History of the Middle East
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| - | This article is a general overview of the '''history of the Middle East'''. For more detailed information, see [[#See also|articles on the histories of individual countries and regions]]. For discussion of the issues surrounding the definition of the area see the article on [[Middle East]]. | ||
| + | The [[Middle East]], also known as the [[Near East]], is home to one of the [[Cradle of civilization|Cradles of Civilization]] and has seen many of the world's oldest cultures and civilizations. The region's history started from the earliest human settlements and continues through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires to today's nation-states of the Middle East. | ||
| + | <noinclude>{{Human history}}</noinclude><!--Makes this not appear in Portal:History of the Middle East--> | ||
| - | ==See also== | + | The [[Sumer]]ians became the first people to develop complex systems that were to be called "civilization" as far back as the 5th millennium BC. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]] under the first [[pharaoh]]. [[Mesopotamia]] was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost all of Middle East, particularly the [[Assyrian Empire]]s of 1365–1076 BC and the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] of 911–609 BC. From the early 7th century BC and onward, the Iranian [[Medes]], followed by the [[Achaemenid Empire]] ([[First Persian Empire]]) and other subsequent Iranian states and empires, dominated the region. In the 1st century BC, the expanding [[Roman Republic]] absorbed the whole [[Eastern Mediterranean]], which included much of the [[Near East]]. The [[Eastern Roman Empire]], now commonly known as the [[Byzantine Empire]], ruled from the [[Balkans]] to the [[Euphrates]], became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about [[Christianity]] and gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in [[Constantinople]] and believers in many parts of the Middle East. From the 3rd century to the course of the 7th century AD, the entire Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and the [[Sasanian Empire]] ([[Neo-Persian Empire]]). From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of [[Islam]]. The dominance of the [[Arabs]] came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the [[Seljuq dynasty]]. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the [[Mongol Empire]], mainly [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], swept through the region. By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in [[Anatolia|western Anatolia]], the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] emirs, who were linguistically Turkic and religiously Islamic and in [[Fall of Constantinople|1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capital of Constantinople]] and made themselves [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|sultans]]. |
| - | *[[History of Afghanistan]] | + | |
| - | *[[History of Armenia]] | + | Large parts of the Middle East became a war ground between the Ottomans and the Iranian [[Safavid dynasty]] for centuries, starting in the early 16th century. By 1700, the Ottomans had been driven out of the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Kingdom of Hungary]] and the [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] along the frontier had shifted decisively in favor of the [[Western world]]. The [[British Empire]] also established effective control of the [[Persian Gulf]], and the [[French colonial empire]] extended its influence into [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria (region)|Syria]]. In 1912, the [[Kingdom of Italy]] seized [[Libya]] and the [[Dodecanese|Dodecanese islands]], just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of [[Anatolia]]. In the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with the European powers. A turning point in the region's history came when [[petroleum|oil]] was discovered, first in Persia in 1908 and later in [[Saudi Arabia]] (in 1938) and the other [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf states]], and also in [[Libya]] and [[Algeria]]. A Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil and the decline of British influence led to a growing American interest in the region. |
| - | *[[History of Azerbaijan]] | + | |
| - | *[[History of Bahrain]] | + | During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] made moves towards independence. The British, the French, and the [[Soviets]] departed from many parts of the Middle East during and after [[World War II]] (1939–1945). The [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] culminated in the 1947 [[United Nations]] [[1947 UN Partition Plan|plan to partition Palestine]]. Later in the midst of [[Cold War]] tensions, the Arabic-speaking countries of [[Western Asia]] and [[Northern Africa]] saw the rise of [[pan-Arabism]]. The departure of the European powers from direct control of the region, the establishment of [[Israel]], and the increasing importance of the [[petroleum industry]], marked the creation of the modern Middle East. In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was inhibited by political restrictions, corruption, [[cronyism]], overspending on arms and prestige projects and overdependence on oil revenues. The wealthiest economies in the region [[per capita]] are the small oil-rich countries of [[Persian Gulf]]: [[Qatar]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. |
| - | *[[History of Cyprus]] | + | |
| - | *[[History of Egypt]] | + | A combination of factors—such as the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], the [[1970s energy crisis]] beginning with the 1973 [[OPEC]] oil embargo in response to US support of Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]], the concurrent Saudi-led popularization of [[Salafism]]/[[Wahhabism]], and the 1978-79 [[Iranian Revolution]]—promoted the increasing rise of [[Islamism]] and the ongoing [[Islamic revival]] (''Tajdid''). The [[Fall of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 brought a global security refocus from the [[Cold War]] to a [[War on Terror]]. Starting in the early 2010s, a [[revolutionary wave]] that is popularly known as the [[Arab Spring]] brought major protests, uprisings, and revolutions to several Middle Eastern and [[Maghreb]] countries. [[Anbar campaign (2013–14)|Clashes in western Iraq]] on 30 December 2013 were preliminary to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[pan-Islamist]] [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]] uprising. |
| - | *[[History of Georgia (country)|History of Georgia]] | + | |
| - | *[[History of Iran]] | + | The term ''Near East'' can be used interchangeably with ''Middle East'', but in a different context, especially in discussing [[ancient history]], it may have a limited meaning, namely the northern historically-[[Aramaic]]-speaking [[Semitic people]] area and adjacent [[Anatolia]]n territories, marked in the two maps below. |
| - | *[[History of Iraq]] | + | |
| - | *[[History of Israel]] | + | [[File:NearEast3.png|right|thumb|{{legend|#008000|The limited modern archaeological and historical context of the Near East}}{{legend|#00ff00|Middle East and Near East}}]] |
| - | *[[History of Jordan]] | + | [[File:Semitic languages.svg|right|thumb|The historical [[Semitic people|Semitic region]], defined by the pre-Islamic distribution of [[Semitic language]]s and coinciding very roughly with the [[Arabian plate]]. Not so much lingually but rather culturally, politically and historically, the most significant division here has been between the north and the south, which is to some degree isolated from each other by the sparsely-populated [[Arabian Desert]]. The north comprises [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Levant]], which, together with the lower [[Nile]] (i.e., Egypt), constitute the [[Fertile Crescent]].]] |
| - | *[[History of Kuwait]] | + | |
| - | *[[History of Lebanon]] | + | == See also == |
| - | *[[History of Oman]] | + | * [[Genetic history of the Middle East]] |
| - | *[[History of Qatar]] | + | * [[History of the Mediterranean region]] |
| - | *[[History of Saudi Arabia]] | + | * [[List of history journals#Middle East]] |
| - | *[[History of Syria]] | + | * [[Middle Eastern empires]] |
| - | *[[History of Turkey]] | + | * [[Timeline of Middle Eastern history]] |
| - | *[[History of the United Arab Emirates]] | + | * The [[1970s energy crisis|oil crises]] |
| - | *[[History of Yemen]] | + | * [[British foreign policy in the Middle East]] |
| - | *[[Southwest Asia]] | + | * [[United States foreign policy in the Middle East]] |
| - | *[[North Africa]] | + | * [[Near Eastern archaeology]] |
| - | *[[Muslim conquests]] | + | |
| - | *[[Ottoman Empire]] | + | '''General:''' |
| - | *[[Middle Eastern Empires]] | + | * [[History of North Africa]] |
| - | *[[Timeline of Middle Eastern History]] | + | * [[History of Asia]] |
| - | *[[Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures]] | + | |
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Revision as of 07:13, 15 May 2024
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The Middle East, also known as the Near East, is home to one of the Cradles of Civilization and has seen many of the world's oldest cultures and civilizations. The region's history started from the earliest human settlements and continues through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires to today's nation-states of the Middle East. Template:Human history
The Sumerians became the first people to develop complex systems that were to be called "civilization" as far back as the 5th millennium BC. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost all of Middle East, particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911–609 BC. From the early 7th century BC and onward, the Iranian Medes, followed by the Achaemenid Empire (First Persian Empire) and other subsequent Iranian states and empires, dominated the region. In the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Republic absorbed the whole Eastern Mediterranean, which included much of the Near East. The Eastern Roman Empire, now commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruled from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity and gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. From the 3rd century to the course of the 7th century AD, the entire Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and the Sasanian Empire (Neo-Persian Empire). From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of Islam. The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq dynasty. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire, mainly Turkic, swept through the region. By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman emirs, who were linguistically Turkic and religiously Islamic and in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capital of Constantinople and made themselves sultans.
Large parts of the Middle East became a war ground between the Ottomans and the Iranian Safavid dynasty for centuries, starting in the early 16th century. By 1700, the Ottomans had been driven out of the Kingdom of Hungary and the balance of power along the frontier had shifted decisively in favor of the Western world. The British Empire also established effective control of the Persian Gulf, and the French colonial empire extended its influence into Lebanon and Syria. In 1912, the Kingdom of Italy seized Libya and the Dodecanese islands, just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. In the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with the European powers. A turning point in the region's history came when oil was discovered, first in Persia in 1908 and later in Saudi Arabia (in 1938) and the other Persian Gulf states, and also in Libya and Algeria. A Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil and the decline of British influence led to a growing American interest in the region.
During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, Syria and Egypt made moves towards independence. The British, the French, and the Soviets departed from many parts of the Middle East during and after World War II (1939–1945). The Arab–Israeli conflict in Palestine culminated in the 1947 United Nations plan to partition Palestine. Later in the midst of Cold War tensions, the Arabic-speaking countries of Western Asia and Northern Africa saw the rise of pan-Arabism. The departure of the European powers from direct control of the region, the establishment of Israel, and the increasing importance of the petroleum industry, marked the creation of the modern Middle East. In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was inhibited by political restrictions, corruption, cronyism, overspending on arms and prestige projects and overdependence on oil revenues. The wealthiest economies in the region per capita are the small oil-rich countries of Persian Gulf: Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates.
A combination of factors—such as the 1967 Six-Day War, the 1970s energy crisis beginning with the 1973 OPEC oil embargo in response to US support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War, the concurrent Saudi-led popularization of Salafism/Wahhabism, and the 1978-79 Iranian Revolution—promoted the increasing rise of Islamism and the ongoing Islamic revival (Tajdid). The Fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought a global security refocus from the Cold War to a War on Terror. Starting in the early 2010s, a revolutionary wave that is popularly known as the Arab Spring brought major protests, uprisings, and revolutions to several Middle Eastern and Maghreb countries. Clashes in western Iraq on 30 December 2013 were preliminary to the Sunni pan-Islamist ISIL uprising.
The term Near East can be used interchangeably with Middle East, but in a different context, especially in discussing ancient history, it may have a limited meaning, namely the northern historically-Aramaic-speaking Semitic people area and adjacent Anatolian territories, marked in the two maps below.
[[File:NearEast3.png|right|thumb|Template:LegendTemplate:Legend]] [[File:Semitic languages.svg|right|thumb|The historical Semitic region, defined by the pre-Islamic distribution of Semitic languages and coinciding very roughly with the Arabian plate. Not so much lingually but rather culturally, politically and historically, the most significant division here has been between the north and the south, which is to some degree isolated from each other by the sparsely-populated Arabian Desert. The north comprises Mesopotamia and the Levant, which, together with the lower Nile (i.e., Egypt), constitute the Fertile Crescent.]]
See also
- Genetic history of the Middle East
- History of the Mediterranean region
- List of history journals#Middle East
- Middle Eastern empires
- Timeline of Middle Eastern history
- The oil crises
- British foreign policy in the Middle East
- United States foreign policy in the Middle East
- Near Eastern archaeology
General:
