History of human sexuality

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"Like other aspects of Roman life, sexuality was supported and regulated by traditional Roman religion, both the public cult of the state and private religious practices and magic. Cicero held that the desire to procreate (libido) was "the seedbed of the republic," as it was the cause for the first form of social institution, marriage, which in turn created the family, regarded by the Romans as the building block of civilization. Roman law penalized sex crimes (stuprum), particularly rape, as well as adultery. A Roman husband, however, committed the crime of adultery only when his sexual partner was a married woman."--Sholem Stein

Fashionable Contrasts (1792) by James Gillray
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The social construction of human sexual behavior—its taboos, regulation and social and political impact—has had a profound effect on the various cultures of the world since prehistoric times.

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+"Like other aspects of [[Roman life]], sexuality was supported and regulated by [[Religion in ancient Rome|traditional Roman religion]], both the [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Sex, religion and the state|public cult of the state]] and [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Healing and magic|private religious practices and magic]]. [[Cicero]] held that the desire to procreate ''([[libido]])'' was "the seedbed of the republic," as it was the cause for the first form of social institution, [[Marriage in ancient Rome|marriage]], which in turn created the family, regarded by the Romans as the building block of civilization. [[Roman law]] penalized sex crimes ''([[stuprum]])'', particularly [[History of rape#Ancient Rome|rape]], as well as [[Marriage in ancient Rome#Adultery|adultery]]. A Roman husband, however, committed the crime of adultery only when his sexual partner was a married woman."--Sholem Stein
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+[[Image:Fashionable contrasts James Gillray.jpg |thumb|right|200px|''[[Fashionable Contrasts]]'' ([[1792]]) by [[James Gillray]]
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+'''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' is part of the [[human sexuality]] portal]]
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-The [[social construction]] of [[sexual behavior]]&mdash;its [[taboo]]s, [[regulation]] and [[sociology|social]] and [[politics|political]] impact&mdash;has had a profound effect on the various [[culture]]s of the world since [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times.
+The [[social construction]] of [[human sexuality|human sexual behavior]]&mdash;its [[taboo]]s, [[regulation]] and [[sociology|social]] and [[politics|political]] impact&mdash;has had a profound effect on the various [[culture]]s of the world since [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times.
 == Sources ==
 Sexual speech - and by extension, writing - has been subject to varying standards of [[decorum]] since the beginning of history. The resulting [[self-censorship]] and [[euphemistic]] forms translate today into a [[dearth]] of [[explicit]] and [[accurate]] evidence on which to base a history. There are a number of sources that can be collected across a wide variety of times and cultures, including the following:
 ==Reproduction and cultural gender roles==
 The [[biology|biological]] phenomenon that [[woman|women]] become [[pregnancy|pregnant]] and give birth instead of [[man|men]] has shaped the formation of [[gender role]]s in world [[culture]]s.
-A single male can impregnate any number of females at once, while a single female is usually only impregnated by one male at a time. Even if there were only one man left on Earth, humankind could probably recover, depending on the man's [[health]] and [[fertility]].  The [[gene pool]] of the species would be somewhat impoverished, however, so the species would be less able to adapt to changes in its environment. On the other hand, if all but one female were wiped out, it is doubtful humanity could recover.{{Or|date=August 2008}}
+A single male can impregnate any number of females at once, while a single female is usually only impregnated by one male at a time. Even if there were only one man left on Earth, humankind could probably recover, depending on the man's [[health]] and [[fertility]].  The [[gene pool]] of the species would be somewhat impoverished, however, so the species would be less able to adapt to changes in its environment. On the other hand, if all but one female were wiped out, it is doubtful humanity could recover.
 In fact, it appears that even in early historical times, it was not clear that there was any male role in reproduction - there is no immediate correlation between sex and reproduction due to the delay in the obvious signs of pregnancy. However, all civilizations hit upon the concept of male reproduction and, even more importantly, [[paternity]], most likely from the correlation seen during the development of [[animal husbandry]]. The discovery of paternity led to concepts such as fathership of children, the importance of ensuring [[fidelity]], the role of marriage as ''[[prima facie]]'' proof of paternity, and holding individual males responsible for the support of their offspring.
 ==Sex in various cultures==
+:''[[Sex in various cultures]]''
 === India ===
-:''[[History of sex in India]], [[Kama Sutra]]''
+:''[[History of sex in India]], [[Kama Sutra]], [[Indian erotica]]''
-The first evidence of attitudes towards sex comes from the ancient texts of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], the first of which are perhaps the oldest surviving literature in the world.  These most ancient texts, the [[Rig Veda|Vedas]], reveal moral perspectives on sexuality, marriage and fertility prayers.  Sex magic featured in a number of Vedic rituals, most significantly in the Asvamedha Yajna, where the ritual culminated with the chief queen lying with the dead horse in a simulated sexual act; clearly a fertility rite intended to safeguard and increase the kingdom's productivity and martial prowess. The epics of ancient India, the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], which may have been first composed as early as [[1400 BCE]], had a huge effect on the culture of [[Asia]], influencing later [[China|Chinese]], [[Japan]]ese, [[Tibet]]an and [[South East Asia]]n culture.[[Image:Kamasutra5.jpg|thumb|200px|Images from the [[Kama Sutra]].]]These texts support the view that in ancient India, sex was considered a mutual duty between a married couple, where husband and wife pleasured each other equally, but where sex was considered a private affair, at least by followers of the aforementioned Indian religions. It seems that [[polygamy]] was allowed during ancient times. In practice, this seems to have only been practiced by rulers, with common people maintaining a monogomous marriage. It is common in many cultures for a ruling class to practice polygamy as a way of preserving dynastic succession.
-India as a whole has as diverse a set of sexual 'behaviors' as any other society, such as [[adultery]], [[homosexuality]], [[transgenderism]], [[exhibitionism]], [[prostitution]], [[Sadism and Masochism|sadism/masochism]], [[zoophilia]], and [[necrophilia]], even though modern India society places greater taboo and emphasis of privacy on sex.
-The most publicly known sexual literature of India are the texts of the [[Kama Sutra|sixty-four arts]]. These texts were written for and kept by the philosopher, warrior and nobility castes, their servants and concubines, and those in certain religious orders. These were people that could also read and write and had instruction and education. The sixty four arts of love-passion-pleasure began in India. There are many different versions of the arts which began in [[Sanskrit]] and were translated into other languages, such as Persian or Tibetan. Many of the original texts are missing and the only clue to their existence is in other texts. [[Kama Sutra]], the version by Vatsyayana, is one of the well-known survivors and was first translated into [[English language|English]] by Sir [[Richard Francis Burton|Richard Burton]] and F. F. Arbuthnot. The [[Kama Sutra]] is now perhaps the most prolific secular text in the world. It details ways in which partners should pleasure each other within a marital relationship.
-When the [[Islamic]] and [[Victorian morality|Victorian]] [[English people|English]] culture arrived in India, they generally had an adverse impact on sexual liberalism in India. Within the context of the Indian religions, or dharmas, such as [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]], sex is generally either seen as a moral duty of each partner in a long term marriage relationship to the other, or is seen as a desire which hinders spiritual detachment, and so must be renounced. In modern India, a renaissance of sexual liberalism has occurred amongst the well educated urban population, but there is still discrimination and forced marriage incidents amongst the poor.
-Within certain schools of Indian philosophy, such as [[Tantra]], the emphasis in sex as a sacred duty, or even a path to spiritual enlightenment or yogic balance is greatly emphasized. Actual sexual intercourse is not a part of every form of tantric practice, but it is the definitive feature of left-hand Tantra. Contrary to popular belief, "Tantric sex" is not always slow and sustained, and may end in orgasm. For example, the Yoni Tantra states: "there should be vigorous copulation". However, all tantra states that there were certain groups of personalities who were not fit for certain practices. Tantra was personality specific and insisted that those with pashu-bhava (animal disposition), which are people of dishonest, promiscuous, greedy or violent natures who ate meat and indulged in intoxication, would only incur bad karma by following Tantric paths without the aid of a Guru who could instruct them on the correct path. In Buddhist tantra, actual ejaculation is very much a taboo, as the main goal of the sexual practice is to use the sexual energy towards achieving full enlightenment, rather than ordinary pleasure. [[Tantric sex]] is considered to be a pleasurable experience in Tantra philosophy.
 === Mesopotamia ===
-[[Matriarchy]] was practiced in the earlier period of [[Mesopotamia]]n civilization.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}, the southern area of [[Babylonia]] between the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers to [[Assyria]], the northern part of Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian society practiced sexual openness.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
+:''[[sexuality in Mesopotamia]]''
-In ancient Mesopotamia, [[Ishtar]] was the primary Goddess of life, men and women, nature and fertility, sex, sexual power and birth. Ishtar was also the goddess of war and weapons and any victory was celebrated in her temples with offerings of produce and money as well as through a feast and orgy of sex and fornication with holy [[temple prostitute]]s. Every woman was required, at least once in her lifetime, usually after she was married, to go to the Temple of Ishtar. She waited there till any stranger came and threw silver in her lap. Then she left the temple and had sex with the stranger, after which she could return home. She was not allowed to refuse the first stranger.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}<!-- Herodotus is *not* an acceptable source.  He's generally considered as much storyteller as historian.  Any independent sources? --> To quote the Greek historian [[Herodotus]]:
-:"The worst Babylonian custom is that which compels every woman of the land once in her life to sit in the temple of love and have... intercourse with some stranger... the men pass and make their choice"
-With the changing time, the shift from matriarchy to patriarchy occurred.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. With this shift, Ishtar lost some of her status and glory, and several male gods surfaced. Temples of Ishtar became abode to [[sacred prostitute]]s or priestesses known as ''[[Ishtaru]]'' or Joy-Maidens and places for exchange of sexual services for a price. This was in no way considered a shameful profession and laws were passed making it serious offence to talk badly about the holy prostitutes.
-In some temples of Ishtar, even male prostitutes (for the use of other men) were found. They were referred to as men "...whose manhood Ishtar has changed into womanhood." At a later stage of Babylonian culture, the attitude had changed: the Middle Assyrian Law Tablets, dating back to 12th century BC make it clear that some kinds of homosexuality could lead to castration. As in most civilizations, incest of any kind was strictly forbidden and was considered a capital crime.
 === China ===
-In the ''[[I Ching]]'' (The ''Book of Changes'', a Chinese classic text dealing with what would be in the West termed metaphysics), sexual intercourse is one of two fundamental models used to explain the world. With neither embarrassment nor circumlocution, Heaven is described as having sexual intercourse with Earth. Similarly, with no sense of prurient interest the male lovers of early Chinese men of great political power are mentioned in one of the earliest great works of philosophy and literature, the ''[[Zhuang Zi]]'' (or ''Chuang Tzu'', as it is written in the old system of romanization).
+:''[[sexuality in China]]''
-China has had a long history of sexism, with even moral leaders such as Confucius giving extremely pejorative accounts of the innate characteristics of women. From early times, the [[virginity]] of women was rigidly enforced by family and community and linked to the monetary value of women as a kind of commodity (the "sale" of women involving the delivery of a [[bride price]]). Men were protected in their own sexual adventures by a transparent double standard. While the first wife of a man with any kind of social status in traditional society was almost certainly chosen for him by his father and/or grandfather, the same man might later secure for himself more desirable sexual partners with the status of concubines. In addition, bondservants in his possession could also be sexually available to him. Naturally, not all men had the financial resources to so greatly indulge themselves.
+=== Japan ===
+:''[[sexuality in Japan]]''
+===Classical antiquity===
+:''[[ancient sexuality]], [[biblical eroticism]]''
-Chinese literature displays a long history of interest in affection, marital bliss, unabashed sexuality, romance, amorous dalliances, homosexual alliances -- in short all of the aspects of behavior that are affiliated with sexuality in the West. Besides the previously mentioned ''Zhuang Zi'' passages, sexuality is exhibited in other fine works of literature such as the Tang dynasty ''[[Yingying zhuan]]'' (''[[Biography of Cui Yingying]]''), the Qing dynasty ''[[Fu sheng liu ji]]'' (''[[Six Chapters of a Floating Life]]''), the delightfully and intentionally salacious ''[[Jin Ping Mei]]'', and the incredibly multi-faceted and insightful ''[[Hong lou meng]]'' (''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]'', also called ''[[Story of the Stone]]''). Of the above, only the story of Yingying and her de-facto husband Zhang fail to describe homosexual as well as heterosexual interactions. The novel entitled ''[[Rou bu tuan]]'' (''[[Prayer mat of flesh]]'') even describes cross-species organ transplants for the sake of enhanced sexual performance. Among Chinese literature are the [[Taoist]] classical texts. [http://www.bigeye.com/sexeducation/ancientchina.html] This philosophical tradition of China has developed [[Taoist Sexual Practices]] which have three main goals: health, longevity, and spiritual development.
+==== Greece ====
+:''[[sexuality in ancient Greece]]''
+:''[[homosexuality in ancient Greece]]''
-The desire for respectability and the belief that all aspects of human behavior might be brought under government control has until recently mandated to official Chinese spokesmen that they maintain the fiction of sexual fidelity in marriage, absence of any great frequency of premarital sexual intercourse, and total absence in China of the so-called "decadent capitalist phenomenon" of homosexuality. The result of the ideological demands preventing objective examination of sexual behavior in China has, until very recently, made it extremely difficult for the government to take effective action against sexually transmitted diseases, especially AIDS. At the same time, large migrations to the cities coupled with significant amounts of unemployment have led to resurgence of prostitution in unregulated venues, a prominent accelerant of the propagation of STDs to many ordinary members of society.
+In ancient [[Greece]], the [[phallus]], often in the form of a [[herma]], was an object of worship as a symbol of fertility. This finds expression in [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[sculpture]] and other artworks. One ancient Greek male idea of female sexuality was that women envied penises of males. Wives were considered as commodity and instruments for bearing legitimate children. They had to compete sexually with [[eromenoi]], [[hetaera]]s and slaves in their own homes.
-In recent decades the power of the family over individuals has weakened, making it increasingly possible for young men and women to find their own sexual and/or marriage partners.
+Both [[Homosexuality]] and [[Bisexuality]], in the form of [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederasty]], were social institutions in ancient Greece, and were integral to education, art, religion, and politics. Relationships between adults were not unknown but they were disfavored. [[Lesbian]] relations were also of a pederastic nature.
-=== Japan ===
+In ancient Greece, it was common for men to have sexual relationships with young boys. These practices were a sign of maturity for young boys, who looked up to men as sexual mentors.
-In what is perhaps the very earliest novel in the world, the ''[[Genji Monogatari]]'' (''[[Tale of Genji]]''), which dates back to around the eighth century CE, eroticism is treated as a central part of the aesthetic life of members of the nobility. The sexual interactions of Prince Genji, the central figure in this extremely long story, are described in great detail, in an objective tone of voice, and in a way that indicates that sexuality was as much a valued aesthetic component of cultured life as would be music or any other of the arts. While most of his erotic interactions involve women, there is one telling episode in which Genji travels a fairly long distance to visit one of the women with whom he occasionally consorts but finds her away from home for an extended period. It being late, and intercourse already being on the menu of the day, Genji takes pleasure in the availability of the lady's younger brother who, he reports, is equally satisfactory as an erotic partner.
-From that time down at least as far as the [[Meiji Reformation]], there is no indication that sexuality is treated in a pejorative way. While homosexuality was driven out of sight for some time, it seems to have continued unabated for it reemerged in the wake of the sexual revolution in the West with seemingly little if any need for a period of acceleration. Likewise, prostitution was practiced more discreetly but did not disappear.
+Ancient Greek men believed that refined [[prostitution]] was necessary for pleasure and different classes of prostitutes were available. Hetaera, educated and intelligent companions, were for intellectual as well as physical pleasure, [[Nomad|Peripatetic]] prostitutes solicited business on the streets, whereas temple or consecrated prostitutes charged a higher price. In [[Corinth]], a port city, on the [[Aegean Sea]], the temple held a thousand consecrated prostitutes.
-In Japan, sexuality was governed by many of the same social forces that make the culture of Japan considerably different from the culture of Western nations, and also different from the culture of China. In Japanese society, the primary method used to secure social control is the threat (and, occasionally, the actuality) of ostracism. Japanese society is a [[shame society]]. Therefore, more attention is paid to what is appropriate to expose to the view of other people than is paid to what behaviors would make a person "guilty." Also important is the strong tendency of people in Japanese society to group in terms of "in group" individuals and "out group" individuals. What may be open to knowledge by one's in group may be different from what is open to knowledge by one's out group, and, what may be avoided because of pressure by one's in group may be of little or no consequence in one's relationships to one's out group.
+[[Rape]] - usually in the context of warfare - was common and was seen by men as a “right of domination”. Rape in the sense of "abduction" followed by consensual lovemaking was represented even in religion: [[Zeus]] was said to have ravished many women: Leda in the form of a swan, [[Danaë]] disguised as a golden rain, [[Alkmene]] disguised as her own husband. Zeus also ravished a boy, [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], a myth that paralleled [[Cretan pederasty|Cretan]] custom.
-A frequent locus of misconceptions in regard to Japanese sexuality is the institution of the [[geisha]]. Rather than being a prostitute, a geisha was a woman trained in arts such as music and cultured conversation, and who was available for non-sexual interactions with her male clientele. These women differed from the wives that their patrons probably had at home because, except for the geisha, women were ordinarily not expected to be prepared for anything other than the fulfillment of household duties. This limitation imposed by the normal social role of the majority of women in traditional society produced a diminution in the pursuits that those women could enjoy, but also a limitation in the ways that a man could enjoy the company of his wife. The geisha fulfilled the non-sexual social roles that ordinary women were prevented from fulfilling, and for this service they were well paid. That being said, the geisha were not deprived of opportunities to express themselves sexually and in other erotic ways. A geisha might have a patron with whom she enjoyed sexual intimacy, but this sexual role was not part of her role or responsibility as a geisha.
+==== Etruria ====
-As a superficial level, in traditional Japanese society women were expected to be highly subservient to men and especially to their husbands. So, in a socionormal description of their roles, they were little more than housekeepers and faithful sexual partners to their husbands. Their husbands, on the other hand, might consort sexually with whomever they chose outside of the family, and a major part of male social behavior involves after-work forays to places of entertainment in the company of male cohorts from the workplace -- places that might easily offer possibilities of sexual satisfaction outside the family. In the postwar period this side of Japanese society has seen some liberalization in regard to the norms imposed on women as well as an expansion of the de facto powers of women in the family and in the community that existed unacknowledged in traditional society.
+:''[[sexuality in Etruria]]''
-In the years since people first became aware of the AIDS epidemic, Japan has not suffered the high rates of disease and death that characterize, for example, some nations in Africa, some nations in Southeast Asia, etc. In 1992, the government of Japan justified its continued refusal to allow oral contraceptives to be distributed in Japan on the fear that it would lead to reduced condom use, and thus increase transmission of AIDS.
+The ancient [[Etruscans]] had very different views on sexuality, when compared with the other European ancient peoples, most of whom had inherited the Indo-European traditions and views on the gender roles.
-=== Greece ===
+Greek writers, such as [[Theopompus]] and [[Plato]] named the Etruscan 'immoral' and from their descriptions we find out that the women commonly had sex with men who were not their husbands and that in their society, children were not labelled "[[illegitimacy|illegitimate]]" just because they did not know who the father was. Theopompus also described orgiastic rituals, but it is not clear whether they were a common custom or only a minor ritual dedicated to a certain deity.
-:''[[Homosexuality in ancient Greece]]''
-In ancient [[Greece]], the [[phallus]], often in the form of a [[herma]], was an object of worship as a symbol of fertility. This finds expression in [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[sculpture]] and other artworks. One ancient Greek male idea of female sexuality was that women envied penises of males. Wives were considered as commodity and instruments for bearing legitimate children. They had to compete sexually with [[eromenoi]], [[hetaera]]s and slaves in their own homes.
-[[Homosexuality]], in the form of [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederasty]], was a social institution in ancient Greece, and was integral to education, art, religion, and politics. Relationships between adults were not unknown but they were disfavored. [[Lesbian]] relations were also of a pederastic nature.
+==== Rome ====
+:''[[sexuality in ancient Rome]]''
-Ancient Greek men believed that refined [[prostitution]] was necessary for pleasure and different classes of prostitutes were available. Hetaera, educated and intelligent companions, were for intellectual as well as physical pleasure, [[Peripatetic]] prostitutes solicited business on the streets, whereas temple or consecrated prostitutes charged a higher price. In [[Corinth]], a port city, on the [[Aegean Sea]], the temple held a thousand consecrated prostitutes.
+The [[Roman citizenship|citizen]]'s duty to control his body was central to the concept of [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Male sexuality|male sexuality]] in the [[Roman Republic]]. "Virtue" ''([[virtus (virtue)|virtus]]'', from ''vir'', "man") was equated with "manliness." The equivalent virtue for [[Women in Ancient Rome|female citizens]] of good social standing was ''[[pudicitia]]'', a form of sexual integrity that displayed their attractiveness and self-control. [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Female sexuality|Female sexuality]] was encouraged [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Marital sex|within marriage]]. In [[paterfamilias|Roman patriarchal society]], a "real man" was supposed to govern both himself and others well, and should not submit to the use or pleasure of others. [[Homosexuality in ancient Rome|Same-sex behaviors]] were not perceived as diminishing a Roman's masculinity, as long as he played the penetrative or dominating role. Acceptable male partners were social inferiors such as [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Pleasure and infamy|prostitutes, entertainers]], and [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Master-slave relations|slaves]]. [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Sexuality and children|Sex with freeborn male minors]] was formally prohibited (see ''[[Lex Scantinia]]''). "Homosexual" and "heterosexual" thus did not form the primary dichotomy of Roman thinking about sexuality, and no [[Latin]] words for these concepts exist.
-[[Rape]] - usually in the context of warfare - was common and was seen by men as a “right of domination”. Rape in the sense of "abduction" followed by consensual lovemaking was represented even in religion: [[Zeus]] was said to have ravished many women: [[Leda]] in the form of a swan, [[Danaë]] disguised as a golden rain, [[Alkmene]] disguised as her own husband. Zeus also ravished a boy, [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], a myth that paralleled [[Cretan pederasty|Cretan]] custom.
+Depictions of frank sexuality are abundant in [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Erotic literature and art|Roman literature and art]]. The ''[[fascinum]]'', a [[phallic]] charm, was a [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Phallic sexuality|ubiquitous decoration]]. [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Sex acts and positions|Sexual positions and scenarios]] are depicted in great variety among the [[Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum|wall paintings preserved at Pompeii and Herculaneum]]. Collections of poetry celebrated love affairs, and ''[[Ars Amatoria|The Art of Love]]'' by the [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan poet]] [[Ovid]] playfully instructed both men and women in how to attract and enjoy lovers. Elaborate theories of human sexuality based on [[ancient Greek philosophy|Greek philosophy]] were developed by thinkers such as [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Epicurean sexuality|Lucretius]] and [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Stoic sexual morality|Seneca]]. [[Classical mythology|Classical myths]] often deal with sexual themes such as [[gender identity]], [[adultery]], [[incest]], and [[rape]].
-=== Etruria ===
+Like other aspects of Roman life, sexuality was supported and regulated by [[Religion in ancient Rome|traditional Roman religion]], both the [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Sex, religion and the state|public cult of the state]] and [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Healing and magic|private religious practices and magic]]. [[Cicero]] held that the desire to procreate ''([[libido]])'' was "the seedbed of the republic," as it was the cause for the first form of social institution, [[Marriage in ancient Rome|marriage]], which in turn created the family, regarded by the Romans as the building block of civilization. [[Roman law]] penalized sex crimes ''([[stuprum]])'', particularly [[History of rape#Ancient Rome|rape]], as well as [[Marriage in ancient Rome#Adultery|adultery]]. A Roman husband, however, committed the crime of adultery only when his sexual partner was a married woman.
-The ancient [[Etruscans]] had very different views on sexuality, when compared with the other European ancient peoples, most of whom had inherited the Indo-European traditions and views on the gender roles.
-Greek writers, such as [[Theopompus]] and [[Plato]] named the Etruscan 'immoral' and from their descriptions we find out that the women commonly had sex with men who were not their husbands and that in their society, children were not labelled "[[illegitimacy|illegitimate]]" just because they did not know who the father was. Theopompus also described orgiastic rituals, but it is not clear whether they were a common custom or only a minor ritual dedicated to a certain deity.
+[[Prostitution in ancient Rome|Prostitution]] was legal, public, and widespread. Entertainers of any gender were assumed to be sexually available (see ''[[infamia]]''), and [[gladiator]]s were sexually [[Glamour (presentation)|glamorous]]. [[Slavery in ancient Rome|Slaves]] lacked [[legal person]]hood, and were vulnerable to [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Master-slave relations|sexual exploitation]].:)
-=== Rome ===
+The dissolution of Republican ideals of physical integrity in relation to political liberty contributes to and is reflected by the sexual license and decadence associated with the [[Roman Empire]]. Anxieties about the loss of liberty and the subordination of the citizen to the emperor were expressed by a perceived increase in passive homosexual behavior among free men. [[Sexuality in ancient Rome#Sexual conquest and imperialism|Sexual conquest]] was a frequent metaphor for Roman imperialism.
-{{See also|Homosexuality in ancient Rome}}
-The sexual atmosphere in the earlier stages of Roman civilization included celebrations associated with human reproductive organs. Over time there emerged institutionalization of voluntary sex as well as prostitution. This resulted in a virtual sexual caste system in Roman civilization – different grades and degrees of sexual relationships. Apart from the legally wedded spouses, a number of males used to have [[Delicatue]], the kept mistresses of wealthy and prominent men. The next were the [[Famosae]] (literal meaning: soiled doves from respectable family), mostly the daughters and even wives of the wealthy families who enjoyed sex for its own sake. Then, there was another class known as [[Lupae]], who were willing to have sexual union with anyone for a price. Copae (literal meaning: bar maids) were the serving girls in the taverns and inns and who did not mind being hired as bedmates for the night by travelers. Handsome adolescent menservants known as [[Concubinage#Concubinus|concubini]] would serve their master in bed, until they matured and fell into disfavor.
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-==== The Middle Ages ====
-==== Renaissance ====
-==== 19th Century ====
-==== Early Twentieth Century ====
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-=== Africa ===
-=== Middle East ===
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 ==The sexual revolution ==
 ==Psychology and sex==
-Especially before the development of dependable methods of contraception, the control of sexual behavior was of extreme practical importance to parents in some societies. The methodologies employed by parents to try to prevent their children from prematurely becoming parents themselves could have a profound effect on the minds of those children. In some societies, guilt was inculcated in an attempt to prevent premarital sexual activity, and the guilt could contaminate the entire self image of the individuals who, after all, were biologically predetermined to have the "guilty" sexual impulses that their families (and, usually, their religions) were trying to head off. {{Fact|date=May 2008}} {{POV-statement|date=May 2008}} In other societies, shaming was done with the same goals and with similar psychological damage possible.
+:''[[psychology and sex]]''
+Especially before the development of dependable methods of contraception, the control of sexual behavior was of extreme practical importance to parents in some societies. The methodologies employed by parents to try to prevent their children from prematurely becoming parents themselves could have a profound effect on the minds of those children. In some societies, guilt was inculcated in an attempt to prevent premarital sexual activity, and the guilt could contaminate the entire self image of the individuals who, after all, were biologically predetermined to have the "guilty" sexual impulses that their families (and, usually, their religions) were trying to head off. In other societies, shaming was done with the same goals and with similar psychological damage possible.
 The ability to function sexually depends a great deal on activities that occur not in the sexual organs but in the brain. When the individual has been psychologically traumatized by abusive practices intended to control premarital sexual activities, he or she may be unable to perform well even after marriage has presumably legitimized sexual intercourse. Dysfunctions for males may include: inability to achieve an erection, penile insensitivity, [[premature ejaculation]], etc. For the female they may include: [[frigidity]], inability to achieve orgasm, [[vaginismus]], etc. These problems may lead to secondary problems if, for instance, affected individuals self medicate with [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] (in the case of premature ejaculation), or even more dangerous drugs.
 The treatment of sexual dysfunctions and the problems of low self esteem, guilt, self-destructive impulses, etc., has been one of the main activities of helping professions such as psychiatry, clinical psychology, etc.
-==Same-sex relations==
+==Same-sex relations in various cultures==
-=== Historiographic considerations ===
+:''[[same-sex relations in various cultures]]''
-Interestingly, while the reverse is often not true, much of the history of different-gender sexuality and romance may be read from the history of same-sex sexuality and romance. The term "homosexuality" was invented in the 19th century, with the term "heterosexuality"  invented later in the same century to contrast with the earlier term. The term "bisexuality" was invented in the 20th century as sexual identities became defined by the predominate sex to which people are attracted and thus a label was needed for those who are not predominantly attracted to one sex. This points out that the history of sexuality is not solely the history of different-sex sexuality plus the history of same-sex sexuality, but a broader conception viewing of historical events in light of our modern concept or concepts of sexuality taken at its most broad and/or literal definitions.
-Historical personalities are often described using modern sexual identity terms such as ''straight'', ''[[bisexuality|bisexual]]'', ''[[gay]]'' or ''[[queer]]''. Those who favour the practice say that this can highlight such issues as discriminatory historiography by, for example, putting into relief the extent to which same-sex sexual experiences are excluded from biographies of noted figures, or to which sensibilities resulting from same-sex attraction are excluded from literary and artistic consideration of important works, and so on.
-However, many, especially in the academic world, regard the use of modern labels as problematic, owing to differences in the ways that different societies constructed sexual orientation identities and to the connotations of modern words like "queer." For example, in many societies same-sex sex acts were expected, or completely ignored, and no identity was constructed on their basis at all. Academic works usually specify which words will be used and in which context. Readers are cautioned to avoid making assumptions about the identity of historical figures based on the use of the terms mentioned above.
-==== Ancient Egypt ====
-[[Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum]] are considered by many to be the first male couple in recorded history. They shared the title of Overseer of the Manicurists in the Palace of King [[Niussere]] during the [[Fifth Dynasty]] of Egyptian pharaohs, and are listed as "royal confidantes" in their joint tomb.
-==== Ancient Greece ====
-Greek men had great latitude in their sexual expression, while their wives were severely restricted and could hardly move about the town unsupervised. It was said that a woman could travel about town freely only if she was old enough that people would ask not whose wife she was, but whose mother.
-Unmarried adult women had more freedom, but often had to sell their favors to survive. Besides the common prostitutes there was a class of highly educated and paid entertainers known as [[hetaera|hetairas]] who frequented men's [[symposium|symposia]], drank with them, debated politics and philosophy with them, and slept with them.
-Men could also seek adolescent boys as partners as shown by some of the earliest documents concerning same-sex [[pederasty|pederastic]] relationships, which come from [[Ancient Greece]]. Often they were favored over women. One ancient saying claimed that "Women are for business, boys are for pleasure." Though slave boys could be bought, free boys had to be courted, and ancient materials suggest that the father also had to consent to the relationship. Such relationships did not replace marriage between man and woman, but occurred before and concurrent with it. A mature man would usually not have a mature male mate, though there frequent exceptions (among whom [[Alexander the Great]]) but he would be the ''erastes'' (lover) to a young ''eromenos'' (loved one). Dover suggests that it was considered improper for the eromenos to feel desire, as that would not be masculine. Driven by desire and admiration, the erastes would devote himself unselfishly to providing all the education his eromenos required to thrive in society. In recent times, Dover's theory has been [[#Outside Reading|questioned]] in light of massive evidence of ancient art and love poetry that suggests a more emotional connection than earlier researchers liked to acknowledge. Some research has shown that ancient Greeks believed semen to be the source of knowledge, and that these relationships served to pass wisdom on from the erastes to the eromenos.
-==== Ancient Rome ====
-:''The deification of Antinous, his medals, statues, temples, city, oracles, and constellation, are well known, and still dishonor the memory of Hadrian. Yet we remark, that, of the first fifteen emperors, Claudius was the only one whose taste in love was entirely correct.'' --[[Edward Gibbon]]
-*[[Tiberius]]
-*[[Caligula]] and Lepidus
-*[[Nero]] and Sporus
-*[[Otho]]
-*[[Elagabalus]]
-*[[Hadrian]] and Antinous
-*[[Trajan]]
-It was said by some that [[Julius Caesar]], at the age of twenty, had an affair with King Nicomedes of Bithynia. Of his tastes, a political opponent once said that "He is every woman's man and every man's woman."
-==== The Middle Ages ====
-[[Image:Burning of Sodomites.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Two male lovers are burned at the stake, Zurich 1482 (Zurich Central Library)]]
-Through the medieval period, homosexuality was condemned and thought to be the moral of the story of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]]. Historians debate if there were any prominent homosexuals and bisexuals at this time, but it is argued that figures such as [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], [[Richard the Lionheart]], [[Philip II Augustus]], and [[William Rufus]] were engaged in same-sex relationships.
-==== Renaissance ====
-[[Chaucer]]'s Pardoner [http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~laa14/sourcebook/mac-pard.htm]
-==== 19th century ====
-*[[Oscar Wilde]]
-*[[Boston marriage]]
-*[[Edward Carpenter]]
-*[[Public school (UK)#Terminology|The single-sex public school]]
-*[[Seafarer]]s
-==== Early twentieth century ====
-For events in [[Germany]] see the articles on [[Magnus Hirschfeld]] and [[History of Gays during the Holocaust]].
-=== China ===
-*See [[Homosexuality in China]].
-*"[[Passion of the cut sleeve]]" - [[Emperor Ai of Han China]] and [[Dong Xian]]
-*"[[Passion of the half-eaten peach]]  [[Ling]] (534 - 493 B.C.E.) and [[Mizi Xia]]
-=== Japan ===
-:[[Homosexuality in Japan]]
-=== Wolfenden Report ===
-:[[Wolfenden report]]
-=== Psychiatry ===
-Freud, among others, argued that neither predominantly different- nor same-sex sexuality were the norm, instead that what is called "bisexuality" is the normal human condition thwarted by society. A 1901 medical dictionary lists ''heterosexuality'' as "perverted" different-sex attraction, while by the 1960s its use in all forums referred to "normal" different-sex sexuality.
-In 1948 [[Alfred Kinsey]] publishes ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'', popularly known as the [[Kinsey Reports]].
-Homosexuality was deemed to be a psychiatric disorder for many years, although the studies this theory was based on were later determined to be flawed. In 1973 homosexuality was declassified as a mental illness in the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1986 all references to homosexuality as a psychiatric disorder were removed from the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM) of the [[American Psychiatric Association]].
-=== The sexual revolution ===
-During the [[Sexual Revolution]], the different-sex sexual ideal became completely separated from procreation, yet at the same time was distanced from same-sex sexuality. Many people viewed this freeing of different-sex sexuality as leading to more freedom for same-sex sexuality.
-=== Gay-rights movement ===
-''See also [[Gay rights]], [[Timeline of LGBT history]] and [[:Category:LGBT history]].''
-==== Stonewall riots ====
-:''[[Stonewall riots]]''
-The Stonewall riots were a series of violent conflicts between New York City police officers and the gay men and transgender women at the Stonewall Inn, a gay hangout in [[Greenwich Village]]. The riot began on Friday, [[June 27]], [[1969]]. "Stonewall", as it is often called, is considered the start of the modern [[gay rights movement]] in the [[United States|U.S.]] and worldwide. It was the first time any significant body of gays resisted arrest. For many, this is the primal scene of the modern gay rights movement, although some advances in gay rights had taken place previously (Canada had legalized [[sodomy]] earlier that year, whereas France had legalized it in the 18th century).
 ==Religion and sex==
+:''[[religion and sexuality]]''
 Although not the case in every culture, most religious practices contain taboos in regard to sex, [[sex organ]]s and the reproductive process.
-===Judaism===
-In Jewish law, sex is not considered intrinsically sinful or shameful when conducted in marriage, nor is it a necessary evil for the purpose of procreation. Sex is considered a private and holy act between a husband and wife. Certain deviant sexual practices, enumerated below, were considered gravely immoral "abominations" sometimes punishable by death. The residue of sex (as with any lost bodily fluid) was considered ritually unclean outside the body, and required [[ablution]].
-Recently, some scholars have questioned whether the Old Testament banned all forms of homosexuality, raising issues of translation and references to ancient cultural practices. However, rabbinic Judaism had unambiguously condemned homosexuality.
-====Mosaic law====
-*''And God blessed them, and God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it, and rule over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the sky and over all the beasts that tread upon the earth.'' (Genesis 1:28)
-The [[Torah]], while being quite frank in its description of various sexual acts, forbids certain relationships. Namely, [[adultery]], all forms of [[incest]], male [[homosexuality]], [[bestiality]], and introduced the idea that one should not have sex during the wife's [[Menstrual cycle|period]]:
-*''You shall not lie carnally with your neighbor's wife, to become defiled by her.'' (Lev. 18:20)
-*''Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind: it is abomination.'' (Lev. 18:22)
-*''And with no animal shall you cohabit, to become defiled by it. And a woman shall not stand in front of an animal to cohabit with it; this is depravity.'' (Lev. 18:23)
-*''And to a woman during the uncleanness of her separation, you shall not come near to uncover her nakedness.'' (Lev. 18:19)
-The above passages may, however, open to modern interpretation.  The original meanings of these verses did not change, but their interpretation may have changed after they were translated into English and other languages.
-===Christianity===
-Christianity supplemented the Jewish attitudes on sexuality with two new concepts. First, there was the idea that marriage was absolutely exclusive and indissoluble, thereby restricting the sphere of sexual activity and eliminating the husband's ability to divorce at will. Second, there was the notion of virginity as a moral ideal, rendering marital sexuality as a sort of concession to carnal weakness and the necessity of procreation.
-=====New Testament=====
-The [[Council of Jerusalem]] decided that, although [[Jesus]] may have admonished Jews to keep to their traditions and laws, these were not required of [[gentiles]] converting to Christianity, who did not, for instance, need to be circumcised, and could continue to consume shellfish. The Council's final communication to the various gentiles' churches was,
-:''That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well. Fare ye well.''
-:::Acts 15:29
-It is unclear exactly which sexual practices are considered ''[[fornication]]'' (sometimes translated as ''sexual immorality''). Throughout the New Testament, there are scattered injunctions against adultery, promiscuity, homosexuality, and incest, consistent with earlier Jewish ethics supplemented by the Christian emphasis on chastity.
-*It is good for a man not to touch a woman. (1 Corinthians 7:1 ([[King James Version|KJV]]))
-*They that have wives be as though they had none; (1 Corinthians 7:29)
-=====Later Christian Thought=====
-A general consensus developed in medieval Christianity that sexual acts were at least mildly sinful, owing to the necessary lust involved in the act. Nonetheless, marital relations were encouraged as an antidote to temptations to promiscuity and other sexual sins. St. [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] opined that before Adam's fall, there was no lust in the sexual act, but it was entirely subordinate to human reason. Later theologians similarly concluded that the lust involved in sexuality was a result of [[original sin]], but nearly all agreed that this was only a venial sin if conducted within marriage without inordinate lust.
-In the modern era, many Christians have adopted the view that there is no sin whatsoever in the uninhibited enjoyment of marital relations. More traditional Christians will tend to limit the circumstances and degree to which sexual pleasure is morally licit.
-===Hinduism===
-In India, [[Hinduism]] accepted an open attitude towards sex as an art, science and spiritual practice. The most famous pieces of Indian literature on sex are [[Kamasutra]] (Aphorisms on Love) and [[Kamashastra]] (from Kama = pleasure, shastra = specialised knowledge or technique). This collection of explicit sexual writings, both spiritual and practical, covers most aspects of human courtship and sexual intercourse. It was put together in this form by the sage [[Vatsyayana]] from a 150 chapter manuscript that had itself been distilled from 300 chapters that had in turn come from a compilation of some 100,000 chapters of text. The Kamasutra is thought to have been written in its final form sometime between the third and fifth century AD.
-Also notable are the sculptures carved on temples in India, particularly the [[Khajuraho]] temple. The frank depiction of uninhibited sex hints towards a liberated society and times where people believed in dealing openly with all aspects of life. On the other hand, a group of thinkers believe that depiction of sexually implicit carvings outside the temples indicate that one should enter the temples leaving desires (kama).
-Apart from Vatsyayana's Kamashastra, which is no doubt the most famous of all such writings, there exist a number of other books, for example:
-*The ''[[Ratirahasya]]'', literal translation - secrets (rahasya) of love (rati, the union);
-*The ''[[Panchasakya]]'', or the five (panch) arrows (sakya);
-*The ''[[Ratimanjari]]'', or the garland (manjari) of love (rati, the union)
-*The ''[[Anunga Runga]]'', or the stage of love.
-The ''Secrets of Love'' was written by a poet named Kukkoka. He is believed to have written this treatise on his work to please one Venudutta, considered to be a king. This work was translated into Hindi years ago and the author's name became Koka in short and the book he wrote was called ''Koka Shastra''. The same name crept into all the translations into other languages in India. ''Koka Shastra'' literally means doctrines of Koka, which is identical with the ''Kama Shastra'', or doctrines of love, and the names ''Koka Shastra'' and ''Kama Shastra'' are used indiscriminately.
-===Islam===
-In Islam sexual intercourse is allowed only after marriage and only with one's spouse. Sex outside of marriage, called zina, is considered a sin and strictly prohibited. According to the chapter Al-Israa', verse 32 of the Qur'an, Allah (God) prohibits Muslims from getting close to (engaging in) zina.
 ==Politics of sex==
+:''[[sexual ethics]]''
 With the rise of [[government]] and [[law]]s, personal behaviors, including sex, became increasingly politicized.
 ==Abortion==
-{{main|Abortion}}
+:''[[Abortion]]''
 '''Abortion''' is a means of ending a pregnancy, practiced since antiquity. Its legality has varied from country to country. At the present time it is, particularly in the US, the subject of vigorous debate in political and religious circles due to claimed conflicts with the definition of life, issues of personal freedom, and other beliefs.
 For much of human history, sexually transmitted diseases have been the scourge of humanity. They raged unchecked through society until the discovery of [[antibiotics]]. For a period of about thirty years (in the second half of the twentieth century) their threat subsided. However, due to the free movement of people and the lack of sexual hygiene in certain groups, new diseases resistant to antibiotics quickly spread and at the present time pose a threat to people who are sexually active.
-{{main|sexually transmitted diseases}}''
+:''[[sexually transmitted diseases]]''
 === AIDS ===
 Further effects of this disease run deep, radically impacting the average lifespan of afflicted countries. So stark is the difference that BBC News reports: "It is falling in many African countries - a girl born today in [[Sierra Leone]] could expect only to live to 36, in contrast to [[Japan]], where today's newborn girl might reach 85 on average." [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3330155.stm]
-{{main|AIDS}}
-==Outside Reading==
-===Ancient Greece===
-*Hubbard, Thomas K. (ed.) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520234308 ''Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents''], University of California Press, 2003.
-===Homosexuality===
-*{{cite book | last = Cante | first = Richard C. | title = Gay Men and the Forms of Contemporary US Culture | publisher = Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0 7546 7230 1 | month = March | year = 2008 | location = London}}
-===History of Sexual Underworlds===
-*George Rousseau and Roy Porter. ''Sexual Underworlds of the Enlightenment'' (Chapel Hill:  The University of North Carolina Press, 1987). ISBN 0-7190-1961-3
-===The History of Sexuality===
-*Foucault, Michel. ''The History of Sexuality'', Volumes 1, 2 and 3. New York: Vintage Books, 1990. ISBN 0-679-72469-9
 ==See also==
-*[[Historical pederastic couples]]
 *[[History of feminism]]
 *[[The History of Sexuality]] (book series)
 *[[Bisexuality]]
 *[[Timeline of LGBT history]]
-*[[Transvestophilia]]
 == See also ==
+:''[[world erotica]]''
 *''[[Geneanthropeia]]''
 * ''[[Psychopathia Sexualis]]''
-* ''[[The History of Sexuality]]''
+* ''[[The History of Sexuality]]'' by [[Michel Foucault]]
-* ''[[Sex in History]]''
+* ''[[Sex in History]]'' by [[Gordon Rattray Taylor]]
 {{GFDL}}

Type	Attribute	Sub-attribute	AT	PT	Permitted	Not Permitted
Partner	Specie		R	Same	Human	Non-human. Sex with animals i. e. zoophilia
	__State		R	Same	Living	Dead. Sex with the dead i. e. necrophilia
	____Group	Sex	R	Opposite	A partner with a sex different from one's own. Sex with a partner with a sex different from one's own i. e. heterosexual sex.	A partner from one's own sex. Sex with a partner from one's own sex i. e. homosexual sex
	____Group	Family	R	Opposite		A partner from one's own family. Sex with a partner from one's own family i. e. incest
	____Age	Adulthood with respect to the age of consent	R	Same	A partner with age >= the age of consent	A partner with age < the age of consent. Sex with a partner with age < the age of consent i. e. pedophilia
	____Group	Race, religion, caste, creed, community, etc.	R	Same	A partner from a group same as one's own	A partner from a group different from one's own
	____Number	At a single sexual encounter	R	Same	One	Opposite i. e. many
	____Number	In a particular period in life	R	Same	One i. e. monogamy (monandry, monogyny) or many i. e. polygamy (polyandry, polygyny))	Many i. e. polygamy (polyandry, polygyny))
	____Number	In different periods in life	R	Same	One i. e. serial monogamy (monandry, monogyny) or many i. e. polygamy (polyandry, polygyny))	Many polygamy (polyandry, polygyny))
	____Age	Relative	R			E. g. a woman elder than a man.
	____Time					E. g. a menstruating woman
Activity					Genital-genital intercourse

History of human sexuality

From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia

Current revision

Contents

Sources

Reproduction and cultural gender roles

Sex in various cultures

India

Mesopotamia

China

Japan

Classical antiquity

Greece

Etruria

Rome

The sexual revolution

Psychology and sex

Same-sex relations in various cultures

Religion and sex

Politics of sex

Technology and sex

Recreational uses

Birth control

Technology and infertility

Pederasty

Zoosexuality

Prostitution

Abortion

Sexually transmitted diseases

AIDS

See also

Sexual orientation

See also

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