Agrarian system
From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
(Difference between revisions)
| Revision as of 20:32, 21 June 2017 Jahsonic (Talk | contribs) ← Previous diff |
Revision as of 20:33, 21 June 2017 Jahsonic (Talk | contribs) Next diff → |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{Template}} | {{Template}} | ||
| + | {{farming}} | ||
| + | An '''agrarian system''' is the dynamic set of economic and technological factors that affect [[agriculture|agricultural]] practices. It is premised on the idea that different systems have developed depending on the natural and social conditions specific to a particular region. Political factors also have a bearing on an agrarian system due to issues such as [[land ownership]], [[labor organization]], and forms of [[Plant cultivation|cultivation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.professor-frithjof-kuhnen.de/publications/man-and-land/1-2.htm |title=Agrarian Systems |accessdate=2008-07-19 |work= }}</ref> | ||
| - | '''Social cycle theories''' are among the earliest [[social theories]] in [[sociology]]. Unlike the theory of [[social evolutionism]], which views the [[evolution of society]] and [[human history]] as progressing in some new, unique direction(s), sociological cycle theory argues that events and stages of society and history are generally repeating themselves in cycles. Such a theory does not necessarily imply that there cannot be any [[social progress]]. In the early theory of [[Sima Qian]] and the more recent theories of long-term ("secular") political-demographic cycles as well as in the [[Law of Social Cycle|Varnic theory]] of [[P.R. Sarkar]] an explicit accounting is made of social progress. | + | As [[food security]] has become more important, mostly due to the explosive [[population growth]] during the 20th century, the efficiency of agrarian systems has come under greater [[agrarian reform|review]]. |
| - | ==Historical forerunners== | + | ==Types== |
| - | Interpretation of [[history]] as repeating cycles of Dark and Golden Ages was a common belief among ancient cultures. | + | {{main|Agrarian society}} |
| + | The basis for a prevailing agrarian system may be derived from one of a number of major types, including [[agrarianism|agrarian]] social structure, for example, [[tribe|tribal]] or ethnic divisions, [[feudal]] classes or family based systems. Farming methods such as migratory [[herding]] of [[livestock]] are a common framework for which an agrarian system may evolve. Other important kinds of system are based on the dominant political ideology such as [[communism]] or [[agrarian socialism]]. | ||
| - | The more limited cyclical view of history defined as repeating cycles of events was put forward in the academic world in the 19th century in [[historiosophy]] (a branch of [[historiography]]) and is a concept that falls under the category of [[sociology]]. However, [[Polybius]], [[Ibn Khaldun]] (see [[Asabiyyah]]), and [[Giambattista Vico]] can be seen as precursors of this analysis. The [[Saeculum]] was identified in Roman times. In recent times, P. R. Sarkar in his [[Social cycle theory (Sarkar)|Social Cycle Theory]] has used this idea to elaborate his interpretation of history. | + | Europe is dominated by [[mixed farming]].<ref name="ahs">{{cite book |title=The Agrarian History of Sweden: From 4000 BC to AD 2000 |last=Myrdal |first=Janken |author2=Mats Morell |year=2011|publisher=Nordic Academic Press |isbn=9185509566 |pages=265–266 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3zMh4zpjpQC |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> This has meant careful management of [[tillage]] practices and good tools and implements were important. China developed an agrarian system based on [[Labor intensity|labor-intensive]] [[Paddy field|wet rice]] cultivation where skill was paramount.<ref name="ahs"/> |
| - | ==19th and 20th century theories== | + | {{see also|Collective farming|Community-supported agriculture}} |
| - | Among the prominent historiosophers<!--(?) (removed the question mark from the article, "historiosopher" yields a bunch of results on google, for whatever it's worth. if the term is correct feel free to remove this comment)-->, [[Russia]]n philosopher [[Nikolai Danilewski]] (1822–1885) is important. In ''Rossiia i Evropa'' (1869) he differentiated between various smaller [[civilization]]s (Egyptian, Chinese, Persian, Greek, Roman, German, and Slav, among others). He wrote that each civilization has a life cycle, and by the end of the 19th century the Roman-German civilization was in decline, while the Slav civilization was approaching its [[Golden Age]]. A similar theory was put forward by [[Oswald Spengler]] (1880–1936) who in his ''[[The Decline of the West|Der Untergang des Abendlandes]]'' (1918) also argued that the [[western world|Western civilization]] had entered its final phase of development and its decline was inevitable. | + | |
| - | The first social cycle theory in sociology was created by [[Italy|Italian]] sociologist and economist [[Vilfredo Pareto]] (1848–1923) in his ''Trattato di Sociologia Generale'' (1916). He centered his theory on the concept of an [[elite]] [[social class]], which he divided into cunning 'foxes' and violent 'lions'. In his view of society, the [[power (sociology)|power]] constantly passes from the 'foxes' to the 'lions' and vice versa. | + | ==Regional examples== |
| + | The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] agrarian system was based around the [[Tapu (Ottoman history)|tapu]], which involved a permanent lease of [[state-owned]] [[arable land]] to a [[peasant]] family. In Haiti there was a [[Social class in Haiti|social system]] based on collective labor teams, called kounbit, where farms were run by nuclear families and exchanges. This was replaced by smaller groups, called eskouad, who operated on a reciprocal basis or conducted collective labor to other peasants for a price.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/httoc.html |title=A Country Study: Haiti |accessdate=2008-07-19 |work= | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080711071105/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/httoc.html| archivedate= 11 July 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> | ||
| - | Sociological cycle theory was also developed by [[Pitirim A. Sorokin]] (1889–1968) in his ''Social and Cultural Dynamics'' (1937, 1943). He classified societies according to their 'cultural mentality', which can be ideational (reality is spiritual), sensate (reality is material), or idealistic (a synthesis of the two). He interpreted the contemporary West as a sensate civilization dedicated to [[technological progress]] and prophesied its fall into decadence and the emergence of a new ideational or idealistic era. | + | In the 20th century the distribution of [[Land tenure|land ownership]] in rural [[Egypt]] had become grossly unequal.<ref name="ace">{{cite book |title=Agrarian Change in Egypt: An Anatomy of Rural Poverty |last=Muḥammad Raḍwān |first=Samīr |author2=Eddy L. Lee |year=1986 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0709942141 |pages=6–9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m74OAAAAQAAJ |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> An overwhelming majority of land owners possessed small parcels of land while a small minority owned large farms. Many of the rural poor were landless. By the middle of the century the calls for [[agrarian reform]] grew. [[Tenant farmer|Tenancy]] reforms, including [[rent control]] and [[minimum wage]] legislation were enacted with mixed results.<ref name="ace"/> |
| - | [[Alexandre Deulofeu]] (1903–1978) developed a mathematical model of social cycles that he claimed fit historical facts. He argued that civilizations and empires go through cycles in his book ''Mathematics of History'' (in [[Catalan language|Catalan]], published in 1951). He claims that each civilization passes through a minimum of three 1700-year cycles. As part of civilizations, empires have an average lifespan of 550 years. He also stated that by knowing the nature of these cycles, it could be possible to modify the cycles in such a way that change could be peaceful instead of leading to war. Deulofeu believed he had found the origin of [[Romanesque art]], during the 9th century, in an area between [[Empordà]] and [[Roussillon]], which he argued was the cradle of the second cycle of western European civilization. | + | In [[Nigeria]], the [[Igbo people]] developed an agrarian system in which some farmers became traders. Their emphasis on small-scale, [[entrepreneur]]ial capitalism was fundamental to [[Nigeria#Independence|Nigerian Independence]].<ref name="cps">{{cite book |title=Comparative Political Systems: Policy Performance and Social Change |last=Charles F. |first=Andrain |year=1994 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=1563242818 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VTveuIHMI1cC |accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> |
| - | ==Contemporary theories== | + | ==See also== |
| - | One of the most important recent findings in the study of the long-term dynamic social processes was the discovery of the political-demographic cycles as a basic feature of the dynamics of complex [[agrarian system]]s. | + | *[[Agrarian Reform Laws of Cuba]] |
| + | *[[List of basic agriculture topics]] | ||
| + | *[[Right to food]] | ||
| + | *[[Social cycle theory]] | ||
| + | *[[Sustainable agriculture]] | ||
| + | *[[Agrarian structure]] | ||
| - | The presence of political-demographic cycles in the pre-modern history of [[Europe]] and [[China]], and in [[chiefdom]] level societies worldwide has been known for quite a long time, and already in the 1980s more or less developed [[mathematical models]] of demographic cycles started to be produced (first of all for Chinese "[[dynastic cycle]]s") (Usher 1989). At the moment we have a considerable number of such models (Chu and Lee 1994; Nefedov 1999, 2002, 2003, 2004; S. Malkov, Kovalev, and A. Malkov 2000; S. Malkov and A. Malkov 2000; Malkov and Sergeev 2002, 2004a, 2004b; Malkov et al. 2002; Malkov 2002, 2003, 2004; [[Peter Turchin|Turchin]] 2003, 2005a; [[Andrey Korotayev|Korotayev]] et al. 2006). | + | ==References== |
| - | + | {{reflist}} | |
| - | Recently the most important contributions to the development of the [[mathematical]] models of long-term ("secular") sociodemographic cycles have been made by Sergey Nefedov, [[Peter Turchin]], [[Andrey Korotayev]], and Sergey Malkov. What is important is that on the basis of their models Nefedov, Turchin and Malkov have managed to demonstrate that sociodemographic cycles were a basic feature of complex agrarian systems (and not a specifically Chinese or European phenomenon). | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The basic logic of these models is as follows: | + | |
| - | * After the population reaches the ceiling of the [[carrying capacity]] of land, its growth rate declines toward near-zero values. | + | |
| - | * The system experiences significant stress with decline in the living standards of the common population, increasing the severity of [[famine]]s, growing rebellions etc. | + | |
| - | * As has been shown by Nefedov, most complex agrarian systems had considerable reserves for stability, however, within 50–150 years these reserves were usually exhausted and the [[system]] experienced a [[demographic]] collapse (a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]), when increasingly severe famines, [[epidemics]], increasing internal [[war]]fare and other disasters led to a considerable decline of [[population]]. | + | |
| - | * As a result of this collapse, free resources became available, per capita production and consumption considerably increased, the [[population growth]] resumed and a new sociodemographic cycle started. | + | |
| - | It has become possible to model these dynamics mathematically in a rather effective way. Note that the modern theories of political-demographic cycles do not deny the presence of trend dynamics and attempt at the study of the interaction between cyclical and trend components of historical dynamics. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Modern social scientists from different fields have introduced cycle theories to predict civilizational collapses in approaches that apply contemporary methods that update the approach of [[Oswald Spengler|Spengler]], such as the work of [[Joseph Tainter]] suggesting a civilizational life-cycle. In more micro-studies that follow the work of [[Malthus]], scholars such as [[David Lempert]] have presented "alpha-helix" models of population, economics, and political response, including violence, in cyclical forms that add aspects of culture change into the model. Lempert has also modeled political violence in Russian society, suggesting that theories attributing violence in Russia to ideologies are less useful than cyclical models of population and economic productivity. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | == See also == | + | |
| - | * [[Cyclic model]] (cosmology) | + | |
| - | * [[Cyclical theory]] (American history) | + | |
| - | * [[List of cycles]] | + | |
| - | * [[Revolutionary wave]] | + | |
| + | [[Category:Agriculture]] | ||
| {{GFDL}} | {{GFDL}} | ||
Revision as of 20:33, 21 June 2017
|
Related e |
|
Featured: |
Template:Farming An agrarian system is the dynamic set of economic and technological factors that affect agricultural practices. It is premised on the idea that different systems have developed depending on the natural and social conditions specific to a particular region. Political factors also have a bearing on an agrarian system due to issues such as land ownership, labor organization, and forms of cultivation.<ref>{{
- if: {{#if: http://www.professor-frithjof-kuhnen.de/publications/man-and-land/1-2.htm | {{#if: Agrarian Systems |1}}}}
||Error on call to Template:cite web: Parameters url and title must be specified
}}{{
- if:
| {{#if: {{#if: | {{#if: |1}}}}
||Error on call to template:cite web: Parameters archiveurl and archivedate must be both specified or both omitted
}} }}{{#if:
| {{#if:
| [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if:
| {{{last}}}{{#if: | , {{{first}}} }}
| {{{author}}}
}}]]
| {{#if:
| {{{last}}}{{#if: | , {{{first}}} }}
| {{{author}}}
}}
}}
}}{{#if:
| {{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }}
}}{{#if: |
{{#if:
| ({{{date}}})
| {{#if:
| {{#if:
| ({{{month}}} {{{year}}})
| ({{{year}}})
}}
}}
|}}
}}{{#if:
| . }}{{
#if:
| {{{editor}}}:
}}{{#if:
| {{#if: | {{#if: Agrarian Systems | [{{{archiveurl}}} Agrarian Systems] }}}}
| {{#if: http://www.professor-frithjof-kuhnen.de/publications/man-and-land/1-2.htm | {{#if: Agrarian Systems | Agrarian Systems }}}}
}}{{#if: | ({{{language}}}) }}{{#if:
| ()
}}{{#if:
| . '
}}{{#if:
| {{{pages}}}
}}{{#if:
| . {{{publisher}}}{{#if:
|
| {{#if: || }}
}}
}}{{#if:
||{{#if:
| ({{{date}}})
| {{#if:
| {{#if:
| ({{{month}}} {{{year}}})
| ({{{year}}})
}}
}}
}}
}}.{{#if:
| Archived from the original on [[{{{archivedate}}}]].
}}{{#if: 2008-07-19
| Retrieved on {{#time:Y F j|2008-07-19{{#if: | , {{{accessyear}}}}}}}.
}}{{#if:
| Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}}.
}}{{#if:
| Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}.
}}{{#if:
| “{{{quote}}}”
}}</ref>
As food security has become more important, mostly due to the explosive population growth during the 20th century, the efficiency of agrarian systems has come under greater review.
Contents |
Types
-
The basis for a prevailing agrarian system may be derived from one of a number of major types, including agrarian social structure, for example, tribal or ethnic divisions, feudal classes or family based systems. Farming methods such as migratory herding of livestock are a common framework for which an agrarian system may evolve. Other important kinds of system are based on the dominant political ideology such as communism or agrarian socialism.
Europe is dominated by mixed farming.<ref name="ahs">Template:Cite book</ref> This has meant careful management of tillage practices and good tools and implements were important. China developed an agrarian system based on labor-intensive wet rice cultivation where skill was paramount.<ref name="ahs"/>
Regional examples
The Ottoman agrarian system was based around the tapu, which involved a permanent lease of state-owned arable land to a peasant family. In Haiti there was a social system based on collective labor teams, called kounbit, where farms were run by nuclear families and exchanges. This was replaced by smaller groups, called eskouad, who operated on a reciprocal basis or conducted collective labor to other peasants for a price.<ref>{{
- if: {{#if: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/httoc.html | {{#if: A Country Study: Haiti |1}}}}
||Error on call to Template:cite web: Parameters url and title must be specified
}}{{
| {{#if: {{#if: https://web.archive.org/web/20080711071105/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/httoc.html| {{#if: 11 July 2008 |1}}}} ||Error on call to template:cite web: Parameters archiveurl and archivedate must be both specified or both omitted}} }}{{#if:
| {{#if: | [[{{{authorlink}}}|{{#if: | {{{last}}}{{#if: | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }}]] | {{#if: | {{{last}}}{{#if: | , {{{first}}} }} | {{{author}}} }} }}}}{{#if:
| {{#if: | ; {{{coauthors}}} }}}}{{#if: |
{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{#if: | {{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} |}}}}{{#if:
| . }}{{ #if: | {{{editor}}}:}}{{#if: https://web.archive.org/web/20080711071105/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/httoc.html
| {{#if: https://web.archive.org/web/20080711071105/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/httoc.html | {{#if: A Country Study: Haiti | A Country Study: Haiti }}}} | {{#if: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/httoc.html | {{#if: A Country Study: Haiti | A Country Study: Haiti }}}}}}{{#if: | ({{{language}}}) }}{{#if:
| ()
}}{{#if:
| . '
}}{{#if:
| {{{pages}}}}}{{#if:
| . {{{publisher}}}{{#if: | | {{#if: || }} }}}}{{#if:
||{{#if: | ({{{date}}}) | {{#if: | {{#if: | ({{{month}}} {{{year}}}) | ({{{year}}}) }} }} }}}}.{{#if: 11 July 2008
| Archived from the original on 11 July 2008.
}}{{#if: 2008-07-19
| Retrieved on {{#time:Y F j|2008-07-19{{#if: | , {{{accessyear}}}}}}}.}}{{#if:
| Retrieved on {{{accessmonthday}}}, {{{accessyear}}}.}}{{#if:
| Retrieved on {{{accessdaymonth}}} {{{accessyear}}}.}}{{#if:
| “{{{quote}}}”}}</ref>
In the 20th century the distribution of land ownership in rural Egypt had become grossly unequal.<ref name="ace">Template:Cite book</ref> An overwhelming majority of land owners possessed small parcels of land while a small minority owned large farms. Many of the rural poor were landless. By the middle of the century the calls for agrarian reform grew. Tenancy reforms, including rent control and minimum wage legislation were enacted with mixed results.<ref name="ace"/>
In Nigeria, the Igbo people developed an agrarian system in which some farmers became traders. Their emphasis on small-scale, entrepreneurial capitalism was fundamental to Nigerian Independence.<ref name="cps">Template:Cite book</ref>
See also
- Agrarian Reform Laws of Cuba
- List of basic agriculture topics
- Right to food
- Social cycle theory
- Sustainable agriculture
- Agrarian structure
References
Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "Agrarian system" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.
