Dissection  

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 +"I wanted to [[Anthropology|study man]] thoroughly, to [[dissection|dissect]] him [[fiber|fibre]] by fibre with an inexorable [[scalpel]], and to watch him, alive and [[palpitation|palpitating]], on my [[dissecting-table]]."--''[[Mademoiselle de Maupin (novel)|Mademoiselle de Maupin]]'' (1835) by Théophile Gautier
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{{Template}} {{Template}}
-[[Copernicus]] and [[Galileo]]. In his 1991 survey of these developments, Charles Van Doren considers that the Copernican revolution really is the Galilean cartesian ([[René Descartes]]) revolution, on account of the nature of the courage and depth of change their work brought about. 
- 
-The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of [[astronomy]], [[physics]], [[biology]], and [[anatomy]]. With the publication of [[Vesalius]]'s ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'', a new confidence was placed in the role of [[dissection]], observation, and a [[Mechanical philosophy|mechanistic]] view of anatomy. 
- 
-===Religion=== 
-The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against a [[Christian]] backdrop, especially in the [[Northern Renaissance]]. Indeed, much (if not most) of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]]. However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary [[theology]], particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God. Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including [[Erasmus]], [[Zwingli]], [[Thomas More]], [[Martin Luther]], and [[John Calvin]].  
- 
-The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The late [[Middle Ages]] saw a period of political intrigue surrounding the [[Papacy]], culminating in the [[Western Schism]], in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true [[Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]]. While the schism was resolved by the [[Council of Constance]] (1414), the 15th century saw a resulting reform movement know as [[Conciliarism]], which sought to limit the pope's power. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran]] (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of [[Pope Alexander VI]], who was accused variously of [[simony]], [[nepotism]] and fathering four [[illegitimate]] children whilst Pope, whom he married off to gain more power. 
-Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist [[textual criticism]] of the [[New Testament]]. Indeed, it was Luther who in October 1517 published the [[95 Theses]], challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to its sale of [[indulgences]]. The 95 Theses led to the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in [[Western Europe]]. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.+'''Dissection''' (also called '''anatomization''') is the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the functions and relationships of its components.
-===Self-awareness===+==In biology==
-By the 15th century, writers, artists and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place and were using phrases like ''modi antichi'' (in the antique manner) or ''alle romana et alla antica'' (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their work. The term ''la rinascita'' first appeared, however, in its broad sense in [[Giorgio Vasari]]'s ''[[Vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani]]'' (The Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568). Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains [[Cimabue]], [[Giotto]], and [[Arnolfo di Cambio]]; the second phase contains [[Masaccio]], [[Brunelleschi]], and [[Donatello]]; the third centers on [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and culminates with [[Michelangelo]]. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.+Dissection is usually applied to the examination of plants and animals. The term is also used in relation to mechanisms, computer programs, written materials, etc., as a synonym for terms such as [[reverse engineering]] or [[deconstruction|literary deconstruction]]. Dissection is usually performed by students in courses of [[biology]], [[botany]] and [[anatomy]] and in association with [[medical]] and [[arts]] studies.
-==Spread==+[[Vivisection]] refers to the dissection of a living animal, often for the purposes of [[physiology|physiological]] investigation and nowadays usually under heavy sedation. However, the term is no longer widely used, in part because more sophisticated techniques have superseded it for many applications. The term is now almost entirely used in a pejorative sense by those who oppose [[animal testing]] of any sort.
-:''[[Spread of the Renaissance]]''+
-In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread with great speed from its birthplace in Florence, first to the rest of Italy, and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the [[printing press]] allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements.+Dissection is often performed as a part of determining a cause of death in [[autopsy]] (on humans) and [[necropsy]] (on animals) and is an intrinsic part of [[forensic]] medicine, such as would be practiced by a [[coroner]].
-==Historiography==+==History==
-===Conception===+Human dissections were carried out by the [[Ancient Greek medicine|Greek physicians]] [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]] and [[Erasistratus of Chios]] in the early part of the third century BC. Before and after this time investigators appeared to largely limit themselves to animals. [[Roman law]] forbade dissection and autopsy of the human body, so physicians such as [[Galen]] were unable to work on cadavers. Galen for example dissected the [[Barbary Macaque]] and other primates, assuming their anatomy was basically the same as that of humans.
-The term was first used retrospectively by the Italian [[artist]] and [[critic]] [[Giorgio Vasari]] (1511–1574) in his book ''The Lives of the Artists'' (published 1550). In the book Vasari was attempting to define what he described as a break with the barbarities of [[gothic art]]: the arts had fallen into decay with the collapse of the [[Roman Empire]] and only the [[Tuscana|Tuscan]] artists, beginning with [[Cimabue]] (1240–1301) and [[Giotto]] (1267–1337) began to reverse this decline in the arts. According to Vasari, antique art was central to the rebirth of Italian art.+
-However, it was not until the nineteenth century that the [[French language|French]] word ''Renaissance'' achieved popularity in describing the cultural movement that began in the late-13th century. The Renaissance was first defined by French [[historian]] [[Jules Michelet]] (1798–1874), in his 1855 work, ''Histoire de France''. For Michelet, the Renaissance was more a development in science than in art and culture. He asserted that it spanned the period from [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] to [[Copernicus]] to [[Galileo]]; that is, from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the seventeenth century. Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous" quality of the Middle Ages and the [[democracy|democratic]] values that he, as a vocal [[Republicanism|Republican]], chose to see in its character. A French nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement.+It is not known whether or not human dissections were also conducted by [[Islamic medicine|Arabic physicians]]. [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]] such as [[Al-Ghazali]] expressed support for its practice It is possible that Arabic physicians may have performed dissections, including [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) (1091–1161) in [[Al-Andalus]], [[Saladin]]'s physician [[Ibn Jumay]] during the 12th century, [[Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (medieval writer)|Abd el-Latif]] in [[Egypt]] ''circa'' 1200, and [[Ibn al-Nafis]] in [[Syria]] and Egypt during the 13th century. However, doubt remains because "al-Nafis tells us that he avoided the practice of dissection because of the shari'a [the religious law] and his own 'compassion' for the human body. ... Ibn al-Nafis, it should be noted, was also a specialist in Islamic jurisprudence, so that his construal of the practice of dissection as un-Islamic carries special weight."
-The [[Switzerland|Swiss]] historian [[Jacob Burckhardt]] (1818–1897) in his ''Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien'' (1860), by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period between [[Giotto]] and [[Michelangelo]] in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of [[individualism|individuality]], which had been stifled in the [[Middle Ages]]. His book was widely read and was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the [[Italian Renaissance]]. However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear [[Whig history|Whiggish]] view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world.+Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century. It has even been suggested that Christian theology contributed significantly to the revival of human dissection and autopsy by providing a new socio-religious and cultural context in which the human [[cadaver]] was no longer seen as sacrosanct.
-More recently, historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even a coherent cultural movement. As Randolph Starn has put it,+Throughout history, the dissection of human cadavers for medical education has experienced various cycles of legalization and proscription in different countries. [[anatomy|Anatomization]] has even been ordered as a form of punishment (as, for example, in 1805 at Massachusetts to [[James Halligan (murderer)|James Halligan]] and [[Dominic Daley]] after their public [[hanging]]).{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} An edict of the 1163 [[Council of Tours]], and an early 14th century decree of [[Pope Boniface VIII]] have mistakenly been identified as prohibiting dissection and autopsy, but no universal prohibition of dissection or autopsy was exercised during the Middle Ages. Rather, the era witnessed the revival of an interest in medical studies, and a renewal in human dissection and autopsy. Some European countries began legalizing the dissection of executed criminals for educational purposes in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, and [[Mondino de Liuzzi]] carried out the first recorded public dissection around 1315. [[Vesalius]] in the 16th century carried out numerous dissections in the process of performing some of the most extensive anatomical investigations up to his time, but was attacked frequently by other physicians for his disagreement with Galen's studies of human anatomy. For many years it was assumed that Vesalius's pilgrimage to Palestine was an escape from pressures of the [[Inquisition]] brought as a result of his work with cadavers. Today this is generally considered to be without foundation (see C.D. O'Malley ''Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage'', Isis 45:2, 1954) and is dismissed by modern biographers.
-:"Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in between, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a single, time-bound culture."+The Catholic church in known to have ordered an autopsy on conjoined twins Joana and Melchiora Ballestero in [[Hispanola]] in 1533 to determine if they shared a soul. They found that there were two distinct hearts, and hence two souls, based on the ancient Greek philosopher [[Empedocles]], who believed the soul resided in the heart.
-===For better or for worse?===+In England, dissection remained entirely prohibited until the 16th century, when a series of royal edicts gave specific groups of physicians and surgeons some limited rights to dissect cadavers. The permission was quite limited: by the mid 18th century, the [[Royal College of Physicians]] and [[Company of Barber-Surgeons]] were the only two groups permitted to carry out dissections, and had an annual quota of ten cadavers between them. As a result of pressure from anatomists, especially in the rapidly growing medical schools, the [[Murder Act 1752]] allowed the bodies of executed murderers to be dissected for anatomical research and education. By the 19th century this supply of cadavers proved insufficient, however, due to both the continuing expansion of medical schools, and the creation of a number of private medical schools, which lacked legal access to cadavers. A thriving black market arose in cadavers and body parts, leading to the creation of an entire profession of [[body-snatcher]], and even more extremely, the infamous 1827 and 1828 [[Burke and Hare murders]], in which 17 people were murdered in order to sell their cadavers to anatomists. The resulting public outcry largely led to the passage of the [[Anatomy Act 1832]], which greatly increased the legal supply of cadavers for dissection. (See also: ''[[History of anatomy in the 19th century]]''.)
-Much of the debate around the Renaissance has centered around whether the Renaissance truly was an "improvement" on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance towards the "[[modern age]]". Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from man's eyes, allowing him to see clearly.+By the 21st century, the availability of interactive computer programs and changing public sentiment led to renewed debate on the use of cadavers in medical education. The [[Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry]] in the UK, founded in 2000, became the first modern medical school to carry out its anatomy education without dissection, though most medical schools continue to see experience with actual cadavers as preferable to entirely computer-based education.
-:"In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness – that which was turned within as that which was turned without – lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues."+Dissections of non-human animals have also been used for educational purposes, often in general science education where the use of human cadavers would not be justified. In the U.S., dissection of frogs became common in college biology classes from the 1920s, and gradually began to be introduced at earlier stages of education. By 1988, an estimated 75–80% of American high school biology students were participating in a frog dissection, with a trend towards introduction in elementary schools. The dissected frogs are most commonly from the [[Rana (genus)|''Rana'' genus]]. Other popular animals for high-school dissection at the time of that survey were, among vertebrates, [[fetal pig]]s, [[perch]], and [[cat]]s; and among invertebrates, [[earthworm]]s, [[grasshopper]]s, [[crayfish]], and [[starfish]].
-On the other hand, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the "medieval" period – poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example – seem to have worsened in this era which saw the rise of [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]], the [[French Wars of Religion|Wars of Religion]], the corrupt [[Borgia]] Popes, and the intensified [[witch-hunt]]s of the 16th century. Many people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it as the "[[golden age]]" imagined by certain 19th-century authors, but were concerned by these social maladies. Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages. Some [[Historical materialism|Marxist historians]] prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of a general economic trend away from [[feudalism]] towards [[capitalism]], resulting in a [[bourgeois]] class with leisure time to devote to the arts.+Controversy over dissection in U.S. high schools became prominent in 1987, when a California student, Jenifer Graham, sued to require her school to let her complete an alternate project. The court ruled that mandatory dissections were permissible, but that Graham could ask to dissect a frog that had died of natural causes rather than one that was killed for the purposes of dissection; the practical impossibility of procuring a frog that had died of natural causes in effect let Graham opt out of the required dissection. The suit also gave considerable publicity to anti-dissection advocates: Graham appeared in a 1987 [[Apple Computer]] commercial for the virtual-dissection software [[Operation Frog]]. The state of California passed a Student's Rights Bill in 1988 requiring that objecting students be allowed to complete alternative projects. The trend towards students opting out of dissection increased through the 1990s.
-[[Johan Huizinga]] (1872–1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book ''The Waning of the Middle Ages'', he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the [[High Middle Ages]], destroying much that was important. The [[Latin|Latin language]], for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep [[economic recession]]. Meanwhile [[George Sarton]] and [[Lynn Thorndike]] have both argued that [[Science|scientific]] progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed.+==Tools used==
-Some historians have begun to consider the word ''Renaissance'' to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "[[Dark Ages]]" (Middle Ages). Many historians now prefer to use the term "[[Early Modern Europe|Early Modern]]" for this period, a more neutral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era. Others such as [[Roger Osborne]] have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation +The following are tools commonly used in biological dissection.
-==Other Renaissances==+
-The term ''Renaissance'' has also been used to define time periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. [[Charles H. Haskins]] (1870–1937), for example, made a case for a [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]. Other historians have argued for a [[Carolingian Renaissance]] in the 8th and 9th centuries, and still later for an [[Ottonian Renaissance]] in the 10th century. Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed "renaissances", such as the [[Bengal Renaissance]] or the [[Harlem Renaissance]].+
-== See also ==+*[[Scalpel]]
-*''[[Rabelais and His World]]''+*[[Scissors]] ([[dissecting scissors]])
-*[[High Renaissance]]+*Thumb [[forceps]] or fine point splinter
-*[[Northern Renaissance]]+*[[Mall probe and seeker]]
 +*Surgical [[spatula]]
 +*[[Magnifying glass]]
 +*[[Surgical chain and hooks]]
 +*[[Razor]]
 +*Surgical blow pipe
 +*[[Surgical prong]]
 +*[[Teasing needles]]
 +*[[Pipette]] or medicine dropper
 +*[[Ruler]] or [[caliper]]
 +*T-[[pin]]s
 +*Dissecting pan
 +==See also==
 +*[[Chance Meeting on a Dissecting Table of a Sewing Machine and an Umbrella]]
 +*[[Dissecting the Erotic: Art and Sexuality in Mid-Victorian Medical Anatomy]]
-* [[Weser Renaissance]] 
-* [[Gilded woodcarving]] 
-* [[List of Renaissance figures]] 
-* [[List of Renaissance structures]] 
-* [[Medical Renaissance]] 
-* [[Scientific Revolution]] 
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"I wanted to study man thoroughly, to dissect him fibre by fibre with an inexorable scalpel, and to watch him, alive and palpitating, on my dissecting-table."--Mademoiselle de Maupin (1835) by Théophile Gautier

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Dissection (also called anatomization) is the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the functions and relationships of its components.

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[edit]

In biology

Dissection is usually applied to the examination of plants and animals. The term is also used in relation to mechanisms, computer programs, written materials, etc., as a synonym for terms such as reverse engineering or literary deconstruction. Dissection is usually performed by students in courses of biology, botany and anatomy and in association with medical and arts studies.

Vivisection refers to the dissection of a living animal, often for the purposes of physiological investigation and nowadays usually under heavy sedation. However, the term is no longer widely used, in part because more sophisticated techniques have superseded it for many applications. The term is now almost entirely used in a pejorative sense by those who oppose animal testing of any sort.

Dissection is often performed as a part of determining a cause of death in autopsy (on humans) and necropsy (on animals) and is an intrinsic part of forensic medicine, such as would be practiced by a coroner.

[edit]

History

Human dissections were carried out by the Greek physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios in the early part of the third century BC. Before and after this time investigators appeared to largely limit themselves to animals. Roman law forbade dissection and autopsy of the human body, so physicians such as Galen were unable to work on cadavers. Galen for example dissected the Barbary Macaque and other primates, assuming their anatomy was basically the same as that of humans.

It is not known whether or not human dissections were also conducted by Arabic physicians. Islamic scholars such as Al-Ghazali expressed support for its practice It is possible that Arabic physicians may have performed dissections, including Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091–1161) in Al-Andalus, Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay during the 12th century, Abd el-Latif in Egypt circa 1200, and Ibn al-Nafis in Syria and Egypt during the 13th century. However, doubt remains because "al-Nafis tells us that he avoided the practice of dissection because of the shari'a [the religious law] and his own 'compassion' for the human body. ... Ibn al-Nafis, it should be noted, was also a specialist in Islamic jurisprudence, so that his construal of the practice of dissection as un-Islamic carries special weight."

Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century. It has even been suggested that Christian theology contributed significantly to the revival of human dissection and autopsy by providing a new socio-religious and cultural context in which the human cadaver was no longer seen as sacrosanct.

Throughout history, the dissection of human cadavers for medical education has experienced various cycles of legalization and proscription in different countries. Anatomization has even been ordered as a form of punishment (as, for example, in 1805 at Massachusetts to James Halligan and Dominic Daley after their public hanging).Template:Citation needed An edict of the 1163 Council of Tours, and an early 14th century decree of Pope Boniface VIII have mistakenly been identified as prohibiting dissection and autopsy, but no universal prohibition of dissection or autopsy was exercised during the Middle Ages. Rather, the era witnessed the revival of an interest in medical studies, and a renewal in human dissection and autopsy. Some European countries began legalizing the dissection of executed criminals for educational purposes in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, and Mondino de Liuzzi carried out the first recorded public dissection around 1315. Vesalius in the 16th century carried out numerous dissections in the process of performing some of the most extensive anatomical investigations up to his time, but was attacked frequently by other physicians for his disagreement with Galen's studies of human anatomy. For many years it was assumed that Vesalius's pilgrimage to Palestine was an escape from pressures of the Inquisition brought as a result of his work with cadavers. Today this is generally considered to be without foundation (see C.D. O'Malley Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage, Isis 45:2, 1954) and is dismissed by modern biographers.

The Catholic church in known to have ordered an autopsy on conjoined twins Joana and Melchiora Ballestero in Hispanola in 1533 to determine if they shared a soul. They found that there were two distinct hearts, and hence two souls, based on the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles, who believed the soul resided in the heart.

In England, dissection remained entirely prohibited until the 16th century, when a series of royal edicts gave specific groups of physicians and surgeons some limited rights to dissect cadavers. The permission was quite limited: by the mid 18th century, the Royal College of Physicians and Company of Barber-Surgeons were the only two groups permitted to carry out dissections, and had an annual quota of ten cadavers between them. As a result of pressure from anatomists, especially in the rapidly growing medical schools, the Murder Act 1752 allowed the bodies of executed murderers to be dissected for anatomical research and education. By the 19th century this supply of cadavers proved insufficient, however, due to both the continuing expansion of medical schools, and the creation of a number of private medical schools, which lacked legal access to cadavers. A thriving black market arose in cadavers and body parts, leading to the creation of an entire profession of body-snatcher, and even more extremely, the infamous 1827 and 1828 Burke and Hare murders, in which 17 people were murdered in order to sell their cadavers to anatomists. The resulting public outcry largely led to the passage of the Anatomy Act 1832, which greatly increased the legal supply of cadavers for dissection. (See also: History of anatomy in the 19th century.)

By the 21st century, the availability of interactive computer programs and changing public sentiment led to renewed debate on the use of cadavers in medical education. The Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry in the UK, founded in 2000, became the first modern medical school to carry out its anatomy education without dissection, though most medical schools continue to see experience with actual cadavers as preferable to entirely computer-based education.

Dissections of non-human animals have also been used for educational purposes, often in general science education where the use of human cadavers would not be justified. In the U.S., dissection of frogs became common in college biology classes from the 1920s, and gradually began to be introduced at earlier stages of education. By 1988, an estimated 75–80% of American high school biology students were participating in a frog dissection, with a trend towards introduction in elementary schools. The dissected frogs are most commonly from the Rana genus. Other popular animals for high-school dissection at the time of that survey were, among vertebrates, fetal pigs, perch, and cats; and among invertebrates, earthworms, grasshoppers, crayfish, and starfish.

Controversy over dissection in U.S. high schools became prominent in 1987, when a California student, Jenifer Graham, sued to require her school to let her complete an alternate project. The court ruled that mandatory dissections were permissible, but that Graham could ask to dissect a frog that had died of natural causes rather than one that was killed for the purposes of dissection; the practical impossibility of procuring a frog that had died of natural causes in effect let Graham opt out of the required dissection. The suit also gave considerable publicity to anti-dissection advocates: Graham appeared in a 1987 Apple Computer commercial for the virtual-dissection software Operation Frog. The state of California passed a Student's Rights Bill in 1988 requiring that objecting students be allowed to complete alternative projects. The trend towards students opting out of dissection increased through the 1990s.

[edit]

Tools used

The following are tools commonly used in biological dissection.

[edit]

See also


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