reckoned as a virtue by the New Zealanders, t the Hill Tribes of North Aracan, or by many of the ruder inhabitants of Northern and Central America ; § it was disapproved of, though for very different reasons, by some of the Brazilian tribes, by the inhabitants of the Ladrones, and by the Andamaners. According to Ulloa, the Brazilians do not approve of chastity in an unmarried woman, regarding it as a proof that she can have nothing attractive about her. The inhabitants of the Ladrones, and of the Andaman Islands,** come to the same conclusion ; in the latter case, however, for a different reason , regarding it as a proof of selfishness and pride. On the other hand, the Australians would have been shocked at a man marrying a woman of his own family name ; the Abipones thought it a sin for a man to pronounce his own name ; the Tahitians thought it very wrong to eat in company, and were horrified at an English sailor, who carried some food in a basket on his head. This prejudice was also shared by the New Zealanders,tt

• History of Sumatra, p. 205. Native Races of the Pacific States,

+ Brown, New Zealand and its vol. i. pp. 123, 242. Aborigines, p. 35. || Pinkerton, vol. xiv . p . 521. I St. John, Jour. Anthr. Inst. | Freycinet, vol. ii . p. 370. 1872, p. 239. ** Trans. Ethn. Soc., New Ser. § Franklin's Journeys to the vol. ii. p. 35. Polar Seas, vol. i . p. 132. Dunn's +t D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 533. Oregon Territory, p. 92. Bancroft, IDEAS OF VIRTUE. 565 while the Fijians, who were habitual cannibals, who regarded mercy as a weakness, and cruelty as a virtue, fully believed that a woman who was not tattooed in an orthodox manner during life, could not possibly hope for happiness after death. This curious idea is also found among the Esquimaux. Hall tells us that they tattoo “ from principle, the theory being that the lines thus made will be regarded in the next world as a sign of goodness." * It seems to the Veddahs the most natu ral thing in the world that a man should marry his younger sister, but marriage with an elder one is as repugnant to them as to us. Among the Friendly Islanders the chief priest was considered too holy to be married ; but he had the right to take as many concubines as he pleased ; and even the chiefs dared not refuse their daughters to him . In Western Africa the women of the reigning families might have as many lovers as they wished, but were forbidden to degrade themselves by marriage. Among the natives of New South Wales, though the women wore no clothes, it was thought indecent for young girls to go naked. + Many savage races think it wrong for a woman to have twins ; among the Ibos of Eastern Africa, for instance, in such a case the children were exposed to wild beasts, and the mother was driven out of society . There also it is thought unlucky to cut the upper teeth before the lower ones, § and You cut your top teeth first” is the bitterest of insults. I can not indeed but think that the differences observable in savage tribes are even more remarkable than the similarities. In endeavouring to estimate the moral character of savages, we must remember not only that their standard of right and

• Life with the Esquimaux, vol. stances of this, my Origin of Civi ii. p. 315 . lization, 2nd ed. p. 25.

+ D'Urville, vol. i. p. 471 ; Voy- This idea is, I find to iny sur age of the Rattlesnake, vol. i. p. 49. prise, also prevalent among our own I Burton's Lake Regions of Africa, p . 90. See, for other in nurses. 566 DEIFICATION OF WHITE MEN . wrong was, and is, in many cases, very different from ours , but also that, according to the statements of travellers, some of them can hardly be regarded as responsible beings, and have not attained to any notions, however faulty and unde fined , of moral rectitude. * But where such notions do exist, they differ widely, as we have seen , from our own ; and it would open up too large a question to inquire whether, in all cases, our standard is the correct one. In considering the character of women belonging to savage or semi-savage races, we must also remember that savages often regard the white men as beings of a superior order. Thus M. du Chaillu tells us that some of the African savages looked upon him as a superior being ; and the South Sea Islanders worshipped Captain Cook as a deity. Even when they had killed him , and cut him into small pieces, the inhabitants of Owhyhee fully expected him to reappear, and frequently asked “ what he would do to them on his return." + However absurd and extravagant such a belief may at first sight appear, it must be admitted that it is in many respects very natural. Savages can only raise their minds to the con ception of a being a few degrees superior to themselves, and Captain Cook was more powerful, wiser, and, we may add, more virtuous than most of their so -called “ Deities.” Under these circumstances, although it must be admitted that the chastity of the women is not, as a general rule, much regarded among savages, we must not too severely condemn them on this account. It is not surprising that any connection with white men is regarded rather as an honour than as a disgrace : the Europeans hold, in fact, almost the same position in public estimation as did the amorous deities of ancient mythology. Again, with savages, as with children, time appears longer

• See, for instance, Burchell,

vol. i. p . 461 . + Cook's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, by Capt. King, F.R.S. , vol.. iii . p . 69. CURIOUS CUSTOMS. 567 than it does to us, and a temporary marriage as natural and honourable as one that is permanent. Hospitality, again, is frequently carried so far that it is thought wrong to withhold from a guest anything that might contribute to his comfort, and unless therefore he was provided with a temporary wife, hospitality would be regarded as incomplete. This custom is found throughout North America and the South Sea Islands, among the Abyssinians, Bedouins, Kaffirs, Patagonians, and other races. Among the Esquimaux it is considered a great mark of friendship for two men to exchange wives for a day or two. It has been already mentioned that a Kandyan chief, described by Mr. Bayley, was quite scandalized at the idea of having only one wife. It was, he said , “ just like monkeys." When Captain Cook was in New Zealand, his companions contracted many temporary marriages with the Maori women ; these were arranged in a formal and decent manner, and were regarded, by the New Zealanders at any rate, as perfectly regular and innocent. * Regnardt assures us that the Lapps preferred to marry a girl that had had a child by a white man , thinking " that because a man whom they believe to be possessed of a better taste than themselves has been anxious to give marks of his love for a girl of their country, she must therefore be possessed of some secret merit.” Even at the present day, Lady Duff Gordon tells us, in her paper on the Cape, f that “ there are no so - called ' morals' among the coloured people, and how or why should there ? It is an honour to one of these girls to have a child by a white man.” Taking all these facts into consideration, the intercourse which has taken place between Europeans and women of lower tribes must not, I think, be too severely condemned, or rather the blame ought to fall on us and not on them. But, even

• Cook's First Voyage, vol. iii. p. 450.

+ Pinkerton, Journey to Lapland, vol . i. p. 166. I Vacation Tourists, 1863, p. 178. 568 SOCIAL POSITION OF WOMEN. among savages themselves, we must admit that female virtue is, in many cases, but slightly regarded ; as, indeed, is but natural when women themselves are looked upon as little better than domestic animals. Among many tribes, for in stance the South Sea Islanders and the Esquimaux, indecent dances are not only common , but are countenanced by women of the highest rank, to whom it does not appear to occur that there is any harm or impropriety in them . Judged by our standards, these facts are very dreadful; but we must remem ber they did not entail on savages the same fatal consequences as with us ; and before we condemn them too severely, let us remember our own literature and our own morality, even in the last century . The harsh , not to say cruel treatment of women, which is almost universal among savages, is one of the deepest stains upon their character. They regard the weaker sex as beings of an inferior order, as mere domestic drudges. Nor are the labours and sufferings of the women sweetened by any great affection on the part of those for whom they toil. We have already seen that the Algonquins had no word for " love " in their language, and that the Tinnė Indians had no equivalent for “ dear” or “ beloved. ” Captain Lefroy * says: “ I endea voured to put this intelligibly to Nannette, by supposing such an expression as ' ma chère femme; ma chère fille .' When at length she understood it, her reply was (with great emphasis),

• ” ' disent jamais ça ; i' disent ma femme, ma fille .” Spix and

Martiust tell us that among the Brazilian tribes the father has scarcely any, the mother only an instinctive, affection for the child. There can be no doubt that, as an almost universal rule, savages are cruel ; but we must remember that they are less sensitive to pain than those who spend much of their time in - doors, and that in many cases they inflict upon them selves also the most horrible tortures.

• Richardson's Arctic Expedi- + Reise, vol. i .

tion, vol. ii . p. 24. p. 381 . SAVAGES AND CHILDREN.. 569 Savages may be likened to children , and the compari son is not only correct, but also highly instructive. Many naturalists consider that the early condition of the individual indicates that of the race ,—that the best test of the affinities of a species are the stages through which it passes. So also it is in the case of man ; the life of each individual is an epitome of the history of the race, and the gradual develop ment of the child illustrates that of the species. Hence the importance of the similarity between savages and children . Savages, like children, have no steadiness of purpose. Speak ing of the Dogrib Indians, we found, says Richardson , * " by experience, that however high the reward they expected to receive on reaching their destination, they could not be de pended on to carry letters. A slight difficulty, the prospect of a banquet on venison , or a sudden impulse to visit some friend, were sufficient to turn them aside for an indefinite length of time.” Even among the comparatively civilized South Sea Islanders this childishness was very apparent. “ Their tears indeed, t like those of children , were always ready to express any passion that was strongly excited, and like those of children they also appear to be forgotten as soon as shed . ” D'Urville also mentions that Tai-wanga, a New Zealand chief, cried like a child because the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it with flour. It is not, says Cook, “ indeed strange that the sorrows of these artless people should be transient, any more than that their passions should be suddenly and strongly expressed ; what they feel they have never been taught either to disguise or suppress ; and having no habits of thinking which perpetually recall the past and anticipate the future, they are affected by all the changes of the passing hour, and reflect the colour of the time, how

• Arctic Expedition ,vol.ii. p. 23.

+ Cook's First Voyage, p. 103. I D'Urville, vol. ii . p. 398. See also Burton's Lake Regions of Cen tral Africa, p. 332. 570 SAVAGES AND CHILDREN . ever frequently it may vary ; they have no project which is to be pursued from day to day, the subject of unremitted anxiety and solicitude, that first rushes into the mind when they awake in the morning, and is last dismissed when they sleep at night. Yet if we admit that they are upon the whole happier than we, we must admit that the child is happier than the man , and that we are losers by the perfection of our nature, the increase of our knowledge, and the enlargement of our views. " We know the difficulty which children find in pronouncing certain sounds : r and l, for instance, they constantly confound. This is the case also among the Sandwich Islanders and in the Ladrones, according to Freycinet ;* in Vanikoro ; t among the Dammaras ;# and in the Tonga Islands. Mr. Darwin observed that the Fuegians had great difficulty in compre hending an alternative; and every one must have noticed the tendency among savages to form words by re -duplication. This also is characteristic of childhood among civilized races. Again, some of the most brutal acts which have been recorded against them are to be regarded less as instances of deliberate cruelty, than of a childish thoughtlessness and im pulsiveness. A striking instance of this is recorded by Byron in his narrative of the Loss of the Wager. A cacique of the Chonos, who was nominally a Christian , had been out with his wife to fish for sea - eggs, and having had little success, returned in a bad humour. “ A little boy of theirs, about three years old, whom they appeared to be doatingly fond of, watching for his father and mother's return , ran into the surf to meet them : the father handed a basket of eggs to the child, which being too heavy for him to carry, he let it fall, upon which the father jumped out of the canoe, and catching the

• Vol. ii. pp . 260, 519.

218 . I Galton , Tropical South Africa, p. 181 . § Mariner's Tonga Islands, vol. i . p. 30. + Vol. v. p. MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL INFERIORITY. 571 boy up in his arms, dashed him with the utmost violence against the stones. The poor little creature lay motionless and bleeding, and in that condition was taken up by the mother, but died soon after." * In fact, we may fairly sum up this part of the question in a few words by saying, as the most general conclusion which can be arrived at, that savages have the character of children with the passions and strength of men. No doubt different races of savages differ very much in character. An Esquimaux and a Fijian, for instance, have little in common . But after making every possible allowance for savages, it must I think be admitted that they are inferior, morally as well as in other respects, to the more civilized races. There is indeed no atrocious crime, no vice recorded by any traveller, which might not be paralleled in Europe. But that which is with us the exception, is with them the rule; that which with us is condemned by the general verdict of society, and is confined to the uneducated and vicious, is among savages passed over almost without condemnation , and treated as a mere matter of course . In Tahiti, for instance, the missionaries considered that “ not less than two- thirds of the children were murdered by their parents." If we now turn to the mental differences between civilized and uncivilized races, we shall find them very strongly marked . Speaking of a Bushman tribe, Burchell observes that “ whether capable of reflection or not, these individuals never exerted it. ” f The Rev. T. Dove describes the Tasmanians as distin guished by the absence of all moral views and impressions. Every idea bearing on our origin and destination as rational beings seems to have been erased from their breasts. " | It would be easy to fill a volume with the evidence of excessive

• Byron's Loss of the Wager ;

Kerr's Voyages, vol. xvii. p. 374. + 1. c. vol. i. p . 461. Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science, vol. i. p . 249. 572 POVERTY OF SAVAGE LANGUAGES. tribes * stupidity recorded by different travellers. It may be perhaps thought that these were rather instances of individual dulness, than any indication of a national characteristic ; but in the nature and capacity of a language we find a test and measure of the higher minds in a nation. Unfortunately, however, travellers have found it difficult enough to obtain vocabularies of the words in use ; and it is far less easy to collect infor mation as to those which they do not possess. Yet there are not a few cases in which this has been done. I have already mentioned the deficiency of some North American languages in terms of endearment; this fact suggests a melancholy con dition of the domestic relations, but it may here be referred to again as an evidence of a low mental, as well as moral, condition. What Spix and Martius tell us about the Brazilian appears also to be true of many, if not of most, savage races. Their vocabulary is rich, and they have separate names for the different parts of the body, for all the different animals and plants with which they are acquainted ; for everything, in fact, which they can see and handle. Yet they are entirely deficient in words for abstract ideas ; they have no expressions for colour, tone, sex, genus, spirit, etc. The Abipones have no such words as man, body, place, time, never, ever, everywhere, etc.; nor such a verb as “ to be. ” They cannot say, “ I am an Abipon ,” but only, “ I Abipon .” + The Malay language, also, according to Crawfurd, is very deficient in abstract terms. It contains a word for each colour, but no term for colour itself. The St. Petersburg Bible Society endeavoured some years ago to translate the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments into the language of the Tschuktschi, but “ partly from the language being entirely deficient in words to express new and abstract ideas, and partly for want of letters to convey the variety of strange

• Reise in Brasilien , vol. i. p.

+ Dobritzhoffer, vol. ii . p. 183. 385 . DEFICIENCIES IN NUMERATION. 573 and unconth sounds of which the language itself consists, the translation was wholly unintelligible." * So, again, the Tasmanians had no word for a tree, though they had a name for each species ; nor could they express “ qualities, such as hard , soft, warm , cold, long, short, round, etc.; for ' hard ' they would say " like a stone ; ' for ' tall’ they would say long legs, ' etc.; and for ' round ' they said ' like a ball,' ' like the moon, and so on. ” + According to the mis sionaries, # Fuegians have “ no abstract terms for expressing the truths of our religion ; ” and among the North American languages, “ a term sufficiently general to denote an ' oak -tree ' is exceptional. ” S Even the comparatively civilized inhabi tants of Tahiti had, according to Forster, “ no proper words for expressing abstract ideas. " || The names for numbers are, however, the best, or, at least, the most easily applicable test of mental condition among the lower races of man. We have seen that the Esquimaux can only with difficulty count up to ten, and that some in dividuals cannot go beyond five. The Abipones I can only express three numbers in proper words. The Dammaras “ in practice, whatever they may possess in their language, certainly use no numeral greater than three. When they wish to express four, they take to their fingers, which are to them as formidable instruments of calculation as a sliding rule is to an English schoolboy. They puzzle very much after five, because no spare hand remains to grasp and secure the fingers that are required for units.” ** Mr. Crawfurd, to whom we are indebted for an interesting paper on this sub ject, tt has examined no less than thirty Australian languages,

• Wrangell's Siberia and Polar || 1. c . p. 403.

Sea, p. 121 . Dobritzhoffer, vol. ii. p. 169. + Milligan, Proc. Roy. Society, ** Galton's Tropical Africa, p.133. Tasmania, vol. ii. P. 281. ++ Ethnological Society's Trans | The Voice of Pity, vol. x. p. 152. actions, New Series, vol. ii . p. 84. Latham ,VarietiesofMan, p.375 . 574 ABSENCE OF RELIGION and it appears that none of the tribes in that vast continent count beyond four. According to Mr. Scott Nind, indeed the numerals used by the natives of King George's Sound reach up to five ; but the last is merely the word “many." The Brazilian Indians also count only up to three ; for any higher number they use the word “ many. " * The Cape Yorkers (Australia) can hardly be said to go beyond two ; their nume rals are as follows: One . Two . Three Four Five Six Netat. Naes. Nacs -netat. Naes-nacs. Nacs -naes - netat. Naes- naes - naes. Again, in the state of their religious conceptions, still more in the absence of religious conceptions, we get another proof of extreme mental inferiority. The question has been frequently discussed whether there is any race of men so degraded as to be entirely without a religion — without some idea of a deity. The conclusion to be arrived at depends, as it seems to me, very much on the meaning which we ascribe to the term “ religion .” If a mere fear of the unknown, if a more or less vague belief in witchcraft, is to be regarded as a religion, it would, I think, be difficult to refute this assertion. But if a higher estimate of religion is adopted, then, so far from this being true, the very reverse is the case . Many, we might almost say all, of the most savage races are, according to the nearly universal testimony of travellers, in this condi tion. According to Spix and Martius, + Bates and Wallace, some of the Brazilian Indians were entirely without religion.

• Spix and Martius, vol. i. p. 387 .

+ Reise in Brasilien , vol. i . p. 379 . AMONG SAVAGE RACES . 575 Burmeister confirms this statement, and, in the list of the principal tribes of the valley of the Amazons, published by the Hakluyt Society, the Chunchos are stated “ to have no religion whatever,” and we are told that the Curetus “ have no idea of a Supreme Being. ” The Toupinambas of Brazil had no religion. The South American Indians of the Gran Chaco are said by the missionaries to have " no religious or idolatrous belief or worship whatever; neither do they possess any idea of God, or of a Supreme Being. They make no distinction between right and wrong, and have, therefore, neither fear nor hope of any present or future punishment or reward, nor any mysterious terror of some supernatural power, whom they might seek to assuage by sacrifices or superstitious rites ." Batest tells us “ that none of the tribes on the Upper Amazons have an idea of a Supreme Being, and con sequently have no word to express it in their languages .” Azara also makes the same statement as regards many of the South American tribes visited by him. I Father Baegert, who lived as a missionary among the Indians of California for seventeen years, affirms that “ idols, temples, religious worship, or ceremonies, were unknown to them, and they neither believed in the true and only God, nor adored false deities ;” S and M. de la Perouse also says that they “ had no knowledge of a God, or of a future state.” Colden, who had ample means of judging, assures us that the celebrated “ five nations ” of Canada " had no public worship nor any word for God ; " and Hearne, who lived amongst the Northern American Indians for years, and was perfectly acquainted with their habits and language, says the same of some tribes on Hudson's Bay.

• Voice of Pity, vol. ix . p. 220.

+ Life in the Amazons, vol. ii. vol. ii . pp. 3, 14, 33, 51 , 60, 76, 80, 81 , 84, 90 , 138, 160, 164, 166. $ See Mr. Rau'stranslation, Smith sonian Contrib. 1863-64, p. 390 . p. 162. Voyages dans l'Amer. Mérid . 576 ABSENCE OF RELIGION In the Voyage of l'Astrolabe, it is stated that the natives of the Samoan and Solomon Islands, in the Pacific, had no religion, and in the voyage of the Novara the same is said of the Caroline Islanders. The Samoans “ have neither moraes, nor temples, nor altars, nor offerings, and consequently none of the sanguinary rites, observed at the other groups. In consequence of this the Samoans were considered an impious race ; and their impiety became proverbial with the people of Rarotonga, for, when upbraiding a person who neglected the worship of the gods, they would call him “ a godless Samoan. " * On Damood Island, between Australia and New Guinea, Jukes could find no “ traces of any religious belief or observance. ” + Duradawan, a sepoy who lived some time with the Andaman Islanders, maintained that they had no religion, and Dr. Mouatt believes his statements to be correct. Portman, who lived so long with them , and studied them so lovingly, makes the same statement as regards the native of the Lesser Anda mans. Some of the Australian tribes also are said to have no religion . In the Pellew Islands, Wilson found no reli gious buildings, nor any sign of religion. Mr. Wallace, who had excellent opportunities for judging, and whose merits as an observer no one can question, tells us that among the people of Wanumbai, in the Aru Islands, he could find no trace of a religion ; adding, however, that he was but a short time among them. The Yenadies and the Villees, according to Dr. Shortt, are entirely without any belief in a future state ; ** and again, Hooker tells us that the Lepchas of Northern India have no

• Missionary Enterprises, p. 464 .

+ Jukes, Voyage of the “ Fly," vol. i . P. 164. I Trans. Ethn. Soc. vol. ii . p. 45. § J. Geog. Soc. Sep. 1888. || Collins' English Colony in New South Wales, p. 354. The Malayan Archipelago, vol. ii . p. 280. Proceedings of MadrasGovern ment, Revenue Department. May, 1864.

1 AMONG SAVAGE RACES . 577 1 religion . Captain Grant could find “ no distinct form of reli gion " in some of the comparatively civilized tribes visited by him .

• According to Burchell, the Bachapins

(Kaffirs ) had no form of worship or religion.t They thought “ that every thing made itself, and that trees and herbage grew by their own will. ” They had no belief in a good deity, but some vague idea of an evil being. Indeed, the first idea of a god is almost always as an evil spirit. Speaking of the Foulahs of Wassoulo , in Central Africa , Caillié states

“ I tried to discoverwhether they had any reli gion of their own

whether they worshipped fetishes

, or the sun , moon , or stars

but

I could never perceive any religious ceremony amongst them .” + Again, he says of the Bainbaras that, “ like the people of Wassoulo , they have no religion ," S adding, however, that they have great faith in charms. Burton also states that some of the tribes in the Lake districts of Central Africa “ admit neither God , nor angel , nor devil." || Speaking of Hottentots, Le Vaillant says

“ Je n'y ai vu aucune trace de religion , rien qui approche même de l'idée d'un être vengeur et réinunérateur. J'ai vécu assez longtemps avec eux , chez eux aux sein de leurs déserts paisibles

j'ai fait, avec ces braves humains

, des voyages dans des régions fort eloignées ; nuile part je n'ai rencontré rien qui ressemble à la religion. ” Livingstone mentions that on one occasion , after talking to a Bushman for some time , as he supposed , about the Deity , he found that the savage thought he was speaking about Sekomi, the principal chief of the district . Speaking of the Esquimaux , Ross says

“ Ervick , being the 1

A Walk across Africa, p . 145 . 1 + Travels in South Africa, vol . ii . § 1. c . p . 375 . || Trans. Ethn . Soc . New Ser . vol. i . Voyages dans l'Afrique, vol . i . p . 550. p. 323. Travels to Timbuctoo , vol. i . P. 303. p. 93, 2 P 578 RUDIMENTS OF RELIGION. senior of the first party that came on board, was judged to be the most proper person to question on the subject of religion. I directed Sacheuse to ask him if he had any knowledge of a Supreme Being ; but after trying every word used in his own language to express it, he could not make him understand what he meant. It was distinctly ascertained that he did not worship the sun, moon, stars, or any image or living creature . When asked what the sun or moon was for, he said to give light. He had no knowledge, or idea, how he came into being, or of a future state ; but said that when he died he would be put into the ground. Having fully ascertained that he had no idea of a beneficent Supreme Being, I proceeded, through Sacheuse, to inquire if he believed in an evil spirit ; but he could not be made to understand what it meant. .... Hewas positive that in this incantation he did not receive assistance from anything, nor could he be made to understand what a good or an evil spirit meant.” * In some cases travellers have arrived at these views very much to their own astonishment. Thus Father Dobritzhoffer says : “ Theologians agree in denying that any man in posses sion of his reason can, without a crime, remain ignorant of God for any length of time. This opinion I warmly defended in the University of Cordoba, where I finished the four years' course of theology begun at Grätz, in Styria. But what was my astonishment when, on removing from thence to a colony of Abipones, I found that the whole language of these savages does not contain a single word which expresses God or a divinity. To instruct them in religion, it was necessary to borrow the Spanish word for God, and insert into the cate chism ‘ Dios ecnam caogerik ,' ' God the creator of things.' ” + Canon Callaway, in his “ Religious System of the Amazulu

• Ross's Voyage of Discovery to the Arctic Regions, p. 127.

+ l. c . vol. ii. p. 57. See also P. 64. LOW IDEAS OF THE DEITY. 579 Kaffirs, ” agrees * with Casalis, Arbousset, Vanderkemp, and Moffat, that they have “ scarcely any notion of a Deity, if any. " We have already observed a case of this kind in Kolben, who, in spite of the assertions of the natives themselves, felt quite sure that certain dances must be of a religious charac ter, “ let the Hottentots say what they will.” Again, Mr. Matthews, who went out to act as a missionary among the Fuegians, but was soon obliged to abandon the hopeless task , observed only one act “ which could be supposed devotional.” He sometimes, we are told , “ heard a great howling or lamen tation about sunrise in the morning ; and upon asking Jemmy Button what occasioned the outcry, he could obtain no satis factory answer ; the boy only saying, “ People very sad, cry very much.” This appears so natural and sufficient an expla nation, that why the outcry should be “ supposed devotional, " I must confess myself unable to see. Once more, Sir J. D. Hooker states that the Khasias, an Indian tribe, had no reli gion. Col. Yule, t on the contrary, says that they have ; but he admits that breaking hens' eggs is “ the principal part of their religious practice." But if most travellers have expected to find a religion everywhere, and have been convinced, almost against their will, that the reverse is the case, it is quite possible that there may have been others who have too hastily denied the existence of a religion among the tribes they visited. However this may be, those who assert that even the lowest savages believe in a Supreme Deity, affirm that which is entirely contrary to the evidence. The direct testi mony of travellers on this point is indirectly corroborated by their other statements. How, for instance, can a people who are unable to count their own fingers, possibly raise their mind so far as to realize the difficult problems of religion ?

• Calloway, Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 124.

+ Yule, On the Khasia Hills and People, p. 18. See, for instance, Greg's Creed of Christendom , p. 212. 2 P 2 580 WITCHCRAFT. Fetich worship, which is so widely prevalent in Africa, can hardly be called a religion ; and even the South Sea Islanders, who were in many respects so highly civilized, are said to have been seriously offended with their deity if they thought that he treated them with undue severity, or without proper consideration. According to Kotzebue, the Kamschatkans adored their deities “ when their wishes were fulfilled , and insulted them when their affairs went amiss." * When the missionaries introduced a printing- press into Fiji, “ the hea then at once declared it to be a god .” + The natives of the Nicobar Islands put up scarecrows to frighten away the deity ; and Burton once heard an old Eesa woman, who was suffering from tooth- ache, offer up the fol lowing prayer : “ Oh Allah, may thy teeth ache like mine ! Oh Allah, may thy gums be as sore as mine are now ! ” The savage is, however, almost universally a believer in witchcraft. Confusing together subjective and objective re lations, he is a prey to constant fears. Nor is the belief in sorcery easily shaken off even by the most civilized nations. James the First was under the impression that by melting little images of wax, “ the persons that they bear the name of may be continually melted or dried away by continual sickness. ” As regards pictures, the most curious fancies exist among savage races. They have a very general dislike to be represented, thinking that the artist thereby acquires some mysterious power over them. Kane on one occasion freed himself from some importunate Indians, by threatening to draw them if they did not go away. I have already mentioned ( p. 529) the danger in which Catling found himself from sketching a chief in a profile, and thereby, as it was supposed , depriving him of half his face. So, again, a mysterious con

1. New Voyage round the World, vol. ii. p . 13.

† Figi and the Figians, vol. ii. p. 222. I Voyage of the “ Novara ," vol . ii . p. 66. WITCHCRAFT. 581 nection is supposed to exist between a cut lock of hair and the person to whom it belonged. In various parts of the world the sorcerer gets clippings of the hair of his enemy, parings of his nails, or leavings of his food, convinced that whatever evil is done to these will re- act on their former owner. Even a piece of clothing, or the ground on which a person has trodden, will answer the purpose, and among some tribes the mere knowledge of a person's name is supposed to give a mysterious power. The Indians of British Columbia have a great horror of telling their names. Among the Algonquins a person's real name is communicated only to his nearest relations and dearest friends : the outer world address him by a kind of nickname. Thus the true name of La Belle Sauvage was not Pocahontas, but Matokes, which they were afraid to communicate to the English. In some tribes these name fancies take a different form . According to Ward, it is an unpardonable sin for a Hindoo woman to mention the name of her husband. The Kaffirs have a similar custom, and so have some East African tribes. In many parts of the world the names of the dead are avoided with superstitious horror. This is the case in great parts of North and South America, in Siberia, among the Papuans and Australians, and even in Shetland, where it is said that widows are very reluctant to Inention their departed husbands. Throughout Australia, among some of the Brazilian tribes, in parts of Africa, and in various other countries, natural death is regarded as an impossibility. In the New Hebrides, “ when a man fell ill, he knew that some sorcerer was burning his rubbish ; and shell-trumpets, which could be heard for miles, were blown to signal to the sorcerers to stop, and wait for the presents which would be sent next morning. Night after night, Mr. Turner used to hear the melancholy too-tooing of the shells, entreating the wizards to stop plaguing their 582 GENERAL WRETCHEDNESS OF SAVAGES. victims.” Savages never know but what they may be placing themselves in the power of these terrible enemies ; + and it is not too much to say that the horrible dread of unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters every pleasure. The mental sufferings which they thus undergo, the horrible tortures which they sometimes inflict on themselves, and the crimes which they are led to commit, are melancholy in the extreme. It must not be supposed that in the preceding chapter I have selected from various works all the passages most unfavourable to savages, and that the picture I have drawn of them is unfair. In reality, the very reverse is the case. Their real condition is even worse and more abject than that which I have endeavoured to depict. I have been careful to quote only from trustworthy authorities, but there are many things stated by them which I have not ventured to repeat ; and there are other facts which the travellers themselves were ashamed to publish.

• Tylor, I. c . p. 129 ; Turner's + See Brown, New Zealand and

Polynesia, pp. 18, 89, 424. its Aborigines, p . 80 . ( 583 ) CHAPTER XVI. CONCLUDING REMARKS. I HAVE already expressed my belief that the simple arts and implements have been independently invented by various tribes, at different times, and in different parts of the world . Even at the present day, we may, I think, obtain glimpses of the manner in which they were, or may have been, invented. Elephants break off boughs to use as fans and scrapers. Monkeys use clubs, and throw sticks and stones. at those who intrude upon them. Rengger saw a monkey take a stick and use it to open the lid of a box, and this has since been confirmed by other observers. They also use round stones for cracking nuts, and surely a very small step would lead from that to the application of a sharp stone for cutting. When the edge became blunt, it would be thrown away , and another chosen ; but after a while, accident, if not reflection, would show that a round stone would crack other stones, as well as nuts, and thus the savage would learn to make sharp-edged stones for himself. At first, as we see in the drift specimens, these would be coarse and rough, but gradually the pieces chipped off would become smaller, the blows would be more cautiously and thoughtfully given, and at length it would be found that better work might be done by pressure than by blows. From pressure to polishing would again be but a small step. In making flint implements, sparks would be produced ; in polishing them , it would not fail to be observed that they became hot, and in this way it is easy to 584 THE HIGHER ANIMALS. see how the two methods of obtaining fire may have origi nated . * The chimpanzee builds himself a house or resting -place quite equal to that of some savages. Our earliest ancestors therefore may have had this art ; but even if not, when they became hunters, and, as we find to be the case with all hunt ing tribes, supplemented the inefficiency of their weapons by an intimate acquaintance with the manners and customs of the animals on which they preyed , they could not fail to ob serve, and perhaps to copy, the houses which various species of animals construct for themselves. The Esquimaux have no pottery ; they use hollow stones as a substitute; but we have seen how they sometimes improve upon these by a rim of clay. To extend this rim , diminish, and at last replace the stone, is an obvious process. In hotter countries, vessels of wood, or the shells of fruit, such as cocoa nuts and gourds, are used for holding liquids. These will not stand fire, but in some cases by plastering them on the out side with clay, they are enabled to do so. There is some evidence that this obvious improvement has been made by several separate tribes even in modern times. Other similar cases might be mentioned, in which by a very simple and apparently obvious process, an important improvement is secured. It seems very improbable that any such advantage should ever be lost again. There is no evidence, says Mr. Tylor, † “ of any tribe giving up the use of the spindle to twist their thread by hand, or having been in the habit of working the fire -drill with a thong, and going back to the clumsier practice of working it without, and it is even hard to fancy such a thing happening.” What follows from this argument ? Evidently that the lowest races of existing savages must,

• The idea of using fire would ning, and by the natural fires which also have been suggested by vol occur in hot summers.

canoes, by trees set on fire by light- + 1. c . p. 364. THE PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MAN. 585 always assuming the common origin of the human race , be at least as far advanced as were our ancestors when they spread over the earth's surface. What, then, must have been their condition ? They were ignorant of pottery, for the Esquimaux, the Polynesians, the Australians, some North and South American tribes, and many other savage races, have none even now, or at least had none until quite lately. They had no bows and arrows, for these weapons were unknown to the Australians and New Zealanders ; their boats for the same reason must have been of the rudest possible character ; they were naked, and igno rant of the art of spinning ; they had no knowledge of agri culture, and probably no domestic animal but the dog, though here the argument is weaker, inasmuch as experience is more portable than property. It is, however, in my opinion , most probable that the dog was long the only domesticated animal. Of the more unusual weapons, such as the boomerang, blow pipe, bolas, etc. , they were certainly ignorant. The sling and the throwing- stick were doubtless unknown, and even the shield, as it is only used in war, had probably not been invented . The spear, which is but a development of the knife -point, and the club, which is but a long hammer, are the only things left by this line of argument. They seem to be the only natural and universal weapons of man. We might be disposed to wonder how man was at first able to kill game; but we must remember that if man was unskil ful, animals were unsuspicious. The tameness of the birds on uninhabited islands is well known ; the wariness of animals and the skill of man must have increased almost pari passu . The same argument may be applied to the mental condition of savages. That our earliest ancestors could have counted to ten is very improbable, considering that so many races now in existence cannot get beyond four. On the other hand, it is very improbable that man can have existed in a lower con 586 DIFFUSION OF MAN . dition than that thus indicated. So long, indeed, as he was confined to the tropics, he may have found a succession of fruits, and have lived as the monkeys do now. Indeed, according to Bates, this is still the case with some of the Brazilian Indians. “ The monkeys,” he says, “ lead in fact a life similar to that of the Parárauate Indians. " Directly, however, our ancestors spread into temperate climates, this mode of life would become impossible, and they would be compelled to seek their nourishment, in part at least, from the animal kingdom . Then, if not before, the knife and the hammer would develope into the spear and the club. It is too often supposed that the world was peopled by a series of “ migrations.” But migrations, properly so called, are compatible only with a comparatively high state of organiza tion. Moreover, it has been observed that the geographical distribution of the various races of man curiously coincides with that of other races of animals : and there can be no doubt that he originally crept over the earth's surface little by little, year by year, just, for instance, as the weeds of Europe are now gradually but surely creeping over the surface of Australia. The preceding argument assumes, of course, the unity of the human race. It would, however, be impossible for me to end this volume without saying a few words on this great question. It must be admitted that the principal varieties of mankind are of great antiquity. We find on the earliest Egyptian monuments, some of which are certainly as ancient as 2400 B.C., “ two great distinct types, the Arab on the east and west of Egypt, the Negro on the south ; and the Egyptian type occupying a middle place between the two. The repre sentations of the monuments, although conventional, are so extremely characteristic that it is quite impossible to mistake them . ” These distinct types still predominate in Egypt and the neighbouring countries. Thus, then, says Mr. Poole, in EARLY RACES OF MAN. 587 this immense interval we do not find “ the least change in the Negro or the Arab ; and even the type which seems to be intermediate between them is virtually as unaltered. Those who consider that length of time can change a type of man , will do well to consider the fact that three thousand years give no ratio on which a calculation could be founded. " * I am, however, not aware that it is supposed by any school of ethnologists that “ time ” alone, without a change of exter nal conditions, will produce an alteration of type. Let us now turn to the instances relied on by Mr. Crawfurd.f The millions, he says, “ of African Negroes that have during three centuries been transported to the New World and its islands, are the same in colour as the present inhabitants of the parent country of their forefathers. The Creole Spaniards, who have for at least as long a time been settled in tropical America, are as fair as the people of Arragon and Andalusia, with the same variety of colour in the hair and eye as their progenitors. The pure Dutch Creole colonists of the Cape of Good Hope, after dwelling two centuries among black Kaffirs, and yellow Hottentots, do not differ in colour from the people of Holland." Here, on the contrary, we have great change of circumstances, but a very insufficient lapse of time, and in fact there is no well-authenticated case in which these two requisites are united. But Mr. Crawfurd went, I think , too far when he denied altogether any change of type. In spite of the comparatively short time which has elapsed, and of the immense immigration which has been kept up, there is already a marked difference between the English of Europe and those of America ; and it would be desirable to inquire whether, in their own eyes, the Negroes of the New World exactly resemble those of Africa. But there are some reasons which make it probable that

• Poole, Trans. Ethn. Soc. , New + Crawfurd , Trans. Ethn. Soc. ,

Ser. vol. ii. p. 261. New Ser. vol. ii. p . 252. 588 PRIMITIVE CONDITION OF MAN. changes of external condition, or rather of country, produce less effect now than was formerly the case . At present, when men migrate they carry with them the manners and appliances of civilized life. They build houses more or less like those to which they have been accustomed, carry with them flocks and herds, and introduce into their new country the principal plants which served them for food in the old . If their new abode is cold, they increase their clothing ; if warm , they dimi nish it. In these and a hundred other ways the effect which would otherwise be produced is greatly diminished. But, as we have seen, this has not always been the case. When man first spread over the earth , he had no domestic animals, perhaps not even the dog ; no knowledge of agricul ture : his weapons were of the rudest character, and his houses scarcely worthy of the name. His food, habits, and whole manner of life must then have varied as be passed from one country to another; he must have been far more subject to the influence of external circumstances, and in all probability more susceptible of change. Moreover, his form , which is now stereotyped by long ages of repetition, may reasonably be supposed to have been itself more plastic than is now the case. If there is any truth in this view of the subject, it will necessarily follow that the principal varieties of man are of great antiquity, and in fact go back almost to the very origin of the human race . We may then cease to wonder that the earliest paintings on Egyptian tombs represent so accurately several varieties still existing in those regions, and that the Engis skull, probably the most ancient yet found in Europe, so closely resembles many that may be seen even at the present day. This argument has been carried still farther by Mr. Wallace, in an admirable memoir on “ The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man deduced from the Theory of Natu NATURAL SELECTION APPLIED TO MAN . 589 ral Selection." * He has attemped to reconcile the two great schools of ethnologists who hold opinions “ so diametrically opposed to each other ; the one party positively maintaining that man is a species, and is essentially one — that all differ ences are but local and temporary variations produced by the different physical and moral conditions by which he is sur rounded ; the other party maintaining with equal confidence that man is a genus of many species, each of which is prac tically unchangeable, and has ever been as distinct, or even more distinct, than we now behold them .” Mr. Wallace him self holds the former of these theories, although admitting that at present apparently “ the best of the argument is on the side of those who maintain the primitive diversity of man,” and he shows that the true solution of this difficulty lies in the theory of Natural Selection, which, with charac teristic unselfishness, he ascribes unreservedly to Mr. Darwin, although, as is well known, he struck out the idea independently, and published it, not indeed with the same elaboration, at the same time. After explaining the true nature of the theory, which it must be confessed is even yet very much misunderstood, he points out that as long as man led what may be called a mere animal existence, he would be subject to the same laws, and would vary in the same manner, as the rest of his fellow creatures, but that at length “ by the capacity of clothing himself, and making weapons and tools, (he) has taken away from nature that power of changing the external form and structure which she exercises over all other animals. From the time, then, when the social and sympathetic feel ings came into active operation, and the intellectual and moral faculties became fairly developed, man would cease to be influenced by natural selection in his physical form and structure ; as an animal he would remain almost stationary :

• Anthropological Review, May, 1864.

590 THE INFLUENCE OF MIND. the changes of the surrounding universe would cease to have upon him that powerful modifying effect which it exercises over other parts of the organic world. But from the moment that his body became stationary, his inind would become subject to those very influences from which his body had escaped ; every slight variation in his mental and moral nature which should enable him better to guard against adverse circumstances, and combine for mutual comfort and protection, would be preserved and accumulated ; the better and higher specimens of our race would therefore increase and spread, the lower and more brutal would give way and successively die out, and that rapid advancement of mental organization would occur, which has raised the very lowest races of men so far above the brutes (although differing so little from some of them in physical structure), and, in conjunction with scarcely perceptible modifications of form , has developed the wonderful intellect of the Germanic races. " * Mr. Wallace appears to me, however, to press his argument a little too far when he says that man is no longer “ influenced by natural selection ,” and that his body has “ become station ary.” Slow and gradual changes still take place, although his “ mere bodily structure ” long ago became of less importance to man than “ that subtle force we term mind. ” This, as Mr. Wallace eloquently says, “ with a naked and unprotected body, this gave him clothing against the varying inclemencies of the seasons. Though unable to compete with the deer in swiftness, or with the wild bull in strength, this gave him weapons wherewith to capture or overcome both. Though less capable than most other animals of living on the herbs and the fruits that unaided nature supplies, this wonderful faculty taught him to govern and direct nature to his own

• M. Lartet has attempted to

show that even among animals there is a gradual enlargement of the brain as compared with the rest of the body. Comptes Rendus, 1868, p. 1119. THE INFLUENCE OF MIND. 591 benefit, and make her produce food for him when and where he pleased. From the moment when the first skin was used as a covering, when the first rude spear was formed to assist in the chase, the first seed sown or shoot planted, a grand revolution was effected in nature, a revolution which in all the previous ages of the world's history had had no parallel, for a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily subject to change with the changing universe,-a being who was in some degree superior to nature, inasmuch as he knew how to control and regulate her action, and could keep himself in harmony with her, not by a change in body, but by an advance in mind. ' Here, then, we see the true grandeur and dignity of man. On this view of his special attributes, we may admit that even those who claim for him a position and an order, a class, or a sub-kingdom by himself, have some reason on their side. He is, indeed, a being apart, since he is not influenced by the great laws which irresistibly modify all other organic beings. Nay, more : this victory which he has gained for himself gives him a directing influence over other existences. Man has not only escaped natural selection' himself, but he is actually able to take away some of that power from nature which, before his appearance, she universally exercised. We can anticipate the time when the earth will produce only culti vated plants and domestic animals ; when man's selection shall have supplanted ' natural selection ; ' and when the ocean will be the only domain in which that power can be exerted, which for countless cycles of ages ruled supreme over the earth . ” Thus, then, the great principle of Natural Selection, which is to biology what the law of gravitation is for astronomy, not only throws an unexpected light on the past, but illuminates the future with hope ; nor can I but feel surprised that a theory which thus teaches us humility for the past, faith in 592 INCREASE OF HAPPINESS. the present, and hope for the future, should have been regarded as opposed to the principles of Christianity or the interests of true religion. But even if the theory of “ natural selection ” should even tually prove to be untenable, and if those are right who believe that neither our minds nor our bodies are susceptible of any important change, any great improvement, still I think we are justified in believing that the happiness of man is greatly on the increase. It is generally admitted that if any animal increases in numbers, it must be because the conditions are becoming more favourable to it - in other words, because it is happier and more comfortable. Now how will this test apply to man ? Schoolcraft estimates * that in a population which lives on the produce of the chase, each hunter requires on an average 50,000 acres, or 78 square miles, for his support. Again, he tells ust that, excluding Michigan territory, west of Lake Michigan, and north of Illinois, there were in the United States in 1825 about 97,000 Indians, occupying 77,000,000 of acres, or 120,312 square miles. This gives one inhabitant to every 11 square miles. In this case, however, the Indians lived partly on the subsidies granted them by Government in exchange for land, and the population was therefore greater than would have been the case if they had lived entirely on the produce of the chase. The same reason affects, though to a smaller extent, the Indians in the Hudson's Bay territory. These tribes were estimated by Sir George Simpson, late Governor of the territories belonging to the Hudson's Bay Company, in his evidence given before the Committee of the House of Commons in 1857, at 139,000, and the extent is supposed to be more than 1,400,000 square miles, to which we must add 13,000 more for Vancouver's Island, making a total of more than 900,000,000 of acres ; about 6500 acres, or 10 square miles, to each individual.

• Indian Tribes, vol. i. p. 433. + 1. c. vol. iii . p. 575.

SUFFERINGS OF SAVAGES. 593 Again , the inhabitants of Patagonia, south of 40°, and ex clusive of Chiloe and Tierra del Fuego, are estimated by Admiral Fitzroy at less than 4000, and the number of acres is 176,640,000, giving more than 44,000 acres, or 68 square miles, for each person . A writer in the “ Voice of Pity ,” how ever, thinks that their numbers may perhaps amount to 14,000 or 15,000. * It would be difficult to form any census of the aborigines in Australia : Mr. Oldfield estimates that there is one native to every fifty square miles ; t and it is at least evident that, since the introduction of civilization, the total population of that continent has greatly increased. Indeed, population as a general rule increases with civiliza tion. Paraguay, with 100,000 square miles, has from 300,000 to 500,000 inhabitants, or about four to a square mile. The uncivilized parts of Mexico contained 374,000 inhabitants in 675,000 square miles ; while Mexico proper, with 833,600 square miles, had 6,691,000 inhabitants. Naples had more than 183 inhabitants to each square mile, Venetia more than 200, Lombardy 280, England 280, Belgium as many as 320. Finally, we cannot but observe that, under civilization, the means of subsistence have increased even more rapidly than the population. Far from suffering for want of food, the more densely peopled countries are exactly those in which it is, not only absolutely, but even relatively, most abundant. is said that any one who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before, is a benefactor to the human race ; what, then, shall we say of that which enables a thousand men to live in plenty where one savage could scarcely find a scanty and precarious subsistence ? There are, indeed, many who doubt whether happiness is increased by civilization, and who talk of the free and noble savage. But the true savage is neither free nor noble ; he is

• l. c. vol. ii . P. 93. + Trans. Ethn. Soc. , New Ser. vol. iii . p. 220.

2Q 594 SUPERSTITIOUS TERRORS OF SAVAGES. a slave to his own wants, his own passions ; imperfectly pro tected from the weather, he suffers from the cold by night and the heat of the sun by day ; ignorant of agriculture, living by the chase, and improvident in success, hunger always stares him in the face, and often drives him to the dreadful alterna tive of cannibalism or death. Wild animals are always in danger. Mr. Galton, who is so well qualified to form an opinion, believes that the life of all beasts in their wild state is an exceedingly anxious one ; that “ every antelope in South Africa has literally to run for its life once in every one or two days upon an average, and that he starts or gallops under the influence of a false alarm many times in a day. ” * So it is with the savage ; he is always suspicious, always in danger, always on the watch. He can depend on no one, and no one can depend upon him. He expects nothing from his neighbour, and does unto others as he believes that they would do unto him. Thus his life is one prolonged scene of selfishness and fear. Even in his religion, if he has any, he creates for himself a new source of terror, and peoples the world with invisible enemies. The position of the female savage is even more wretched than that of her master. She not only shares his sufferings, but has to bear his ill -humour and ill -usage. She may truly be said to be "little better than his dog, little dearer than his horse. ” In Australia, Mr. Oldfield never saw a woman's grave, and does not think that the natives took the trouble to bury them . But, indeed, he believes that few of them are so fortunate as to die a natural death, “ they being generally despatched ere they become old and emaciated, that so much good food may not be lost..... In fine, so little importance is attached to them , either before or after death, that it may be doubted whether the man does not value his dog, when alive, quite as

• Trans. Ethn. Soc. , New Ser. vol. iii. p. 133.

SELF- INFLICTED SUFFERINGS. 595 much as he does his woman, and think of both quite as often and lovingly after he has eaten them . " * Not content, moreover, with those incident to their mode of life, savages appear to take a melancholy pleasure in self inflicted sufferings. Besides the very general practice of tattooing, the most extraordinary methods of disfigurement and self - torture are adopted ; some cut off the little finger, some make an immense hole in the under-lip, or pierce the cartilage of the nose. The Easter Islanders enlarge their ears till they come down to their shoulders ; the Chinooks, and many other American tribes, alter the shape of their heads. Some of the African tribes chip their teeth in various manners, each community having a fashion of its own. The Nyambanas, a division of the Kaffirs, are characterized by a row of artifi cial pimples or warts, about the size of a pea, and extending from the upper part of the forehead to the tip of the nose. Of these they are very proud.t Among the Bachapins, those who have distinguished themselves in battle are allowed the privilege of marking " their thigh with a long scar, which is rendered indelible and of a bluish colour by means of wood ashes rubbed into the fresh wound." In Australia , Captain King saw a native ornamented with horizontal scars which extended across the upper part of the chest. They were at least an inch in diameter, and protruded half an inch from the body. S In some parts of Australia, and in Tasmania , all the men have a tooth knocked out in a very clumsy and painful manner. || The inhabitants of Tanna have on their arms and bellies elevated scars, representing plants, flowers, stars, and various other figures. They are made by first cutting the skin

• Trans. Ethn. Soc. , New Ser. § Narrative of a Survey of the

vol. iii . p. 248. Intertropical and Western Coasts + United States' Exploring Ex- of Australia, p. 42. See also Eyre's pedition , vol . i. p . 63. account, quoted in p. 449. I Burchell, I. c. vol. ii . pp. 478, || Freycinet, vol. ii. p. 705. 535. < C 22 596 SELF-INFLICTED SUFFERINGS. with a sharp bamboo reed, and then applying a certain plant to the wound, which raises the scar above the rest of the skin. The inhabitants of Tazavan, or Formosa, by a very painful operation, impress on their naked skins various figures of trees, flowers, and animals. The great men in Guinea have their skin flowered like damask ; and in the Deccan the women likewise have flowers cut into their flesh on the forehead, the arms, and the breast, and the elevated scars are painted in colours, and exhibit the appearance of flowered damask . " * The native women in New South Wales used to tie a string tightly round the little finger, and wear it until the finger rotted off. Few of them escaped the painful experience. The American Indians also inflicted the most horrible tortures upon themselves. These and many other curious practices are none the less painful because they are voluntary. If we turn to the bright side of the question, the whole analogy of nature justifies us in concluding that the pleasures of civilized man are greater than those of the savage. As we descend in the scale of organization, we find that animals become more and more vegetative in their characteristics ; with less susceptibility to pain, and consequently less capa city for happiness. It may, indeed, be doubted whether some of those beings, which from their anatomy we are compelled to class as animals, have much more consciousness of enjoy ment, or even of existence, than a tree or a sea- weed. But even to animals which possess a clearly defined nervous system, we must ascribe very different degrees of sensibility. The study of the sensory organs in the lower animals offers great difficulties ; but at least we know that they are , in many cases, few in number, and capable of conveying only general impressions. Every one will admit that the posses

• Forster, l. c. p. 588.

† D'Urville, vol. i. p. 406. I See, for instance, Catlin's North American Indians, vol. i. p. 170 ; Azara, vol. ii. p. 136. THE BLESSINGS OF CIVILIZATION. 597 sion of a new sense, or the improvement of an old one, is a fresh source of possible happiness ; but how , it may be asked, does this affect the present question ? There are no just grounds for expecting man to be ever endued with a sixth sense ; so far from being able to improve the organization of the eye or the ear, we cannot make one hair black or white, nor add one cubit to our stature. But, on the other hand, the invention of the telescope and microscope is equivalent in its results to an immense improvement of the eye, and opens up to us new worlds, fresh sources of interest and happiness. Again, we cannot alter the physical structure of the ear, but we can train it, we can invent new musical instru ments, compose new melodies. The music of savages is rude and melancholy in comparison with ours ; and thus, though the ear of man may not have appreciably altered, the pleasure which we may derive from it has been immensely increased. Moreover, the savage is like a child who sees and hears only that which is brought directly before him, but the civilized man questions nature, and by the various processes of chemistry, by electricity, and magnetism, by a thousand ingenious con trivances, he forces nature to throw light upon herself, dis covers hidden uses and unsuspected beauties, almost as if he were endowed with some entirely new organ of sense. The love of travel is deeply implanted in the human breast ; it is an immense pleasure to visit other countries, and see new races of men. Again, the discovery of printing brings all who choose into communion with the greatest minds. The thoughts of a Shakespeare or a Tennyson, the discoveries of a Newton or a Darwin, become thus the common property of mankind. Already the results of this all- important though simple process have been equivalent to an immense improve ment of our mental faculties ; and day by day, as books become cheaper, schools are established, and education is improved, a greater and greater effect will be produced. 598 THE DIMINUTION OF SUFFERING. The well-known proverb against looking a gift horse in the mouth does not apply to the gifts of nature ; they will bear the closest inspection, and the more we examine, the more we shall find to admire. Nor are these new sources of happiness accompanied by any new liability to suffering; on the contrary, while our pleasures are increased, our pains are lessened ; in a thousand ways we can avoid or diminish evils which to our ancestors were great and inevitable. How much misery, for instance, has been spared to the human race by the single discovery of chloroform ? The capacity for pain ,, so far as it can serve as a warning, remains in full force, but the necessity for endurance has been greatly diminished . With increased knowledge of, and attention to, the laws of health, disease will become less and less frequent. Those tendencies thereto which we have derived from our ancestors will gradually die out ; and if fresh seeds are not sown, our race may one day enjoy the inestimable advantages of health. Thus, then, with the increasing influence of science, we may confidently look to a great improvement in the condition But it may be said that our present sufferings and sorrows arise principally from sin, and that any moral im provement must be due to religion, not to science. This separation of the two mighty agents of improvement is the great misfortune of humanity, and has done more than any thing else to retard the progress of civilization. But even if for the moment we admit that science will not render us more virtuous, it must certainly make us more innocent. Out of 164,000 persons committed to prison in England and Wales, only 4000 could read and write well. In fact, our criminal population are mere savages, and most of their crimes are but injudicious and desperate attempts to live as a savage in the midst, and at the expense, of a civilized community Men do not sin for the sake of sinning ; they yield to of man. THE ADVANTAGES OF SCIENCE. 599 temptation. Most of our sufferings arise from a mistaken pursuit of pleasure; from a misapprehension of that which constitutes true happiness. Men do wrong either from igno rance or in the hope, unexpressed perhaps even to themselves, that they may enjoy the pleasure, and yet avoid the penalty, of sin. In this respect there can be no doubt that religious teaching is much misapprehended. Repentance is too often regarded as a substitute for punishment. Sin, it is thought, is followed either by the one or the other. So far, however, as our world is concerned, this is not the case ; repentance may enable a man to avoid sin in future, but has no effect on the consequences of the past. The laws of nature are just and salutary, but they are also inexorable. All men admit that “ the wages of sin is death ;” but they seem to think that this is a general rule to which there may be many exceptions —that some sins may possibly tend to happiness—that some thorns may grow grapes, some thistles produce figs. That suffering is the inevitable consequence of sin, as surely as night follows day, is, however, the stern yet salutary teaching of science. And surely if this lesson were thoroughly im pressed upon our minds, if we really believed in the certainty of punishment, and that sin could not conduce to happiness, temptation, which is at the very root of crime, would be cut away, and mankind must necessarily become more innocent. May we not, however, go even farther than this, and say that science will also render man more virtuous ? our time, ” says Lord Brougham ,* " in the study of the sciences, in learning what others have discovered, and in extending the bounds of human knowledge, has, in all ages, been reckoned the most dignified and happy of human occupations. .... No man until he has studied philosophy, can have a just idea of the great things for which Providence has fitted his under

• Objects, Advantages, and Pleasures of Science, p. 39.

“ To pass 600 THE FUTURE . standing ; the extraordinary disproportion which there is between his natural strength and the powers of his mind, and the force he derives from them. ” Finally, he concludes that science would not only “ make our lives more agreeable, but better ; and that a rational being is bound by every motive of interest and duty, to direct his mind towards pursuits which are found to be the sure path of virtue as well as of happi ness.” We are in reality but on the threshold of civilization. Far from showing any indication of having come to an end, the tendency to improvement seems latterly to have proceeded with augmented impetus and accelerated rapidity. Why, then, should we suppose that it must now cease ? Man has surely not reached the limits of his intellectual development, and it is certain that he has not exhausted the infinite capa bilities of nature. There are many things which are not as yet dreamt of in our philosophy ; many discoveries which will immortalize those who make them, and confer upon the human race advantages which as yet, perhaps, we are not in a condition to appreciate. We may still say with our great countryman, Sir Isaac Newton, that we have been but like children playing on the sea - shore, and picking up here and there a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, while the great ocean of truth lies all undiscovered before us. Thus, then, the most sanguine hopes for the future are justified by the whole experience of the past. It is surely unreasonable to suppose that a process which has been going on for so many thousand years, should have now suddenly ceased ; and he must be blind indeed who imagines that our civilization is unsusceptible of improvement, or that we our selves are in the highest state attainable by man. If we turn from experience to theory, the same conclusion forces itself upon us. The great principle of natural selection, THE FUTURE. 601 which in animals affects the body and seems to have little influence on the mind, in man affects the mind and has little influence on the body. In the first, it tends mainly to the preservation of life ; in the second, to the improvement of the mind, and consequently to the increase of happiness. It ensures, in the words of Mr. Herbert Spencer, “ a constant progress towards a higher degree of skill, intelligence, and self-regulation- a better co- ordination of actions -a more complete life. " * Even those, however, who are dissatisfied with the reasoning of Mr. Darwin, and believe that neither our mental nor our material organization is susceptible of any considerable change, may still look forward to the future with hope. The tendency of recent improvements and discoveries is less to effect any rapid change in man himself, than to bring him into harmony with nature ; less to confer upon him new powers, than to teach him how to apply the old. It will, I think, be admitted that of the evils under which we suffer, nearly all may be attributed either to ignorance or sin. That ignorance will be diminished by the progress of science is of course self-evident; that the same will be the case with sin, seems little less so. Thus, then, both theory and experience point to the same conclusion. The future happiness of our race, which poets hardly ventured to hope for, science boldly predicts. Utopia, which we have long looked upon as synonymous with an evident impossibility, which we have ungratefully regarded as “ too good to be true,” turns out, on the contrary, to be the necessary consequence of natural laws, and once more we find that the simple truth exceeds the most brilliant flights of the imagination. Even in our own time we may hope to see some improve ment ; but the unselfish mind will find its highest gratifica

• Herbert Spencer, A Theory of Population deduced from the General Law of Animal Fertility, p. 34 .

602 THE FUTURE. tion in the belief that, whatever may be the case with ourselves, our descendants will understand many things which are hidden from us now, will better appreciate the beautiful world in which we live, avoid much of that suffering to which we are subject, enjoy many blessings of which we are not yet worthy, and escape many of those temptations which we deplore, but cannot wholly resist. APPENDIX. Page 12. We do not yet know at what time the use of Runes commenced. The examples found at Thorsbjerg and Nydam carry them back to the second or third century, but they may have begun much earlier. They remained partially in use in out-of-the-way districts of Scan dinavia down to the close of the last century. Runic monumenis occur in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, England, and, though rarely , in Ireland ; but are more abundant in Sweden than anywhere else . Prof. Stephens * states that there are three times as many in Sweden as in all other northern countries together, and he estimates the total number in Sweden at not less than two thousand. The Runic Alphabet, or Futhorc, is as follows : P. n . b . d. R. V. * A. I. 4. 1. 1. B. . Y. do F Uth O R K H NI A S T B L M ( @ , Y ) There are, however, several varieties ; thus #. sometimes stands for 0, X. for n, h. for 8, 1. for t, 1. for d, and 1. for e. There is also a class of letters known as tree- runes, which are entirely unlike the rest. The letters given above are those generally used in the engravings on stones in the great tumulus known as Maeshowe, near the Stones of Stennis, in the Orkneys, + and are supposed to have been the work of a party of Northmen who broke into the Howe in the ninth century. The numerous variations in the forms of the letters, and the fact that they are sometimes read from left to right, sometimes from right to left, make them at times some what difficult to decipher ; but it fortunately happens that we possess no less than 61 Runic Futhorcs, so that any inscription which is at all perfect, and not too much abbreviated, can be read with tolerable certainty.

• The Old - Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia, p. 134.

+ Maeshowe. By J. Farrar, Esq., M.P. 604 APPENDIX. OGHAMS. The origin of the Ogham alphabet is as uncertain as that of the Runic. While, however, the Runes occur principally in Scandi navia, and but rarely in Great Britain , Oghams, on the other hand, have their head -quarters in Ireland, though some few have been discovered in Scotland, and even in Shetland. They are generally FIG. 227. FIG. 228. Un 11, Ogham Stones found in Kerry. intended to be read from below upwards, and the letters consist of mere straight strokes, arranged in groups along a line. This line APPENDIX. 605 is very often the edge of the stone, but sometimes a line is cut. In other cases, an imaginary line is supposed to run through the inscription. Short lines, or notches, stand for the vowels, a, o , u , e, i, one notch denoting a, two o, three u, and so on. Lines on the left of the base line stand for b, 1, f, s, and n , according as they are 1 , 2, 3, 4, or 5 in number; lines on the right of the base line stand in the same manner for h , d, t, c, and q ; while those crossing the line denote m , g, ng, st, or z, and r. There are some few other characters, which, however, seldom occur. Almost all the Ogham inscriptions which have yet been read are mere patronymics, containing the name of the person in whose honour the stone was erected . Thus the above figure ( fig. 227 ) of an Ogham stone found in Kerry reads thus : Nocati maqi maqi ret( ti ) , i.e. ( The Stone) of Nocat, the son of Macreith ; the inscrip tion on fig. 228 is, Maqi Mucoi Uddami, i.e. ( The Stone) of Uddam Mac Mucoi. Page 59. Staigue Fort, in the county of Kerry, is “ an enclosure, nearly circular, 114 feet in diameter, 88 feet from east to west, and 87 from north to south . The stones are put together without any description of mortar or cement ; the wall is 13 feet thick at the bottom, and 5 feet 2 inches broad at top at the highest part, where some of the old coping- stones still remain, and which is there 17 feet 6 inches high upon the inside. It has one square doorway in the s.s.w. side, 5 feet 9 inches high, with sloping sides, 4 fect 2 inches wide at top, and 5 feet at bottom. In the substance of this massive wall, and opening inwards, are two small chambers ; the one on the west side is 12 feet long, 4 feet 7 inches wide, and 6 feet 6 inches high ; the northern chamber is 7 feet 4 inches long, 4 feet 9 inches wide, and 7 feet high . They fornied a part of the original plan, and were not, like other apertures in some similar structures, filled- up gateways. Around the interior of the wall are arranged ten sets of stairs, . ... the highest reaching very nearly to the full height of the wall, and the secondary flights being about half that much ; each step is 2 feet wide ; and the lower flights project within the circle of the higher. They lead to narrow plat forms, from 8 to 43 feet in length , on which its wardens or defenders stood . ” ( Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy, p. 120. ) 606 APPENDIX . Page 60. On this subject I append four letters, one from Dr. Percy, F.R.S., two from Messrs. Jenkin and Lefeaux, the highly experienced assayers to Messrs. P. Grenfell and Sons, and one from Mr. ( now Sir) H. H. Vivian : November 11 , 1868. MY DEAR Sir John LUBBOCK, I have paid considerable attention to the subject of ancient bronze, and all the information I have gathered respecting it is directly opposed to Mr. Wibel's view. The remarkable uniformity in the composition of ancient bronze is in itself sufficient to refute that view. When I speak of uniformity, I should add that there is some variation in the composition according to the uses for which bronze implements were intended. Thus, where greater hardness was needed, more tin was added. It is impossible to conceive that anything approximating to uniformity in the composition of ancient bronze could have been produced from the smelting of accidental mixtures of copper and tin ore. Moreover, in remains of ancient bronze foundries, blocks of copper have been found which were, doubtless, used in making the alloy by the direct fusion of the two metals together. I could enter at greater length into the subject if necessary. Mr. W.'s views have, so far as my knowledge extends, nothing to stand upon . Yours very faithfully, Sir John Lubbock, Bart. , F.R.S. John Percy. DEAR SIR, London , 23rd December . In answer to Sir John Lubbock's inquiry, I beg to say that I do not think bronze can ever have been produced for com mercial purposes by fusing a mixture of copper ore and tin ore. I have not much doubt that this could be accomplished in the laboratory, but not, I think, in the usual mode of smelting on a large scale. Ores containing naturally both copper and tin are extremely unusual. Yours truly, C. S. Grenfell, Esq. John LEFEAUX. RESPECTED FRIEND, Redruth, 11th Month , 14, 1868. I have received thy favour of the 12th inst ., and in reply I beg to inform thee that I do not think there are any Cornish ores which can be so smelted as to produce a mixed metal consist ing only of copper and tin , and in such proportions as to form APPENDIX. 607 bronze ; and for this reason, that, although the ores may contain a sufficient proportion of tin, yet, as they also contain other metallic ingredients, it would , I think, be impossible to get rid of all such ingredients without at the same time getting rid of the tin also. I have, however, directed our assayer to make some experiments with reference to this subject. I am , respectfully, thy friend , C. Seymour Grenfell, ALFRED JENKIN . Copper Office, 27, Upper Thames Street, London , E.C. In a subsequent letter, Mr. Jenkin states that the experiments made by the assayer confirmed him in the opinion above expressed. MY DEAR LUBBOCK , September 21 , 1875. I have no hesitation in saying that it is most improbable, I would almost say impossible, that the bronze of any early age could have been made from the direct fusion of ores containing copper and tin. I make this assertion on the following grounds : 1st. It would be extremely difficult to devise any method of smelting which would reduce both these metals at once into a metallic state ; and if they were so reduced they would be impure, so that a refining would be necessary, during which the tin would inevitably pass into the slag. No doubt, if both metals existed in an ore in an oxidized condition, and free from earthy matter ( which is almost inconceivable, to any extent at least), they might be re duced into their metallic conditions by the action of a blast-furnace, or in a closed vessel with carbon : if much earthy matter were present, the loss in slags would be excessive, anything up to the whole metallic contents, dependent on the relative proportions ; but it is almost idle to argue on such a supposition, because I am not aware that any such ore has ever existed. Then, again, it would be possible if the ore were a sulphide, or, what is more probable, an arsenical sulphide, to reduce it first to a regulus, or speiss, then to calcine " dead , ” and to reduce the resulting oxides to a metallic condition ; but the ancient smelters were, I am quite convinced, unable to calcine dead, even if they burnt their regulus in heaps, which I much doubt : if they burnt in heaps, the calcining woull be very imperfect, and the tin in the subsequent smelting would for the most part pass into the slag. We have pretty good 608 APPENDIX evidence to prove that even the Romans were unable to deal with their slag : I imagine their copper was produced in very low blast- furnaces, or more probably “ hearths,” by continuous blow ing and working with tools ; some impure tin might in that case separate as a “ speiss ” or “ bottom ” metal, but the bulk would go into the slag. However, in Cornwall, where, if anywhere, such mixed ores might be supposed to have been found, I am not aware that there is any evidence of such smelting, but, on the contrary, sulphide and arsenical ores seem to have been neglected, while stream tin was eagerly sought for. The evidences of old stream works exist throughout Cornwall and Devon very extensively, and it is certain that pure tin ore alone was extracted from them ; in fact, I believe that no other tin mining existed in early times, and therefore that no mixed ores of tin and copper could have been obtained . Believe me, my dear Lubbock, Yours very truly, H. HUSSEY VIVIAN . Since writing the foregoing, I have read it to Mr. Morgan, the manager of our copper works, a man of very at smelting expe rience and much scientific knowledge, and Mr. Hartmann, the manager of our silver works, and a first -rate chemist : both confirm everything I have stated. Page 66. The passage from Avienus is as follows : Quæ Himilco Pænus mensibus vix quatuor, Ut ipse semet re probasse retulit Enavigantem , posse transmitti adserit : Sic nulla late flabra propellunt ratem, Sic segnis humor æquoris pigri stupet . Adjicit et illud, plurimum inter gurgites Extare fucum , et sæpe virgulti vice Retinere puppim dicit hic nihilominus Non in profundum terga demitti maris, Parvoque aquarum vix supertexti solum : Obire semper huc et huc ponti feras, Navigia lenta et languide repentia Internatare belluas. APPENDIX , 609 Page 73. Rougemont, in L'Age du Bronze, concludes that, though tin was in ancient times obtained from Spain, the quantity was always inconsiderable. Don G. Schulz, the director of the Spanish School of Mines, has, on the contrary, in his Descripcion Geognostica de Gallicia, expressed the opposite opinion. It is much to be wished that we had more information with reference to this interesting question. Page 83. With reference to the possible European origin of nephrite, Mr. Fletcher, Keeper of the Mineralogical Collection in the British Museum , has favoured me with the following particulars. DEAR Sir John, British Museum , 19th July, 1889. Till 1884 no European locality of nephrite or jade was known, though various bits and lumps of the unworked material had been picked up in several places : it was possible that these, like the worked articles, might have been brought hy human agency to the places where they were met with. Meyer thinks that some of them were brought by icebergs from Scandinavia, but this seems pure speculation. In 1884, Traube announced the discovery of nephrite at Jordans mühl, Silesia, in situ ( Kais. Leop. Carol. deutsch. Ak. d. Naturf. : Halle, 1884, p . 76). Kenngott, arguing from Traube's data , doubted the actual identity of the mineral with nephrite ( Neues Jahrb . f . Min. 1885, band i . p. 238) : Traube re -asserted identity ( N. J. f. Min . 1885, band ii . p. 92), stating that the mineral possesses dis tinct peculiarities. Later still, Traube announced the discovery of jade in situ neatr Reichenstein, Silesia ( Neues Jahrb. f. Min . 1887, vol . ii. p. 275 ) . During the present year, the discovery of jadeite in situ at Piz Longhin, Bergell , has been announced (Neues J. f. Min . 1889, band i. p. 103) by Fellenberg, but a chemical examination by Rammelsberg ( Neues Jahrb. f. Min. 1889, band i . p. 229) proves the mineral to he idocrase, not jadeite. This is all that is known, as far as I can gather, of the discovery of jade in situ in Europe .. Yours faithfully, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart. , F.R.S. L. FLETCHER. 2 R 610 APPENDIX . Page 579. Perhaps the lowest form of religion may be considered to be that presented by the Australians, which consists of a mere unreasoning belief in the existence of mysterious beings. The native who has a nightmare, or a dream , does not doubt the reality of that which passes, and as the beings by whom he is visited in his sleep are unseen by his friends and relations, he regards them as invisible. In Fetichism this feeling is more methodized . The Negro en deavours to make a slave of his deity. Thus, Fetichism is almost the opposite of Religion ; it stands towards it in the same relation as Alchemy to Chemistry, or Astrology to Astronomy. A further stage is that in which the superiority of the higher deities is more fully recognized. Everything is worshipped in discriminately -animals, plants, and even inanimate objects. In endeavouring to account for the worship of animals, we must remember that names are very frequently taken from them. The children and followers of a man called the Bear or the Lion would make that a tribal name. Hence the animal itself would be first respected, at last worshipped “ The Totem , ” says Schoolcraft, “ is a symbol of the name of the progenitor,-generally some quadruped or bird , or other object in the animal kingdom , which stands, if we may so express it, as the surname of the family. Its significant importance is derived from the fact that individuals unhesitatingly trace their lineage from it. " Totemism , however, is by no means confined to America, but occurs also in India, Africa, and in fact almost everywhere,* often in con nection with marriage prohibitions. Mr. Fergusson has recently attempted to show the special pre valence of Tree and Serpent worship. He might, I believe, have made out as strong a case for many other objects. It must be remembered that the savage accounts for all action and movement by life ; inanimate objects, therefore, have spirits as well as men ; hence when the wives and slaves are slain, the weapons also are broken in the grave, so that the spirits of the latter, as well as of the former, may accompany their master to the other world. The gradually increasing power of chiefs and priests led to

• Trans. Ethnol. Soc. , N. S. vol. vi. p. 36. Lafitau, Mæurs des Sauv.

Amér. vol. i. p. 464. APPENDIX . 611 Anthropomorphism and idolatry, which must by no means be regarded as the lowest state of religion. Solomon, * indeed, long ago pointed out its connection with Monarchical power. It is important to observe that each stage of religion is super imposed on the preceding, and that bygone beliefs linger on among the children and the ignorant. Thus witchcraft is still believed in by the ignorant, and fairy tales flourish in the nursery.

• Wisd . xiv. 17.

2 R2

I INDEX. Aarhuus, coast- find at , ill . Abbeville , primitive remains at , 183, 341 , etc. Abbot's Langley, flint from , 346. Abipones, notices of, 560, 572 , etc. Absalom , stone heap raised over him, I 20. Abury, ancient monument at , 117, 123, 127 . Abyssinian notions of missionary power, 427. Acerotherium , 423. Achan, stone heap raised over him, I 20. Acheul, St. , antiquities at, 363 . Adams County animal mound, 276. Adams, Dr., on Hagiar Kem, 75. Adams, Mr. , on mammoth, 293. Adhémar, M., on climate, 310, 403 . on changes of sea level, 413. Adze of New Zealanders, 102. Aeppli, M., his observations, 181 . African axe, 29, 30. dolmens, 115, 136. ornaments, 44 . Agassiz, opinion of, 286. Age of barrows, difficulty of deciding, 158 . Agriculture, early American, 281, 284. of American Indians, 526. of Fijians, 456. of Lakemen, 217. Ai, king of, buried under stone heap, Alphabets, Runic, 603. Ogham, 604. Altar mounds, American, 271 . Alyattes, tomb of, 121 . Amazon Indians, funeral rites of, 140. Amber found at Hallstadt, 24. found at Meilen , 197. found at Möen, 164, 165, 166. found in the Treenhoie, 52. its source and value, 74. American antiquities classified, 255. American (North) Archæology, 253, 284. Bibliography of, 253. Indian funeral rites, 135. Indians, 328, 515, etc. stone implements, 108, 346. Indians, their use of cop per, 4 . pottery, 260. tribes, religious ideas of, 575. Amiens, primitive remains at, 342. Amravati, stone circles there, 130. Andaman Islanders, 431 , 438. Anderson, Mr., 303. Anderson's Sumatra, 195, note. Angas, G. F., quoted , 447, Anglesea , hut circles in, 56. Anglo - Saxon interments , 161 , 162. Anholt, coast- find at , 110. Animal mounds ofWisconsin ; gigantic representations of animals, 273. Animal remains at Lake-villages, 200 216. Animal remains in drift, 365, 366, 374. in tumuli , 175. Animals, consumption of, in savage nations, 356. of primæval England, 308. France, 308. domestic, of lake- men, 207. wild and domestic, 209, 210 . sacrificed, 177 . ingenuity of, 583. 99 99 ور 99 99 " wild , their perils, 594. Annals of the Four Masters, 185. I 20. Albano, hut - urns found near, 54. Albertus Magnus refers to the elk , 212. Aldus McGaldus, 98. Algeria, tumuli and stone circles in , 131 . stone implements found in, I I2. Algonquins had no word for love, 520. Alphabets, peculiarities of, 561 . alleged American, 278. 614 INDEX. Aubrey quoted, 123. Audierne, M., 322, note. Aurelius Ambrosius, 125. Aurignac, bone cave at, 319. Aurillac, relics from , 424. Aurochs, 212, 214, 238, 288, 304 , 320 Australian flint flake, 92. Australians, notices of, 431 , 439. Auvernier, relics from , 46. Ava, what, 481 . Avienus noticed , 66 , 608. Awls of flint, 104. of bone, 108. Axes, American, in stone, 255. stone, 96-99. Swiss, in stone, 195. of ceremony, 473. Azara on Indians of Paraguay, 529. Aztalan in Wisconsin, remains at, 266. Aztecs, 93, 555. 99 99 Anson, on buildings of Ladrone Is. landers, 548. Antiquity of American remains, 282. of man, 383, etc. Apples found in Lake-dwellings, 217. Arabia, stone monuments in , 118. Arab phrases and Old Testament style, 428. race, early traces of, 586. Arbor Low , pottery from , 171 . stone circle at, 117. tumulus at, 149. Arcelin , M. A. , his researches, 35. Archiac, M. d' , quoted on Oise Valley, 365 , note. on quaternary climate, 309. Archäolithic, or Paläolithic Period, 2, 79, 412. Archäological evidence, its nature, 13, 429. Archæology, pre - historic, its four ages -- the Drift, or Palæolithic, the Newer Stone, or Neolithic, the Bronze, and the Iron, 2, 3. Archäology and savage tribes, 430. Architecture of Bronze Age, 54. Arctic character of quaternary mam malia, 288. Ardoch, bronze sword said to have been found there, 20 . Aristotle, 66 . Arreoy, a society in Tahiti , 488. Arrow-heads, American, 255, 256. of five kinds — triangular, indented , stemmed, barbed, and leaf shaped, 106 . Arrow- heads, similarity of, in different countries , 107. Arrows, bronze, 33. Esquimaux, 11, 12. Arrow -makers among Snake Indians, B. Baal, symbols of, 75. worship in Norway, 75, Baal worship, evidence of, 76. Bachapins, 430, 483. Badger, 213, 326. Baegert onCalifornian Indians, 575. Baer, Von, on the Aurochs, 304. Bailey on Veddahs, 437. Baillon, M., on rhinoceros remains at 99 523. Articles buried with the dead not always for actual use, 146, 158, 159. Arts and objects peculiar to certain races, 552. Aschersleben, hut- urn found near, 55. Ass, 320. remains of, recent in Lake dwelling, 206 . Assyria, stone implements found in, 112, 346. Atlantis, probable origin of the belief in , 67 , note. Atwater, Mr., his researehes, 253, 270. on Grave creek mound, 270. Menchecourt, 359. Baines, Mr., his sketch of Australians making flint flakes, 92. Baker on Arab phraseology, 427. Bakie's voyage referred to, 358, note. Baldersbal , 76. Bark cloth, 474. Barley found in Lake-villages, 216 . Barrow . See Mound, Tumulus. Bate, Mr. Spence , researches of, 233. Bateman, Mr., his labours, 250. statistics from , 150-153, 160, 176. his classification of pottery, 170. opinions of “ drinking cups," 172. on interments , 53, 142, 177. Bates on tribes of UpperAmazons, 575. Beaches, raised, examples of, 380. Beads, 52, 150, 165, 168. Bear , 214, 215. the Cave , 288, 290 , 316, 319, 374 Beaver, 214, 215. Beckhampton, 124. Beckwith, Lieut., on manufacture of stune weapons by Indians, 95. 99 INDEX. 615 99 99 Belford , relics from , 346. Beechey, referred to, 293, 508, 543. Beech- trees in Denmark, 251 , 387. Beehive houses of Scotland, 57. Belcher on manufacture of stone im plements by the Esqui maux, 94. on Esquimaux winter store , 496. on Andamaners, 438. Belgium, bone- caves in, 312 . Beneden, M. Van, 314. Benjamite slingers, 545. Bertrand , M., referred to, 123. on human remains at Clichy, 359. Beyer, Dr., discovers a hut- urn , 55. Bible references to flax, 220. to the ass, 206 . to the horse, 206. to corn, etc. , 220. testimony to early use of bronze, 72. Bone- pits in North America. 271 . Bonesconsumed by African tribes and other peoples, 326. from drift, 356. fossil , 239. pounded by Australians, 441. Esquimaux, 497. of animals in tumuli , 176. found in shell - mounds, etc., 236, 282 , 283. Bonstetten, M., referred to, 118, note. Boomerang, 443, 445. Borlase referred to, 6. Bornou, funerals in , 140. Borreby tumulus, 145 . Bos primigenius. See Urus. Boscawen, stone circles at , 117. Boucher de Perthes, M., his labours, 211 , 341 , etc. on Lake - habitations in Somme Valley, 376. on remains in Somme Valley, 183. on cataclysms, 369. on Palæolithic stone axe , 341. Bourgeois, Abbé, discoveries of, 422. Bourguignet, M., 339. Bourneville, fortification at , 262. Bowl of wood from Jutland, 52 . Bows, Indian, 522. Boyd Dawkins on descent of oxen, 2II . account of Wokey Hole, 321 , 330. on cave- bear in river drift, 290 . on cave- lion, 292. on fossil rhinoceros, 296. Boye, M., on a Danish tumulus, 163. Bracelet of bronze, 52. Brandon, flint implements at , 85. Brandt on cave - bear, 291 . on bison, 305. fossil rhinoceros in Scandi navia, 296. on wild horse, 300, note. on reindeer, 302. Brantôme, rock chapel at, 323. Brass in English Bible should be bronze, 72. Bread found in Lake-villages, 217. Brennus, his soldiers had iron swords, 7. Briart, M., 87. Brighton, 362. British coinage, how early, 8. for “ brass " in our version, we should read “ bronze,” 72. Bienne, animal remains, 203. Bilidt, shell - mound at, 230, 234. birds in shell -mounds, 237, 238. of Swiss Lake- dwellings, 204. Bison or aurochs, 304. See Aurochs. Blackmore, Dr. , finds the lemming near Salisbury, 306 . Blandford, Mr., his opinion of Silbury Hill , 125 , note. Bleek, Dr., on Bushmen, 436. Blumenbach and fossil rhinoceros, 296. Boar , the, 208, 237 , 320. Boat, ancient , 9, 21 , 188. Boats of Esquimaux, etc. , 506. Bohemia, forts in , 117. Boiling stones, 480 . Bone implements in Copenhagen Museum , 8o. caves, evidence from , 82, 308. in France and Belgium, 308, 319. in Devon, 314. in Sicily, 317. in Gibraltar, 318. in Spain, 318 . near Wells, 321 . in Italy, 339 . „ implements, 108, 167, 243. of America like those of other countries, 255. from caves, 330 . 99 Bolas, 534. 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 2 616 INDEX. 1 99 99 99 Bronze pin from Scotch shell- mound, 233. remains at pileworks, 221. weapons, when discontinued in the North, 13. not found with relics of Roman origin, 13, 19, not found with iron, 8-13 Bronze, alleged examples of, discussed, . 99 22. 20 . 99 com British tumuli, their general plan, 142. Association , its exploration of Kent's cavern , 315. Museum contains stone weapon found with elephant's tooth, 343. Brittany tumuli, 123, 129, 167 . Britons did not eat hare, 204 . Brixham cave, remains from , 290, 316 . Broch. See Burgh. Bronze Age, 3. 75, 172, 251 . dwellings of, 54. theories concerning, 60. and Phenician merce, 64. metallurgy of, 40-43, 60. burial in , 53, 158. clothing in , 48. pottery of, 222-224. architecture, 54 . articles, their general resem blances and differences, 63. articles, cast in various coun tries , 64. inventory of, 46. celt at Rome, with inscription not decipherable, 47. found in Kent, 40. different composition of, 22. in Central America, 256, 431 . opinions upon its original manu facture, 606 . bracelets, 36, 52, 223. brooches, 37 , 52, 53. arrows, daggers, etc. , 31-35, Brooch, anciently mended , 42. Brooches of bronze, 37. Brooke referred to, 138. Brougham , Lord, quoted , 599. Brown, Mr., on New Zealand inherit. ance, 560. his discoveries, 287. Buch, L. von, on midsummer night fires of Norway, 76. Buckland, Dr. , remark of, 298. Buffon on reindeer in France, 302 . Bunbury, Sir C., on remains near Thetford , 182. Bunsen on antiquity ofman, 384. Burchell on custom of Bachapins, 430, 483. note. on Bushman tribe, 571 . Burckhardt, 543. Burdett Coutts, Baroness, 316. Burghs, dwellings so called , 58, 303. Burial, ancient modes of, 136, et seq. during the Bronze Age, 53, 158. in America, 270. forms of, among savages, 458, 2 52, 56. 91 celts, 27, 30. spears, 33 fish -hooks, 34 . hammers, 39. pins, 36, 163. ornaments, 35. weapons, their geographical distribution , 21 . found in Denmark, Ireland , and Italy, 21 , 22 . Norway, 75. celts not found at Pompeii, 22. 466, 484, 511 , 559. Burnes, Travels quoted, 183. Burnet on Comanches, 519. Burning of Lake-villages, 224. Burton on Arab prejudice against hare, 204. Bushmen noticed , 436 , 571 . Busk, Dr., visits Denmark, 230. referred to, 146, 342. on cave -bear, 290 , 291. on Neanderthal skull, 338. visit to Somme Valley, 342 on hyæna, 318. his Aint - finds at the Cape of Good Hope, ill. Buttons or studs of bronze, 39, 52 . of tin , 52, Byron on Fuegians, 536. their dogs, 539. anecdote ofIndian cruelty, 571 . 99 not of Roman times, 19, 23. but earlier, before iron, 23. how introduced, 4, 64. probably not discovered in Europe, 62. moulds for casting, 64. and stone implements found together, 82. 5 INDEX. 617 C. Cæsar referred to, 212, 304, 305. Caillié, M., 577. Caithness “ burghs,” 59. Caledonian swords ofiron , 8 . wall, 127 Cahokia, gigantic mound at , 272, 280. Callais, beads in Brittany, 84, 168 . Calvert, Mr., 460, 463. Campagna, bronze celt found in the, 48. Candolle, M. de, cited, 216. Caneto, M. de, 90 . Cannibalism of Fijians, 461 . Fuegians, 540. Maories, 469. Canoe Indians, 531 . Canoes, 431 , 442, 455, 466, 477, 524, 99 etc. 99 99 Chamois, 325. Changes of human type, 587. Chantre, M., 17 . Charlemagne, a regulation of, 170. Charlevoix on etymology of Esqui maux, 496. Chavannes, remains of ass at , 206 . Cheek -studs, Esquimaux, 508. Cheney on ancient monuments, 281 , note. Chert, how fashioned by the Esqui maux, 94. Childbirth , curious customs at, 560. Chillingham wild cattle, 306 . Chimpanzee, dwellings of, 584. China, its pre- historic archæology not yet known, 3. burial custom, 158. Chisels of fint , 102, 164, 165. Chonos Indians, 531 . Christol, M. de, on rhinoceros relic, 295. referred to, 312. Christy, Mr., on ancient climate of south of France, 334, 342. his collection , 507. and Lartet, MM ., their re. searches in the Dordogne, 322, etc. cave - men of south France, 548. Chronological data, 280. problems, 226, 246, 251 , 383, etc. Chronology of the Tinière cone, 388. Thiele Valley, 391 . Chunkyards described , 269. Cicero, 222. Circleville, Ohio, remains at , 265. Circumcision in Australia, 449. Civilization gradual in Lake- villages, 224. its advantages, 593. in its infancy, 600. Clark's Work, Ohio , fortification at , 262. Clichy, human remains at, 359 . Climate and astronomical changes, 403. geographical features, 401 . of quaternary period, various opinions entertained, 309. of reindeer period, 334. of Western Europe, dates Cape of Good Hope fint flake, 93. flint - finds at, III , on 9 indicated by, 399, 420. " Cloghauns," 82. Cloth found in Lake-dwellings, 200. II2. Carnac, temple of, 128. tumulus at, 167 . Carthage, when built , 71 . voyage from , to North western Europe, 65. Carpenter. Dr. , 396. Carvings on bones, 331 , 510. on stones, 123, 277 , 441. Cat not found in Lake-dwellings, 205 . Danish shell-mounds, 205. wild, 213, 319. when brought into Europe, 238. Cataclysms would not account for river -driſt, 370, etc. Catlin, anecdote of, 528. on defence of Mandan Village, 264. remark of, 197. Cave-men, 311, 340. bear, 288, 291. hyæna, 288, 291 . lion , 288, 291 . Celtic Lake- dwellers, supposed , 224. Celts, 27, 195. of various forms and materials figured , 27-30. kinds of stone used for, 82. felstone, 83. basalt, 83. jade, 83, 168. flint, 84. Ceylon, 68. Chaillu, M. du, 566. Chambered tumuli, 136 ; rare in En gland and France, 141 . " 99 99 618 INDEX . 91 rare in 91 97 99 99 99 Cloth found at Aztalan , 268. manufactured in Tahiti, 474 . Clothing of Bronze Age, 48 . Coast-finds in Denmark described, 109. Cochet, the Abbé, quoted , 342. Codex Diplomaticus, 121 . Codrington, Mr., finds flint implement on Foreland Cliff, 349. Coffins of wood found in Jutland, 49. their contents, 49-53. at St. Acheul, 374. not used in Stone Age, 136. of stone, 98. given by the Chinese as pre sents, 561 . Coin found at Vimose, 12. Coins absent from bronze -finds, 12, 17. ſound in Roman towns, 19. miscellaneous, 225. found at Piquigny, 21 . Heilly, 20. Tinière, 389. Nydam , 9, 10. Thorsbjerg, 10. Tiefenau, 8, 225. La Tene, 8. Coinage, early British and Gaulish, 8. Colden on Canadian Indians, 99, 519, 575. Comb from Jutland, 49, 51 . Concise, relics from , 96, 195, 203, 205. Conſolens, cromlech at , 130. Congreve, reference to , 130, note. Conwell, his discoveries in Meath, 175. Cook, Capt. , on Australian notions of trade, 447 on Esquimaux repast, 497 on Nootka Sound In dians, 525. on Fuegians, 542. on houses at Botany Bay, 439. examples of New Zea land skill , 331 , 547. a Kamskatchadale “ yourt, ” 493. on Tahitians, 430, 472, 481 , etc. on Tasmanians, 452. on Maories, 466. on temporary marriages in New Zealand, 567. on winter habitations in North- east Asia, 137. worshipped, 566 . Cookery among Esquimaux, 496. Copenhagen Museum , 227 , 229, 230. „ stone implements in, 79, 99 bronze implements in, 29, 33, 34, 45 . Academy of Sciences, 230. Copper Age in Ireland doubtful, 61 . Copper, its early use, 3, 64. implements, 30 ; Europe, 61 . in North America, 256, 431 , 522. mines, American, 258. Coppersmiths, American, 259. Coral found at Concise, 197. Corcelettes, 14, 15, 46. Corn not found in neolithic barrows, 178. not found in shell-mounds, 235. of Lake- men, 216, 235. Corn- crushers, 196. Cornet , M., 87 . Corn -hills, 281 . Cornwall a tin - producing district in early times, 64, 74. shell -mounds, 233. Cortaillod, 14 , 15 , 46. Crannoges in Ireland, 184. Crantz on Esquimaux repast, 201, note, 498. on Esquimaux religious no tions, 511 . on the hare among Green landers, 204. Crawfurd on Australian numerals, 450, 573. on changes of type, 587. on Malay language, 572. Cremation in the Bronze Age, 53, 160 . Crescents of earthenware , 223. Crofts, Professor, 259. Croll, Mr., on trade winds, 401 . on excentricity of earth's orbit, 409. on change of sea - level , 417. on change of climate, 310. Cromagnon, skulls found at , 338. Cromlech at Confolens, 130. sense and etymology of the word, 113, note. Cromlechs, 117 Cronkstone Hill , 148. Cruelty of savages , 527, 565. Crustacea in shell-mounds, 236 . Cumberland tumuli, contents of, 157 . Cunningham , Mr., Australian sketches, 441. 99 9 on 1 » 99 on INDEX. 619 Cup markings in Hindustan, 175. Customs of mound - builders, 240, 243. and habits apparently simi lar , but yet different, 555. of savages, 435. Cuvier, M., names Rhinoceros lepto rhinus, 295. on reindeer, 302. 99 D. Dacotahs, 519, 522, 525. Daggers, bronze, 34. of fint, 104, 105. Dale, Mr., his flint-finds at Cape of Good Hope, 111 . Dale County, animal mounds, 275. Dalton, Col. , on kols, 427. Dampier, reference to, 184, 440, 443. shell- mounds, 233. Dana, Professor, 258. Danish coast - finds described , 109. flint implements, 242. museums, stone implements in, 227, 229. Sagas mention tumuli, 122. tumuli, 35 , 227. Dartmoor, remains on, 56. Darwin's theory referred to, 307. Darwin, Mr., on descent of oxen, 211 . remark on glaciers, 309. observations of, 233, 245, 570. Dasent, Sir G. W., 40, 302. David, Lucas, refers to wild horse, 299. Davey on Veddahs, 437. Dawkins and Sandford , opinions of, 292. Dawkins and the Machairodus lati dens, 306 . on wild oxen, 211 . on reindeer, 302. Deerhorn picks, etc. , 86, 87. Degradation of savage tribes denied , 584. Delacourt, M., discovery at Précy, 343. Delaunay, M., 424. Denmark, its antiquities, 9, 10, 227. its vegetation, 387 . not entered by the Romans, 22. See Kjökkenmöddings, shell-mounds, etc. Derbyshire tumuli , contents of, 143, Desor, Prof., on bronze objects. 221 . true nature of Lake-villages, 221 . on human remains not found in the Stone Age, 220. on Swiss Lake-dwellings, 225. De Soto, 426, 518. Devil's Dyke, 117. Devon, shell - mounds, 233. Dickeson, Dr., finds together bones of mastodon and man, 286. Differences among contemporary sa vages, 550 . Diffusion of the human race, 586. Dighton Rock carvings, 277. Dille, Mr., on American tumuli, 270 . Dinotherium , 424. Diodorus Siculus cited , 120, 561 . Dobritzhoffer on religious ideas of Abipones, 578. Dog, first domestic animal , 585. Dogs of shell -mounds, 238. trained to help in fishing, 539. used for different purposes, 505, 556. Dolmen , sense and etymology of the word, 113, note, 130, etc. Domestic animals, remains of, not found in French bone- caves, 325. of Lake-men , 209. in earliest times, 585. of early ages, 179. D'Orbigny, quotation from , 370 . Dordogne, bone- caves in , 322, 331. Douler, Dr., human relics found by, 286. Dove, Mr., on Tasmanians, 452, 571 . Drawings of Esquimaux, 510. Dress in the Bronze Age, 48. of savages, 433, 437, 439, 448, 458, 464, 516, etc. of Tahitians, 476. of Esquimaux, 508. of the Lake- men, 200 . of Patagonians, 533. Drift Age, what, 2, 79, 341 . beds, characteristics of, 265, etc. how formed , 365 . Drift, scarcity of human remains in , 355. vegetable remains in , 365 . animal remains in , 365. implements considered , 350, 354. none 99 9 ) 150, 160 . Dercennus, mound of, 121 . 99 Desnoyers, M., on bone - caves, 311 . on marks upon bones, 422. 620 INDEX. etc. Drinking- cups, 173. Druidical monuments, so -called, 123. Dublin Museum , bronze implements, etc., in , 22 , 29, 30, 31 , 34, 40, 61 . Dun of Dornadilla , 59. Dupont, Dr., on Belgian caves, 313. Dürnten, interglacial coal- beds at, 413, 422 . Dwellings of American Indians, 525. ancient Gauls, 186. the Lake-men, 181-187. Bronze Age, 54. Esquimaux, 492. Paraguay, 530. Patagonians, 532. Fuegians, 536. Dyaks, dwellings of, 184. Dykes, 117. E. Earle, Mr., observation of, 233. on New Zealand cruelty, 469. Earthenware spindle -whorls, 196 . Earth's axis, alteration of, 399. Easter Island statues, 548. Eccard referred to, 6. Education and crime, 599. Edinburgh, bronze implements at, 29. Egypt, early civilization of, 586. formation of, 392. Egyptian bronzes, 35. tombs, 158. knowledge of the horse, 206 . barley, 216. Ekkehard quoted, 299. Elephant, 288 , 294, 374. Elephants use boughs as fans, 583. Elfin arrows, 429. Elk, 213 Irish fossil, 288, 298, 320. Norway, 306. Ellis, on opinions in Tahiti, 469, 487. on dress of queen, 476. on Tahitian slingstones, 478. surgery, 483. morals, 489. on Maories, 469. on feats of Polynesians, 544. Enclosures in America, 262. Engelhardt, on discoveries in Slesvick , Erskine, Capt., on Fijian character, 462. Esquimaux funeral rite, 177. burial-places, 158. sometimes eat foxes, 201. notions ofEnglishmen ,427. notices of, 326, 328, 492, skill with the arrow , 543. stone monuments among, 118. stone implements, 94, ICO , 101 , 104. without pottery, 495. without religious ideas, 511. engravings on bone, 510. Estavayer, 13-15, 35 , 36, 46, 48. Ethnological problems, 385. Etiquette, Fijian, 462. savage, 563, 565. Etowah river-mound , 280. Etruscan jewellery, 158 . Europe, time of man's first appearance in, unknown, I. whether truly described by Pytheas, 67 . Evans, Mr., on early British coinage, 8. on driſt implements, 342. notes on fint implements, 344 , 351 . researches of, 233, 315. finds hatchet near Abbot's 9 99 99 99 9 , 122, note. Engis, skull from , 336, 338, 588. England, shell - mounds in, 233. English Channel once narrower, 361 . Engraving by Esquimaux, 510 . by cave-men, 332 . Equinoxes, precession of, 403. Erman on “ Yurt," 136. Erskine, Capt. , on Fijian gods, 455. Langley, 346. reference to, 349, 351 . Excentricity of earth's orbit, 408-410. Exploration of shell-mounds, 227. Eyre, on Australian dwellings and customs, 440 , 443, 451 . 95 F. Fables, or myths, widespread , 67. Fakaafo , whether its natives were ignorant of fire, 558. Falconer, Dr., on bone- cave in Sicily, 317. at Gibraltar, 318. on the mammoth period , 294. on the species of rhino ceros, 295. on Brixham cave, 316. visits Abbeville, 342. finds lagomys among bones from Brixham cave, 306 . on cave -bear, 290. Fancies of uncivilized peoples, 427 . Fannerup, shell-mound at, 230, 232. INDEX . 621 95 99 99 99 99 95. 99 99 Fannerup, flint- flake from , 89, 248. Flint flakes, North American, 92, 255. Fauna affected by change of climate, Australian, 92. 415. from Cape of Good Hope, of bone-caves, 310. 93 , III . of Lake-dwellings, 200-216. New Caledonian, 93. of Stone Age, 200, 216. Mexican, 93. of drift period , 374. Kertch . 159. of the shell - mounds, 235. Long Barrow , 166. Felstone used for celts, 83. Moen, 165. Fergusson on Stonehenge and Abury, Swiss, 196 . 124. implements of Denmark, 89, 90, on Silbury Hill , 124. on Buddhist Topes, 130. of Switzerland, 95, on ancient Indian notions 195, 197. of decency, 563. of bone- caves, 326. Ferrum ( iron) , synonym for sword, 22. in shell - mounds, Festival of the Dead, 271. 231 , 241 , 243. Filhol, M., 339. of tumuli compared Fijian funerals, 177. with those ofshell . Fijians, notice of, 223, 453. mounds, 247 Finns, skulls of, 145. Flint-finds, III , 341, 350. Fire, whether known to all races, 558. Floating dwellings, 194. used in felling and shaping tim- Flora of Lake-dwellings, 216. ber, 96 . of shell-mounds, 235. how obtained in Tahiti, 480. Florence, in Alabama, earthwork at , in Australia, 447. 279. by Indians, 524 . Florida Indians' buildings, 272. by savages, 557 Flourens, Mr., 239. among Tasmanians, 452. Flower, Mr., 342, 349. Maories, 464. on driſt gravels, 349. how used by the Esquimaux, on Grime's Graves, 84. 498-500. 19 19 99 Fodisch , Dr. , cited , 117. Fish in shell -mounds, 235 , 236. Food of the mound- builders, 244. at Isthmus of Panama, 400. of savages, 433, 441, 454, 463, Fish -hooks, bronze, 34 . 480, 497, 527, 534, 537, 540. Fish - spears, 523. stores in Arctic regions, 496. Fishing, peculiar modes of, 75 , 523, Foote, Mr., on Indian stone imple. 527 ments, 347 . Fitzroy on Fuegians, 537. Forchhammer, Prof., 229, 235. on Patagonian huts, 533. Forel, M., discoveries at Morges, 14 . on Tahitian cruelty, 489. Forests in Wisconsin, 280, 283. Fitz- Stephen refers to wild bulls, 305. Forged flint implements, 352. Flax mentioned in the Pentateuch and Forks of Fijians, 456. Homer, 219. Forskey, M., 396 . known to Lake- men, 218. Forster on Fuegians, 536. Flaxdale Barrow, urn from, 171 . on Tahitians, 474, note, 487. Flensborg, implements at, 35 , 80. Fort - hill , Ohio, fortification at, 262. Flinders, 447 Fortifications of earth, 117 , 261 . Flint implement manufactories, 84, 87. of Maories, 465. how formed, 350. Forts, ancient, 117. antiquity , 352. Foster, Mr., 259. characteristics, 353. Fowl, domestic, not found in Swiss from drift, 354. and Danish ancient remains, 205. from various sources , Fox, 213, 319. 355. eaten by Esquimaux, and in the forged, 352. stone period , 201 . used for celts, 84. France, bone- caves in , 312. how manufactured , 84, 88, 94. shell- mounds in, 233. 99 622 99 Geminus cited , 70. Genista cave, 318 . Geographical distribution of weapons, etc. , 551 . Geological changes in quaternary period, 418. Geology and time, 419. and zoology, parallel processes in, 422. its principles, 2. of Dordogne, 322. Gervais, M., and remains of urns, 305. Gesner's reference to the elk, 212 . Giant's Dance, what, 125. Gibraltar, relics from the Genista cave, 318. Gigantic figures of animals, 273. earthworks, 279. Gilgal, stones of, 120 . Gilliéron, M., on lake - habitation at Pont de Thiele, 200 , 391 . pottery found by, 200 . Gillingham, penpits at , 56. Giraldus Cambrensis, his story about Stonehenge, 125. Glacial epoch, astronomically ac counted for, 310, 412. dates for, 401 . its phenomena plained, 418. Glaciers and moraines, 386 . Glass found at Hallstadt, 24 . beads in Bronze Age, 39. Glutton or wolverine, 288, 304. Gobien on ignorance of fire in La drones, 557 God, no name for, among Abipones, 578. nations who know not, 439. Godalming, flint from , 345. Godwin - Austen , 314 , 342. Goguet referred to, 6 . Gold , probably first metal noticed by man, 3. ornaments at Kouloba, 159. ex 99 99 INDEX . France, primæval, 377. Franks, Mr., on Etruscan jewellery, 158. on a bronze pin from shell-mound, 233. referred to, 443. Frankland, Prof., on glacial epoch , 398 . Franklin , opinion of fox as food, 201 . Frere, Mr., his finds at Hoxne, 344. Freshwater origin of gravels, 365. Freycinet, M., on buildings of Ladrone Islanders, 548. referred to, 557, 562. Friendly Islanders, 490. Froelund, coast-find at, ill. Fruit of Lake -men , 217. Fuegians, account of, 536. habits of, 244 . Funeral feasts, 176. rites in Australia, 450. Fiji , 458. of American Indians, 528 . rites among savages, 559. Funerals in Tahiti, 484. of Esquimaux, 511 . of Maori , 467 . of Patagonians, 535. See also Burial, Interment. Furse, M., 75, note . from Ireland , 43, 44 . Goldhavn tumulus, 136. Gordon , Dr., on Scotch shell -mounds, 233. Gordon, Lady Duff, on African morals, 567. Gorm tumulus, 121 . Gosse, M., discovery in valley of Seine, 343. Gouges of bronze, 39. Grant, Captain, 577 . Granville, animal mound, 276. G. Gades, when founded , 71 . Galeed of Jacob and Laban, 120, 135. Galena in American mounds, 256. Galles, M., referred to, 168, 169. Galton, Mr., on African customs, 326. on perils of wild animals, 594. referred to, 342. Game obtained in various ways, 556. Games of Australians, 449. of Esquimaux, 509. of Fijians, 456. of Maories, 467. of Tahitians, 478. Ganggraben , 136, 141 , 166. Garden -beds of Wisconsin , 282, 284. Garrigou, M., 339. Gastaldi, M. , on early Italian remains, 183. Gaston de Foix and reindeer in France, 301. Gaulish coinage, how early, 8. Gebelin , Count de, on Dighton Rock, 277 Geikie, Mr., on denudation in pro gress, 411 . 79 INDEX. 623 Hazlewood on Fijian gods, 455. Hearne's Journey to Coppermine River, 258. on North American Indians, 519, 575. Hecatæus referred to, 127 . Hector's barrow , 120 . Heer, Prof., reference to, 218. statistics from , 219. Heilly, alleged example of bronze Roman sword found there, 20 , Hemp, 219. Henslow , Prof., 342, 351 . Herberstein on the urus, 212, 305. refers to wild horse, 299. Herbst, K., 230 . on Jutland tumuli, 49. his list of stone implements in Copenhagen Museum , 79. Herne Bay, 346. Herodotus on Pæonian custom , 182, 183. cited, 66, 292. Herschel, Sir J. , on change of climate, 407 . Hesiod, date of, 72. says iron was discovered after 19 92 Grave Creek mound, 261 , 262, 270, 278. Gravel. See Drift. Gray, Dr., referred to, 210. Gray, Mr., on customs in Hebrides, 135. Gray's Thurrock , 290 . Greek and Roman writers refer to burials under mounds of stone or of earth, 120. Greenlanders, skulls of, 145. object to eat hare , 204. Greenstone axe, 98. Greenwell, Mr., referred to , 250. statistics of funeral rites from , 53, 144 , 154-158. finds traces of wood in tumuli , 136. his account of Grime's Graves, 84-86. Gregory of Tours quoted, 121 , 222. Grenelle, discoveries at , 343. Grey, Capt. , on Australian shell mounds, etc. , 440 , 444 , 451 . on Australian skill with spear, 543. Grime's Graves, 84, 97. Gulf Stream, influence of, 401. Günther, Dr. , observation of, 401. H. Habits of Cave - dwellers, 334 . Haeckel on Bushmen, 436. Hagiar Kem , 75. Haigh on Runic inscription, 12. Hains, Dr. , and the cave-lion , 292. Hairpins, bronze, 38. Hale on Fakaaſo language, 558. Haligenes, where found, 402 . Halitherium fossile, 424. Hallon Esquimaux, 326, note, 511,514 . Hallstadt, cemetery at, 25. table of discoveries at, 24 . Hammers of bronze, 39. of fint, 108 . Hamy, M., 424. Handles of stone implements, 95, 108. Happiness on the increase, 592, etc. Harald , burial of, 122. Hare seldom traceable, 204. opinions concerning, 204. Harpoons of Aint, 108. Harrison, Pres., on growth of forests , 283. Haughton, Rev. S. , 83. Havelse, shell - mound at, 230. Haven on antiquities of the United States, 253, 254 , 272. copper and tin , 5. steel known in his time, 5. reference to, 205. Hibbert, Dr. , 302 . Hill Tribes, traditions of, 427. Himilco, voyage of, 65. criticism of Sir G. C. Lewis upon , 65 . Hints to explorers, 179, Hippopotamus, fossil, 288, 297, 374. His , Prof., on skull from Meilen , 220 . Hisely, M., 392. Hoare, Sir R. C., on position of ditch in earthworks, 263. tumuli examined by him , 127. on the blue stones of Stone henge, 127 . on incense cups, 171. referred to, 6, 37, 158, 250. statistics from , 53, 161 . Hog, domestic, 207 , 215 , 238, 374. Hoiner, date of, 72. refers to flax, 219. on decoration of shields, 77. on use of iron, etc. , 5. referred to, 119, 122, 205, 564. Hooker, Sir J. D., his sketch of Carnac, 129. 59 624 INDEX. Huxley, on Neanderthal skull, 338. Hyæna, the cave, 288, 290 , 316, 319, 374. Hyer, Mr., discovers Aztalan , 266 . 99 99 9 99 99 99 99 Hooker, Sir J. D., on ſuneral rites of the Khasias, 131 . on Fuegian hardiness, 542. on Indian dolmens, 132 . Hopkins on changes of climate in Europe , 397 Horn from shell- mounds, 242. Horner, Mr., Researches in Egypt, 392. Horse, fossil, 206, 288, 316, 319, 374. wild , 299 . found in Lake-dwellings, 206 . 215. sacrificed, 176. Indians, 531 . remains of, very rare in En. glish barrows, 176. Hospitality among savages, 567. Hottentots, 431. prejudice against hare, 204 . skill , 545. without religion, 578. Houses of Fijians, 455. of Maories, 465 . of Tahitians, 477 . Houzeau, M., 87. Hoxne, relics from , 344, 365 . Hudson's Bay Company, skins re ceived by , 357 its protection of the native Indians, 529. territory, population of, 357 Hughes, Mr., his finds in Kent , 346. Human bones not found in shell mounds, 243 remains rare in pileworks, 219. very rare in drift, 355, 356. of Denmark, 244 . sacrifices, 176, 460, 468. 93 99 I. Ibex , 213, 325. Ice at the South Pole, 405. boulders in, 369. sludge, 69. Icklingham, flint from , 346. Ignorance and crime, 599. Ilford , 290 . Implements of Esquimaux, 500 . made of flint, 95. of stone, various, 79, etc. of bone and wood , 195. Indian. 522. in bone - beds, 346. Incense cup, 171 . Independent inventions, 555. India , Megalithic remains in , 129. stone implements found in, 112 , 347 suttee, 177 Indian corn - hills , 281 . customs in America, 271 . dolmens, 129. Indians of North America. 515. diminution of, 529. of Paraguay, 529 Infanticide in ancient Britain , 177. among Esquimaux, 177, 512. of American Indians, 521 . of Hottentots, 436. in Paraguay, 531 . of Maories, 467. Polynesian, 467 . in Tahiti, 488. Inhabitants of Lake-villages, 223. Inheritance and succession, 560. Inscriptions, Runic, 9 . of Fijians, 459. not found in Bronze Age, of Maories, 468. Humphrey and Abbott on Mississippi driſt, 397 Hungary, copper implements, 61 . Hunt, Mr., on Fijian custom, 459. Hunting among the Esquimaux, 502. and fishing of Indians, 527 . Hut-urns, 54. found in Italy, Germany, and Denmark, 54, 55. Hut- circles, 82. Huxley, Prof., on geographical distri. bution of man, 385. on Engis skull, 338, note. 12. Roman, 12. on celt at Rome, 47. doubtful, in America. 277. Intellectual estimate of savages, 571 . Interment. See Burial . Funeral. Inventions sometimes independent and sometimes borrowed , 583. Ireland, celts from , 27 . copper implements in , 61 . not certain that Romans en tered it , 21 . Irish elk , 304, 320. gold ornaments, 43. 99 99 1 INDEX. 625 9 Iron Age, 3. burials in , 162. finds belonging to, in Sles. vick, 9. its early use, 4, 6, 7, 77. among the Gauls and Caledo nians , 8. epithets applied to , by poets, 5. use of, general in Northern Europe before invasion of Julius Cæsar, 25 . use of, in Mexico , 82. weapons not found with bronze, 13. unknown to early Americans, 255 . how smelted by Hottentots, 434. relics at Tiefenau, 8, 225. Isolation of savages, 553. Italy, bone -caves in, 339. Ivory found at Hallstadt, 24. Kouloba, 159. 99 Kandyans, 438, 567. Kane on Cree Indian swearing, 521 . on Redskins and portraits, 528, 580. Kattegat, tides of, 234. Keller, Dr. , on ancient pottery, 199. on primitive Swiss, 224. on human remains in Lake villages, 220 . discovery of Lake-dwellings, 181 . Kemble referred to, 122 , note. Kennet, 124. Kent , flint implements from , 40 , 346. Kent's Hole, a bone-cave, 314. Kertch, tumulus near, 159, Keston, its etymology, 126. Khasias, funeral rites of, 131 . Kiel , stone implements at, 80. Kimmeridge, shale bead, 167. King, M., referred to , 347, 442. Kingsley, Mr., 297 . Kircudbrightshire, cairn in , 98. Kissing not universal, 562. Kistvaen, 142. Kit's Coty House, view of, 116. Kjokkenmöddings or shell - mounds, 82, 100 , 227, etc. Knapp, Mr., 258. Knives, bronze , 35 . found at Thebes, 35. 99 flint, 92. J. Jade used for celts, 83, 168, 195. not found in Europe, 83. Jahn on discoveries at Tiefenau, 8. James, expedition to Rocky Moun tains, 97 , note . on American tumuli, 135. Japan, stone implements found in, 112. stone, 196. Knox's “ Ceylon " quoted, 68, 437. Koch, Dr., account of mastodon, 285. Kohen on stone circles in Arabia , 118. Kolben on Hottentots , 432. Kols , modern tradition among, 427 . Korsör, coast- find at , 110. Kotzebue, 293, 489, note, 580. Kouloba tumulus, contents of, 159. L. Ladrone Islanders, whether once igno rant of fire, 557 Ladrones, houses in , 548. Lafitau, M., cited, 119 . Lagomys, or tailless hare , 306, 316. Laing, Mr., 303, 543. Laius, cairn of, 120. Lake-hamlet, ancient model of, at Munich , 55. Lake- habitations of Switzerland , 14 , 181 , 185-226. mentioned by Hero dotus, 182. in England, 182. in Mecklenburg, 183. 9 ) burial custom, 158. its pre- historic archæology not yet known, 3. Javelins, bronze, 33. Jefferson, Mr., on skeletons in a tumu lus in Virginia, 271. Jeffreys, Mr., on mollusca of Somme Valley, 365. Jelalabad tumuli, 115. Jellinge, 121. Jenkin , A., letter to the author, 606 . Jensen, Mr., 163. Jewellery in Etruscan tombs , 158. at Kouloba, 159. Jews refused to eat hare, 204. Joass, Mr., 303. Jobson , his map of 1591 , 185 . Jones, Mr. T. R. , 342. Jukes, 442, 576. Justin, 222. Jutland , contents of coffins found in, 49-52. shell - mounds of, 231 . K. Kajak and umiak, 506. Kamskatchadale yourt, 493. 19 2 s 626 INDEX . 99 99 99 99 99 » 99 91 to 99 99 Lake- habitations in Scotland , 182. in Italy, 183. in France, 183. modern, 183. literature of, 182, 183, 185. their age, 186, 214, 226. structure, 186, 188, 191 . fauna of, 200 . flora of, 217. statistics, 186. position , 188. indications, 189. relics of, 188, 190 , 191 . of Bronze Age, 220. Lake Superior, antiquities near, 272. Lake villages decreased gradually in number, 224 . worshippers, 222. Lake -men, their food , etc., 197, 200 , 217, 219. remains, 220 . character, 224, 225. Lamanon , M. de, on Columbian Indian alphabet, 561 . Land, level of, affected by rivers, 411 . Lang, Mr., on Australian customs, 452. Language of Australians, etc., 450, 453, 454. and sounds, 385 , 561 , 572. Lapham discovers and describes ani mal mounds, 275. on Wisconsin antiquities, 253, 254, 258, 266. on Wisconsin forests, 280, 284. on corn -hills, 281 . on Wisconsin garden - beds, 284. Lapland " gamme, ” 138 . skulls, 145. customs, 326 , 577. Laplanders retreating from civilization , 300 . Lartet, M., on bone-cave at Aurignac, 318-321 . on Palæontologicalchronology, 289. on caves in Dordogne, 322, etc. finds no traces of reindeer in Spanish caves, 300. opinion of, 304, 590 , note. discovery among bones from cave near Madrid , 318. Lartet, M., experiment made by, 331. on drawings in cave of Savigné, 331 . on Rhinoceros leptorhinus, 295. on quaternary climate, 309. on marked rhinoceros bones, 360. makes flint needle , 547. reference to, 359. Lastic, Vicomte de, his collection from Bruniquel, 325: LaTene, metal implements found at, 8. Lead not found in Bronze Age, 22, 39. used in Iron Age, 17. perhaps known ancient Americans, 256. Leech, Mr., finds flint implements near Herne Bay, 346. Leems on custom of Danish Lap landers, 326, note. Lefeaux, Mr., letter to the author, 606. Lefebvre, M., 169 , note. Lefroy, M., quoteci , 568. Leidy, Dr., and Felis atrox, 292. Lemming, 306, 375 . Leopard , fossil, where found, 292. Lepsius, M., 393. Leslie, Col., 133, note. Letourneux, M., 131 , note. Letters on American antiquities of doubtful character, 278, 279. Le Vaillant on Hottentots, 577. Leveillé, Dr., on a flint- find at Pres signy, 87. Lewis, Sir G. C. , on the transport of tin to the East, 64. on the voyage of Himilco , 65 . onthe voyage of Pytheas, 67. on ancient supply of tin , 64 , 74. Lichtenstein, 436. Liége, bone -caves near, 68, note. Life, indifference to, 459, 561 . Linen used for dress in Bronze Age, 48. Lion, the cave , 288, 291 , 316, 319, 374. Lipari , what Pytheas says of it, 67. Lisch, Dr., on hut-urns, 55, 56 . on pile-dwellingsin Meck lenburg, 183. Livingstone, Dr., 115, note, 577. “ Livres de beurre , " 88 . Loch Resort , beehive houses near, 57. Loch Spynie, shell -mounds at , 233. Locke, Prof., describes animal mounds, 273 99 99 99 93 95 INDEX. 627 99 99 Loëss , 335. Mammoth, 288, 293, 316, 319, 359, Löhle, M., on piles used at Wangen, 374. 19 near Madrid , 360. on find at Wangen, 14 . Man, his antiquity, 1 , 286, 287, 359, London, flint weapon found in, 343. 377, 383, etc. Long Barrow, tumulus at , 166. ancient races of, 339. Long Island , remains at, 57. earliest remains of, 335. Longlow , 143 his primitive condition, 583. Los Jardines , islands, 557 . his diffusion , 586. Lovaine, Lord , on lake-dwelling in Mandan wigwams, 279. south of Scotland , 182. Manné- er - H'roek tumulus, 168. Lubbock, Sir J. W., on alteration of Maories, notices of, 463, 467, 567 . earth's axis, 399. See New Zealanders. Lucretius mentions the Stone, Bronze, Marco Polo, 158. and Iron Ages, 6. Mare di Sargasso, 66. Lukis on sepulchral tumuli, 169, Marmots, 306 , 325. note. Marriage among Maories, 467. Lycus, mound of, 120. customs ofAmerican Indians, Lyell, Sir C., 286, 342. 520. on changes of river courses, 379. customs of other nations, 438, on ancient site of Brighton, 361 . 439, 451 , 457, 467, 567. on chronological problems, 421 . Marrow, ancient love of, illustrated, on antiquity of man, 424. 240, 244. on changes of climate, 407. Marsden, Mr., 468, 564. table of excentricity of earth's Marseilles, when founded , 71 . orbit, 410. Masson quoted , 115. on duration of glacial epoch, Mastodon in Missouri, 285. 417. in Mississippi , 285. on age of Mississippi delta, 395. in France, 424. mentioned, 315, 394. Materials preferred for stone imple Lynx, fossil, found in England, 292. Lyon, Capt. , on Esquimaux , 509. Mather, Prof., quoted , 259. sledges, 505. Matthews, Mr., on Fuegians, 579. opinion of foxes as food , 201. Maurice, Mr., alludes to stone monu on formation of ice , 69. ments in India , 129. McGillivray on Australian canoes, 431 . M. referred to, 140, note. Maccagnone cave, 317. Meath , sculptured stones in, 175. MacEnery, Mr., 306 . Mecklenburg, 63 . his researches in Kent's brooch, 42. cavern , 314. Megalithic monuments, 113. Machairodus latuilens, 306. how decorated , Mackenzie on Esquimaux opinions 173 about Englishmen, 427. remains in In Madrid, relics from , 360 . dia, 129, 130, Magellan on stature of Patagonian tribes, 532. Meilen , remains at , 203. referred to, 557 Meilgaard , shell-mound at, 231 , 232 . Madagascar, custom in , 129. Mela, Pomponius, on founders of Maize grown in North America, 526. Gades, 71 . Malay language, 572. Men, which most barbarous, 549. Mallet, Mr. , his discovery of tin in a early varieties of, 244 . so -called copper celt , 61. Menchecourt, 341. Malta , ruin in, 75 . Mendip Hills, Felis spelæa from , 292. its ornaments, 175. Menhirs, 113, 131 . Mammalia of drift, 374. Mental powers of savages, 571 . in shell -mounds, 237. Merlin , 126. in Lake- dwellings, 201. Merry , Mr., on use of boomerang, 446. ments , 82. " 131 , etc. 99 99 2 s 2 628 INDEX . 99 Metal, where not used till recently, 431. unknown in Tahiti, 471 . unknown to cave- men, 334. not found in certain tumuli, 165. 167, 169. not found in shell-mounds, 244. Mexican flint implements , 88, 93. paintings referred to, 256. temple, 430. Michaelis, 383 Michel , Mont St. , tumulus, 167. Migration, facts connected with , 586. Millet found in Lake -villages, 217. Milwaukie animal mounds, 277. Mincopies, 438. Mind and its influences, 590 . Mineralogy of drift, 359. Mines, ancient American, 258. Miocene man, 422. Mississippi, man and mastodon in , 285. delta, age of, 396. valley, relics from , 84, 356 , » 91 note. Missouri, mastodon found in, 285. Moab , stone monuments in , 129. Model of Lake - hamlet at Munich, 55. Models buried with the dead, 158. Modern earth works in America, 270. Möen, tumulus at , 162. Morigen bronze relics, 46. Mollusca in drift, 307 , 375. Monaghan, stone axe from , 96. Mongez, M., on sword found at Heilly, 20. 66 Monkeys crack nuts with stones, 583. Mont St. Michel tumulus, 167. Montpérieux, reference to, 133. Monzie, in Perthshire, weem ” at, 56. Moore, Mr., 408 . Moosseedorf, 14, 15, 195, 201 , 202, Mounds among the Esquimaux, 512. See also Tumulus. Mouse not traced in Lake -dwellings, 205. Moussa, Burgh of, 58, 59. Munich , model of Lake hamlet in the Museum there, 55 . Murchison, Sir R. , 342, 372, note. Muscoda, animal- mound, 274. Museum of Royal Irish Academy, 80. Music, 456, 467 , 478, 597 . Esquimaux, 509. Musk - ox, or musk -sheep, fossil, 288, 296 , 374. Mylne, Mr., 342. Myths, their uses, 429. 93 203, 204. Morai, 484. 548. Moralestimate of savages, 565-571 . Morges, finds at , 14, 15, 34, 35 , 48, 187, 206 . Morlot, M., on age of the cone of Tinière, 389. on shell-mounds, 230. observations of, 26, 41 . on glacialperiods, 310. on two-fold character of gla cial epochs, 413. Mortillet, M. de, referred to, 123. Mouatt on Andamaners, 438, 576. Moulds for casting cells found at Morges, etc. , 48, 64. Mound - builders of America, 279. burial, its early prevalence, 120. N. Nails of tin, 52. Natchez, Indian houses, 272. Natural selection among men, 589. Navigators, ancient, 64. Neanderthal skull , 337. Needles of bronze, 39. Negro, ancient origin of, 384. Neolithic Age, 2, 79. burial in , 158, 162. few interments of, known, 170. Nephrite, 83. New Caledonian flint flake, 93. New Orleans, ancient relics from , 256. New York State, archæology of, 253 New Zealand adze, 102, 103. New Zealanders, 331 , 426. See Maories. funeral rites, 140, 466. Newark in America , earthworks at, 264, 279. Newton, Mr., on remains near Thet ford , 182 . on zoology ofancient Europe, 292, note. Newton, Sir Isaac, reference to, 600 . Niam Niam, iron crescent of, 553. Nicobar Islanders' religion, 580. Nidau, 13-16, 34-36, 46. Niebelungen Lied, quoted, 212, 298, 305. Niederwyl, pile- dwellings, 192. Nile Valley , elevation of, 392. Nilsson, Prof., his services in archz ological science, 6. his theory of the Bronze Age, 64. his remarks on voyage of Pytheas, 69-71. INDEX. 629 Nilsson, his arguments for Phoenician connections with Norway analyzed and estimated, 74-77 . on descent of oxen, 211 . on “ Ganggraben,” 141 . referred to, 53, 141 , 305 , 427 Nind, Mr. S. , 450, 574. Ninus buried under mound of earth, I 20. Nonville, M. de, 280. Nordmann on the aurochs, 304. Norman, Mr. H. J., discovery of fint implements in Kent, 346. Northumberland tumuli, contents of, 157 Norway, supposed traces of Phæni. cians in , 75. Nott, Mr., 489. and Gliddon, 286, note. Noville, remains of ass at , 206 . Nudity not always thought indecent, 563. Numbers and numerals, 574. Numeration of Australians, 450. of the Esquimaux, 513. of the Paraguayans, 531 . Nurhags, 59. Nydam , discoveries at , 9 , 10 . Ornamental devices in bronze, 43. Ornamentation of bronze produced in the casting, 43, 48. later by hammering, 43. Ornainents of ancient Americans, 261 . of bronze, 35. of Esquimaux, 508 . of savages, 448, 465 , 476, 517. Ossuaries of American Indians, 269. Otaheite, mound in, 169. Otter, 213. Owen, Prof., finds the lagomys among bones from Kent's Cavern, 306. on fossil horse, 207 , 299. rhinoceros from Clacton, 295. Irish elk, 298. on Andamaners, 438, 549. Owl, snowy, 306 . Ox used for different purposes, 556. Oxen of the Lake-dwellings, 209. Chillingham and Lyme Park , 210. Oysters in Denmark, 235 , 236. P. Paalstab or Paalstave, 31. Pacific Islanders, religion of, 576. Peonians, their Lake-dwellings, 182. Paläolithic or Archäolithic Age, 2, 79, 412. Age, its interments un known, 158. Paläontological chronology of Lartet, 289. Palestine, stone circles, etc. , in, 118 . stone implements found in, I 12. 0. Oak - tree in Denmark, 251 . Oats known in Bronze Age, 217. Oberea's mound in Tahiti, 169, 484. Objects buried with the dead, 146, 165. Obsidian weapons and implements of Snake Indians, 522. See Flint fake. in Mexico, 93. Offa's Dyke, 117. Ogham alphabet, 604. Ohio, ancient works in, 261 , etc. Old Testament style and Arab speech, 428. Oldfield, Mr. , quoted, 441, 446. on native population of Aus tralia, 594. Oliver, Lieut. , on Madagascar custom, 129. Olsen, M., his care of the Meilgaard shell-mound, 231 . collections, 250. “ Ooloo" of Esquimaux, 104. Danish counterpart of, 104. Ordnance map referred to, 124. Orkney, stone circles in , 119. burghs" in, 58, 59. Palgrave on antiquity of man, 1 . Palheta," or throwing-stick , 554. Pallas refers to reindeer in Eastern Europe, 300. Paraguay Indians, account of, 529. Parchim , hut - urn found near, 55. Parkyns on Abyssinian notions, 427. Parricide of Hottentots, 435. of Fijians , 459. in Tahiti, 489. Parry, Capt., on Esquimaux dwellings, 494. on Esquimaux, 495 , 498 , etc. Passage graves. See Ganggraben. Patagonians, notices of, 531. Paterculus, Vell. , on founders of Gades, 71 . Patroclus, his tomb, 121 , 122. 630 Polybius on voyage of Pytheas, 67. Polygamy of Australians, 452. Polynesian infanticide, 467. Pompeii, no bronze swords or celts found at, 22. Pond -barrows, 139, note. Pont de Thiele, find at, 16, 391. Pontlevoy, find at, 423. Ponzi, and remains of reindeer from Campagna, 300 . Poole, Mr., quoted, 586. Population of hunting countries, 357. increases with the civiliza tion of peoples, 592. scanty in primitive times, 355 . scanty in barbarous coun tries, 357 . Portraits, odd notions about, 528. Pottery from shell-mounds, 233, 234, 243. from Möen , 162-165. from W. Kennet, 166-169. sepulchral, 170. in ancient times, 260 . general occurrence of, 260 . of Bronze Age, 198, 222. of Americans, 260, 261 , of different ages, 17. of Fijians, 456. of the Stone Age, 198. rudimental, 584. hut -urns of, 54 , 55. from Wauwyl, 195. substitute for, among Esqui maux, 495 unknown to cave -men , 331 , 334, 549. the Veddahs, 437. Andamaners, 439. Australians, 442. Maories, 463 INDEX. Pauilhaic, large fint flakes found at , 90 . Pausanias cited, 120 . Peas found in Lake-dwellings, 218. Peat -bogs, antiquities in, 228. Peat of Somme Valley, 375. Peck , Captain, relics found by him near Ontonagon river, 283. Pengelly, Mr., his researches, 233, 315, 316. Penn's treaty with Indians, 279. Penpits, 56, 82. Pentateuch , its mention of bronze and iron, 5. Percy , Dr. , letter to the author, 606 . Perils of wild animals and men, 594. Periods of American history, 284. Peru, stone circles in, 119. Petavius, 384. l'etrie, Mr., on early references to Orkney circles, 119. Pewaukee animal mounds, 275. Pfahlbauten or Lake-villages, 16 , 181 . Phillips, Prof., 315 . Phænician art imperfectly represented in our museums, 77. colonies and commerce, 71 . > commerce and Bronze Age, 64. trade with Britain and Spain, 74: supposed knowledge of America, 277 . supposed knowledge of Norway, 74. Physical geography and ethnology, 385 ; Picts' houses described, 57, 141 . Picture -writing, 278. Pigorini, Prof., 54. on early Italian remains, 183 . Piles for Lake-dwellings, 96 . Pileworks , chronological place of, 214 . Pillows of earthenware, 223 . Pine- tree in Denmark, 237 , 251 . Pins of bronze, 36-39, 233. Piquigny, finds at , 21; alleged ex ample of bronze Roman sword found there, 21 . Plants of Lake-men , 217. Plato, 66 . Pliny on foundation of Utica, 71 . on bison , 304. mentions sacred lakes, 222. I'liocene period, man supposed to have lived in , 424. Polecat, 319. in Tahiti, 478. unused by Patagonians, 533. Fuegians, 541 . Pourtalis, Count, finds humanbones in calcareous conglomerate, 286 . Prado, M. de, discovery near Madrid , 360. Précy, discovery at , 343. Precession of equinoxes, 403. Pre - historic races of men , 175. times, Palgrave on , I. Pressigny le Grand, flint implements made there, 87 . Prestwich, Mr., researches of, 233, 316, 351, 359. visits Abbeville, 342. 99 93 INDEX. 631 99 99 93 99 Prestwich, Mr. , on geology of Somme Valley, 361. on action of ice, 369. table of mammalia from Bedford, Abbeville, Amiens, and Paris, 374. on relation of loëss to gravel, 378. on hippopotamus, 309. on flint implement seen in situ , 351 . on English river -beds, 367. on composition of marl, 373 . Prichard , Dr., on common chronology, 384. Primitive condition of man, 588. Problems to be solved , 350. Progress of happiness of men , 592. Property, descent of, 560. Pyramidal structures in Wisconsin, 267 , 280. Pyramids of Egypt, 115. Pytheas, voyage of, 350 B.C., 67. 92 criticism of Sir G. C. Lewis upon, 67. 99 Q. Quaternary mammalia, 288. period, geological changes Qutrefages, M. de, on descent of oxen, 2II . Religion among Fuegians, 541 . Greenland Esqui maux, 511 . Northern Indians, 519. and science, 591 . nations without, 574. none among the Andamaners, 439. none among the Australians, 449. of Fijians, 455, 460. of Hottentots, 435. of Lake- men, 222 . of Maories, 468. of Tahiti, 486. lowest forms of, 579. Religious ideas among savages, 574. Responsibility of savages, 564. Rhinoceros at Abbeville, 360 . fossil, 288, 294, 316, 319, 374. Ribe, tumuli near, 49. Richardson, on peculiar form of ice, 69. on Dogrib Indians, 569. cheek-studs, 508. Richborough , coins found at , 19. Riddle, Dr., his experiments, 396. Rigollot, M., his researches, 342. Rivers, action of, on land, 362, etc. River- courses changing, 379. drift gravel-beds, 341, etc. levels, alteration of , 363, etc. Robenhausen, tissue found at, 49. animal remains, 201 205 . Robinson, Mr., 453. Rochebrune, M., on cromlech at Con folens, 131 . Rock carvings, 174. in Australia, 441 . in England, Scotland, in , 417 . 29 97 93 R. Races of men, 586. Rae, Dr. , on Esquimaux, 497, 515. referred to, 358. Ramorino, Prof., on marked bones, Ireland, and Brit tany, 173, 174, 175 . in Scandinavia, 175. Roe, 316, 320 . Roedeer, 213. Rogers, Prof., 342 . Rogers, W., on Californian Indians' skill , 544. Rollrich stones, 117 . Roman and other coins at Tiefenau , 225 . inscriptions, 12. swords, 20. Ross, Sir J. , on Esquimaux, 493, 496, 502, 505, etc. 423. Ramsauer, cemetery discovered by, 25 . Ramsey, Prof., referred to, 316, 342, 350. Ransom , Dr., finds lynx in Derbyshire, 292. Rat not found in Lake-dwellings, 205. Razor - knives of bronze, 35, 37 , 51 . Reaping, peculiar mode of, 75 . Red deer, 213, 303. Regnard on the Lapps, 567. Regnoli, M., 290, 306, 339. Reindeer, 288, 307, 309, 320, 384. not found wit Ne hic remains, 211 . Relics in American tumuli, 270. in bone- caves , 311, 339. Religion among Patagonians, 535. 632 Savages not degenerate, 430, 584. their perils, 594. their self- inflicted sufferings, 595. their skill , 543. their weapons, 551 . intellectual power, 571 . Saws of bronze, 39. Saxon weapons of iron, 23. Scandinavian tumuli , 136. Schlegel on Chinese prejudice against hare, 204. Schmerling, Dr. , finds human relics in caves at Liége, 312. 9 ) on the Engis skull, 336, 338. 99 99 29 9 INDEX. Rougemont, M., on date of round towers, 54. sources of tin , 609. Royal " Irish Academy, stone imple ments at , 8o. Runes, note on the invention, and the characters employed , 604. Runic inscriptions, 9, 12. alphabet , 604. Rutherford on feat of New Zealanders, 544. Rütimeyer, his researches, 175. on fauna of Lake-dwell ings, 200 , 202, 203 , 204, 209, 215, 356, note. on connecting - links be tween certain species, 308. on human remains from Lake-dwellings, 220. summary of bones from Veyrier cave, 325. on the bison, 305. on Sus palustris, 207. on fossil oxen, 209. bones of wild and tame animals, 207. S. Saavedra, on ignorance of fire among inhabitants of “ Los Jardines, ” 557 . Sacred enclosures of America, 264. Sacrifices at funerals, 176. Sacrificial mounds described , 271 . Sagas, tumulus mentioned in , 122. Sahara, 386, 402. Salmon abundant in Boothia Felix , 504 . Salutations, diversity of, 562. Samoans, 455, 576. Sanchee, monument at , 130. Sandstone in river gravel, 368. Sandwich Islanders, 485, note, 490. Sanford , Mr., 292. Sarcens , 126. Sardinian “ nurhags,” 59. Sargasso, Mare di, 66 . Saulcy, M. de, on Moabite monu ments, 129. Savage nations, comparative table of implements, weapons, etc. , 552. tribes, comparison between , 547 . their exclusiveness, 553. Savages and children compared, 566, 569, 570. ofmodern times, 426. knowledge of, important to archæologists, 430. “ Ossements fossiles quoted , 68, note. Schoolcraft on American funerals, 134, 135 . on American Indians, 516, 521 . on Dighton Rock, 277. on Sandstone relic, 278. statisticalcalculations, 592. history of Indian tribes, 253, 255, 426, note. Schulz, Don G., on sources of tin, 609. Schütz, M., on Sus palustris, 207 . Schwab, Col., his collection from Nidau, 16. finds pottery at Nidau, 223. on lake villages burned, 224. his collections, 220, 221 . Schwendener, Prof., on the inter - glacial coal-beds at Dürnten , 423. Science and virtue, 599. Scientific inventions , their utility, 598. Scioto river embankment, 280. Scotland, shell -mounds in, 233. Lake- dwellings in , 182. reindeer in, 301 . Scrapers, what, and where found, 99, 327 . Sculptured stones, 174, 175. Scylax , 66. Sea- level in Denmark, 234. change of, 380 . Secondary interments, 148, 169. Seeds of Lake-men , 217. Selserstown mound, 280. Semi- lunar implements, 103. Semitic ornamentation, 76. Seneca on ancient oxen, 304 . Sepulchral mounds in America, 269. pottery classified , 170. urns of British tumuli, 170. » incense- cups of 171 . INDEX. 633 99 9 99 Sepulchral food - vases of British tumuli, 172. drinking- cups of ,, 172. feasts, 176. Sewing, savage skill in, 547. Shell - fish, 211 , 306. Shell-mound axes, ioi . Shell- mounds in Australia, 440 . Smith, Dr., of Camborne, on the Cas siterides, 71 ; on tin mines, 73. Smith, Rev.A.C., reference to, 125 ,note . Smith, J. A., on reindeer, 302, 303. Snake Indians, 522, 527. Society Islands, 483. Society of Antiquaries, Aint imple ments possessed by, 343. Solar radiation, variation of, 397. Soldering unknown in Bronze and early Iron Age, 45. Solomon, 72. Somme river - bed gradually formed , 371 , etc. Somme valley alluvium , age of, 183, 380. section of, 361 . visited, 342 . Sottais, 68, note. South Sea tumuli , 123. Spain, tin from, 73, 74. rock carvings in, 174, note. Sparrman, M., 435. Spear-heads of flint, 104 . Spears, bronze, 33. Species, succession of, in Europe, 289. transitions of, 307. Speke on East African custom, 562. on opinions of African tribes, 427 . Spencer, Herbert, on progress, 601. Spindle-whorl, 196. Spix and Martius, reference to, 563, 568, 572 . Squier and Davis, on varied contents of Mississippi tumuli, 84. on Mississippi valley monu ments, 253, 280. on early American art, 256, 261 . Indian population, 280. on Bourneville Enclosure, 262. on Fort Hill, 262. opinion on earthworks, 263. on animal mounds, 273. on sacrificial mounds, 271 . on temple mounds, 272. 99 95 99 99 99 92 in New Zealand, 464. of Denmark, 227-232. of other countries, 233, 234 . how related to tumuli, 246. their antiquity, 233, 250 252. Shetland isles, “ burghs" in , 58 . Ship or boat found in Slesvick, 9. Shirley quoted, 184. Shoshonees, or Snake Indians, 523, 527. Shortland quoted, 562. Shortt, Dr., 576. Shrub Hill gravel, remains in, 349. Siberia, axe used in, 29. Siberian yurts, 136. Sickles, bronze, 34. Silbury Hill, 116 , 124 . Silesia, jade found in, 84. Silver abundant in Denmark, 12. among ancient Americans, 256. not found in Bronze Age, 3, 22, 39. used in Iron Age, 17. when first noticed, 3. Similarities and differences of weapons and other objects, 555 . Simpson, Sir G., statistical calculations, 592. Simpson, Sir J. Y., on rock carvings, 123, 174. Simpson's discoveries quoted, 499. Sin , why committed, 598. Skin -scrapers, 99, 100, 198, 507. Skins of animals used for dress in Bronze Age, 48 . Skulls from Scandinavia , 142, 244 . English tumuli, 143. classified, 143. various, 144, 335, etc. moulded in ancient and modern times, 518. from Switzerland, 220. Skyring on Fuegian skill, 545. Sledges of Esquimaux, 505, 506 . Slesvick, finds in, of IronAge, 9. Slingstones, 195, 197, 478. of Aint, 105. on Aztalan, 266 . Squier, Mr., on bone- pits, 268. on stone circles in Peru, 119. references to, 195, 253, 258, 266. Staffordshire tumuli, 160. Stag, 320, 374. Stanbridge, illustration of Australian skill , 544. 634 INDEX. Stanley, Dr. , on stone circle near Tyre, 118. " 99 Stanley, Hon. W. O. , 56. Stanton Drew, remains at, 117. St. Acheul , 342 , 363 . Staigue Fort, Kerry, 59, 605. Statistics of archæological evidence, 16, 17. skulls, 142-144 . ' interments, 159-161. bronze objects, 46 . Steel unknown to bronze-workers, 42. known to Greeks, 5. Steele on kissing, 562. Steenstrup, Prof., his researches, 175, 228, 387. discoveries at Froëlund , Stone implements at Flensborg, Kiel , and Museum of Royal Irish Aca demy, 80. in Stockholm, 79. in Copenhagen Mu seum , so. similar in difierent countries, 63. where found , 109. work of savages, 536 . Stonehenge, 118, 125-128. tumuli near, 127, 161. Strabo on ancient supply of tin, 74. on voyage of Pytheas, 67 . on foundation of Utica, 71 . on Lake near Toulouse, 222. on Iberian custom , 560. Strobel, M., on early Italian remains, 183 . Stuart, Mr., monuments described by him, 117, 173 , note. on Australian knowledge of fire, 447: Studs or buttons of bronze, 39. Stukeley on Silbury Hill and Abury, 124. Sufferings, voluntary, 596. • Sumpitan," or blow - pipe, 553. Superstition of savages , 580 . Surgery, wonderful, in Tahiti , 483. Suter on the Lake-villages of Wauwyl, 193. Suttee in ancient Britain, 177. Switzerland , antiquities in, 8 . chronology of, 388. Lake-habitations, 13, 35 , 181 , 186. Swords, bronze, 31-33, 52, 53. T. Tables of interments, 160, 161 . of animal remains, 202 - 206 , 99 III . on bone fragments from shell-mounds, 236. his opinions on small flint axes, IOI . on slingstones, 105. on peculiar fracture of skulls, 422. opinions, 228. on shell - mounds, 247. Steinbergs, 188. Stennis, stone circle at, 117, 126. St. John, Lieut. , 439. Stockholm , stone implements at , 80. Stephens, Prof., on Runic alphabets, 603. Stiles, Rev. Dr., on Dighton Rock, 277. Stoliczka, Dr., observation of , 234: Stone Age civilization considered, 549. sources of our knowledge of it , 82. its divisions , 246. its recent continuance in some places, 3. doubts of Mr. Wright, 81 . tumuli of , 145. Stone and bronze in use at same time in Europe and in America, 12, 81 . Stone axes with holes for handles, 99 . axes, how re -sharpened , 97. circles, their size , 116 . in India, 115. in Algeria, 131 . coffin , 98. hammers, American, 259. implements of America and of other countries, 255. in Danish museums, 8o. 215, 374. of vegetable remains, 219. of statistics, 15, 24, 46. illustrative of savage life, 552. of earth's excentricity, 409. Tacitus on Caledonian swords of iron, 8. refers to sacred lakes, 222 . allusion to, 298. Tahiti, notices of, 430, 470, etc. tumulus in , 169. Tankerville Park wild cattle, 212. Tardy, M., discovery by, 424 . Tasmanians, notices of, 452, 573. Tasman's visit to New Zealand , 426 . 99 INDEX . 635 29 99 Tate on rock carvings, 174. Tattooing a title to heaven, 565 . in Australia, 448. in Fiji, 458 . in New Zealand, 465. in Tahiti, 477. Taylor, Meadows, on Indian dolmens, 133 Taylor, R.C.,describes animal mounds, 273. Taylor, S. , describes animal mounds, 273. on Maori opinions of Deity, 468. on New Zealand funeral cus tom, 140, 466. on Aztalan, 266. Taylor, Mr., his “ Anahuac,” 93. Temple mounds in America, 272. Temples of the Fijians, 455 . Tennent's, Sir J. E., “ Ceylon,” 68, 437: Tenthousand, mound of the, 135. Teocallis of Mexico, 272. Tertre on Carib skill, 544. Thebes, bronze kniſe from , 35. Thetford, ancient remains at, 182. Thiele, valley of, 16. Thomas, Capt., on Beehive houses, referred to, 57, note. Thomsen, his services in archæological science, 6, 228 230. Thorsbjerg, find at, 10 . Throwing- stick, 443. Thule, 69. Thunberg on Hottentots, 433, 435. Thunderbolt, 429. Thurnam on Megalithic circles, 118. on types of skull , 143. on West Kennet tumulus, 166. Thyra , tumulus of, 121 . Tides of Danish coast, 234. Tiefenau, coins found at , 8. relics from , 8, 225. Tierra del Fuego, customs in, 244 . Tilhuggersteens, 106 . Time, its influence on physical features of man , 587. slow among savages, 566 . and geology, 418. Tin button , 52. sources of, 48, 64 , 73. quantity produced in Spain limited, 73. nails, 52. chiefly from Cornwall , 73. its early use, 4. Tin in Hallstadt bronze, 25. bar of, found at Estavayer, 48. implements not found in Europe, 60 . Tinder from Lake- villages, 198. Tinière, cone of, 388. Tinné language has no word for be loved , 521 . Tobacco pipes of ancient Americans, 260 . Tomakawk, one use of, 97. as a weapon, 97. Tonga Islanders, 490. Tools of Tahitians, 471 . Tool- stones, 106 . Torfæus, his mention of Moussa, 59. quoted, 302. Torquemada quoted , 93. Torres Straits, dead houses, 140 . Tournal and Christol, MM ., their dis covery of human relics among those of extinct animals, 312. Trade winds, 401 . Tradition imperfect , 426. important, 429. Transition period from bronze to iron , 25 . Traube has found jade in Silesia, 84. Travel, its pleasures, 597. Treenhoi , 49. Tristram, Dr., on the Sahara, 402. Trojan war, when it occurred, 5. Troyon, on Bronze Age, 184. census of Lake- villages , 187. on ancient pottery, 199, 223. on population of Pfahlbauten, 355. Truth and fiction combined , 65 . Tschutski, winter dwellings of, 137. Tumuli, abundance of, in Britain, 114 in Algeria, 131 . in America, 84, 115, 269. in Brittany, 167. in Denmark , 49, 114, 178, 227. in United States, 269. in the Orkneys, 114. in India, 115, 129. in other countries, 115, 173. mostly pre -historic, 121 . of various periods, 158. should be preserved, 179. how related to shell- mounds, 248. of the Stone Age, 123. near Stonehenge, 127. chambered, 139. long, 142. See also Barrow , Mound . 99 79 99 99 9 9 19 9 636 INDEX. Turner's Polynesia, 581 . Twine found , 218. Tydeus, mound of, 120 . Tylor, Mr. , on recent formations, 380. on supposed degeneracy of savages, 584. on Tahitian boiling - stones, Visconti , Signor, work by him referred to, 54, note. Vitrified walls, 267. Vivian , Mr. , 314, 315, 608. Vocabularies of savages, 561 . Vogt on cave- bear, 291 . referred to, 146, 223.. Von Sacken's “ Leitfaden " referred 99 99 480. references to, 558. Tyndall, Prof., visits Silbury Hill, 124. on formation of glaciers, 397. Tyrian mechanical arts in time of Solomon, 72. to, 170, note. W. Wace quoted , 126. Wallace on Brazilian skill , 544 , 547. varieties of the human races, 588. U. Uhlmann, M., 390 . Uig, remains at, 58. Ulloa on Brazilian ideas of chastity, 564. Umiak and kajak, 506 . United States archæology, 253. Unity of human race, 586-589. Urn- burial in America, 270. Ursus spelæus, or cave- bear, 288 . Urus, or Bos primigenius, 214, 288, 305, 374. how far extinct, 210. Urville, Dumont d ' , on city of Ton dano, 184. dress in New South Wales, 448. music of Maories, 467. on mausoleum in the Friendly Islands, 485, note. Usher, Dr., 286. Archbishop, his chronology in adequate, 383. Utica, when built, 71 . Wallis on Tahitian ideas of cookery, 480. on Fuegians, 536. Wampum, 278. Wangen, finds at, 14-16, 198. Lake-dwellings at , 186, 192, 195. animal remains from , 203, 205. Wansdyke, pre-historic, 117. Waukesha animal mounds, 275. Warren, Mr., finds flint hatchet near Icklingham, 346. Water held sacred , 222. Wauwyl, find at, 14 , 203. Lake- dwellings at, 194 . Wayland Smith, his myth, 67. similar myth in Ceylon, 68 . Lipari, 67. Belgium , 68, note Wealden formation, 420. Weapons of savages, 433, 444, 454, 466, 479, 500, etc. Weasel, 213. Weaving in the Stone Age, 196 . Weems, 56 , 82. West Kennet tumulus, 166. Westmoreland tumuli , contents of, 157 Wheat found in Lake-villages, 217, 235 . Whetstone from West Kennet, 167. Switzerland, 195, 197 Whitaker, Mr., finds implements, 346. Whitburn, Mr., his finds near Guild. V. Vaillant , M. le, referred to, 204, note. Vallency, Colonel, on Dighton Rock, 277 . Vancouver's Island , 516. Varieties of men, of very ancient origin, 586. Veddahs, notices of, 68, 436. Vega, G. de la, quoted,272. Vegetable remains in drift, 364. Vegetables of Lake- men, 217. Verstegan referred to, 361 . Vibraye, Marquis de, 339. Vimose, discoveries at the, 12. Virchow referred to, 117, 145. Virgil cited , 121 , 222. Virginia, temple in, 119. Virtue, various notions of , 564. ford , 345. White men worshipped, 566. Whittesley, Mr. C., 259. Whittlesey, Col. , on mound- builders, 263. Widel on Bronze Age, 60. Wiberg, theory of, 04. INDEX. 637 Wigs of Fijians, 458. Wilde, Sir W. R., on rarity of copper in Bronze Age, 61 . his classification of flint arrow heads , 106 . on stone celts of Dublin Mu seum, 83. on “ Crannoges, ” 184. Wilkes, Capt. , on Australian funeral, 449 . quoted, 458, 469, 557. Wilkinson, Sir G., 35. Williams on Fijian towns, 454, note. agricultural imple ments, 456. customs, 177, 454, 462. Wilson, Dr., on early allusions to the Caledonian Wall and Abury, 127. on bones from earthworks, 282. on early American metal lurgy, 259. on sandstone relic, 277. plan of Scioto valley earth works, 264. American sepulchral mounds, 270. remains of man, 288. on sacrificial mounds, 271 . on Dighton Rock inscription, 277. on Kumbecephalic skulls, 142. on ancient belief in a future Women, Maori, 467. North American, 519. Tahitian, 488. treatment of, 566, etc. Wood, Colonel, his discoveries of rein deer horns, 301 . Wooden relics in North America, 259. Woollen garments found in Jutland, 50. Worsaae, Prof., his division of the Stone Age, 246. various opinions and re marks on shell- mounds, 229, 246-250. on Jutland tumuli, 49. on efficiency of ancient weapons, 546. Wright, Mr., on similarity of bronze weapons in different coun tries, 63. his opinions considered , 19. his doubts of the Stone Age, 81 . Writing, art of, in ancient America, 278. Wyatt on flint implements near Bed ford , 346. referred to, 342, 351 . Wyeth, M., on Indian implements, on 9 state, 146. quoted, 119. referred to , 99, note, 258, 263, 479, note, 518. Wiltshire tumuli, 127, 160, 166. Wisconsin, ancient remains in, 254. Witchcraft among savages, 580, 581 . Wokey Hole, 321 . Wolf, 213, 319, 325. Wolverine, or glutton, 304. Women, condition of, in Australia ,451 . Fiji, 457. etc. , 522, 523, 527 . Wylie on Lake-dwellings, 222. “ Wummera,” 444. X. Xenophon, allusions to, 121 , 560. Y. Yorkshire tumuli, contents of, 154-157. Young, Dr., on hieroglyphics,65, note. Yourt, or yurt, described, 136, 493. Yule, Colonel, referred to, 129, 132, 579. z. Zealanders. See New Zealanders. Zinc unknown in Bronze Age, 39. Zippe, Prof. , 117 . Printed by C. Green & Son, 178, Strand, London .

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1 . )aeil Esi HILLES LIBRARY RADIOTY FGE ARC . Av 3 5 ed . Pre - historic times : as illustrated Tozzer Library ALH7889 3 2044 043 040 435 This book is not to be taken from the Library

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