Halo effect
From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
| Revision as of 09:09, 31 July 2010 Jahsonic (Talk | contribs) ← Previous diff |
Revision as of 09:10, 31 July 2010 Jahsonic (Talk | contribs) Next diff → |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{Template}} | {{Template}} | ||
| - | :[[Stereotypes of white people]] | + | The '''halo effect''' is a [[cognitive bias]] whereby the perception of one [[trait]] (i.e. a characteristic of a person or object) is influenced by the perception of another trait (or several traits) of that person or object. An example would be judging a good-looking person as more intelligent. |
| - | '''Stereotypes''' are [[generalized]] ideas and [[representation]]s about members of particular groups, based primarily on membership in that [[group]]. They may be positive or negative [[prejudicial]], and may be used to justify certain [[discrimination|discriminatory behaviours]]. Some people consider all stereotypes to be negative. Stereotypes connect with [[stock character]]s, [[cliché]]s and [[trope]]s and are contrasted with [[individuality]], [[originality]] and [[unicity]]. | + | |
| - | == Description == | + | Halo effects happen especially if the perceiver does not have enough information about all traits, so that he makes assumptions based on one or two prominent traits—these one or two prominent traits "overshadow" other traits, similar to the radiation of light in [[halo (optical phenomenon)|optical halo effects]] or [[halo (religious iconography)|halos in iconography]] (rings of light around someone's head). |
| - | Stereotypes are assumed characteristics based on a large group of individuals whose beliefs, habits, and actions are perceived to be similar. | + | |
| - | Stereotype production can be based on | + | [[Edward L. Thorndike]] was the first to support the halo effect with [[empirical research]]. In a [[psychology]] study published in 1920, Thorndike asked commanding officers to rate their soldiers; he found high cross-correlation between all positive and all negative traits. People seem not to think of other individuals in mixed terms; instead we seem to see each person as roughly good or roughly bad across all categories of measurement. |
| - | *[[Simplification]] | + | |
| - | *[[Exaggeration]] | + | |
| - | *[[Generalization]] | + | |
| - | *Presentation of cultural attributes as being 'natural' | + | |
| - | *Unshakable belief in stability of stereotype | + | |
| - | *[[Racism]], [[sexism]], [[homophobia]], and other forms of [[discrimination]] | + | |
| - | *Historical factors | + | |
| - | *Guilt by association | + | |
| - | Stereotypes are seen by many as [[undesirable]] beliefs imposed to justify the acts of discrimination and [[oppression]]. It is thought that education and/or familiarization can change these misbeliefs. Other negative effects are: | + | A study by [[Solomon Asch]] suggests that attractiveness is a central trait, so we presume all the other traits of an attractive person are just as attractive and sought after. |
| - | *justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance | + | The halo effect is involved in [[Harold Kelley]]'s [[implicit personality theory]], where the first traits we recognize in other people influence our interpretation and perception of later ones because of our expectations. Attractive people are often judged as having a more desirable personality and more skills than someone of average appearance. |
| - | *unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior towards stereotyped group | + | |
| - | *self-fulfilling prophecy for both stereotyping and stereotyped group (white people treat black people in a more hostile way because they are afraid of them; black people accordingly react more aggressively, thus confirming the stereotype...) | + | |
| - | Unhealthy stereotypes can be negative or positive, even for the same group: | + | Karen Dion's 1972 study showed the same result. She set an experiment in which she showed photographs to people, and asked them to make a judgment of the people in the photos. In the result, attractive people are assumed to have a good personality as well as being sexually warm and responsive. |
| - | Black men are generally supposed to be good musicians and basketball players, but at the same time seen as aggressive, prone to lives of crime, and likely to be on drugs. | + | |
| - | The effects of stereotypes can have positive and negative effects: | + | |
| - | Students who were implicitly made aware of their gender behaved as the stereotype suggested: | + | |
| - | Asian-American women performed better in math tests when being aware of being Asian, and did worse when being reminded of being women. | + | The term is commonly used in [[human resources]] recruitment. It refers to the risk that an interviewer will notice a positive trait in an interviewee and, as a result, will overlook their negative traits (or vice versa). |
| - | Stereotyping can also be created by the media, showing an incorrect judgment of a culture or place. | + | ==Reverse halo effect== |
| + | A corollary to the halo effect is the reverse halo effect where individuals, brands or other things judged to have a single undesirable trait are subsequently judged to have many poor traits, allowing a single weak point or negative trait to influence others' perception of the person, brand or other thing in general. | ||
| - | Often the terms ''stereotype'' and ''[[prejudice]]'' are confused: | + | ==As a business model== |
| - | * Stereotypes are a generalization of characteristics; they reduce complexity, provide stability, and offer opportunities to identify oneself with others. | + | In brand [[marketing]], a halo effect is one where the perceived positive features of a particular item extend to a broader brand. It has been used to describe how the [[iPod]] has had positive effects on perceptions of [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s other products. The term is also widely used in the [[automotive industry]], where a manufacturer may produce an exceptional ''halo vehicle'' in order to promote sales of an entire [[marque]]. Modern cars often described as halo vehicles include the [[Dodge Viper]], [[Ford GT]], and [[Acura NSX]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} |
| - | * [[Prejudice]]s are either an abstract-general preconception or an [[attitude]] towards individuals. | + | |
| - | ==Role in art and culture== | + | |
| - | Stereotypes are common in various cultural [[media (communication)|media]], where they take the form of dramatic [[stock character]]s. These characters are found in the works of playwright [[Bertolt Brecht]], [[Dario Fo]], and [[Jacques Lecoq]], who characterize their actors as stereotypes for theatrical effect. In [[commedia dell'arte]] this is similarly common. The instantly recognizable nature of stereotypes mean that they are effective in [[advertising]] and [[situation comedy]]. These stereotypes change, and in modern times only a few of the stereotyped characters shown in [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'' would be recognizable. | + | ==Unconscious judgments== |
| + | In the 1970s, social psychologist [[Richard Nisbett]] demonstrated that even if we were told that our judgments have been affected by the halo effect, we may have no awareness of when the halo effect influences us. | ||
| - | In [[literature]] and [[art]], stereotypes are [[cliché]]d or predictable characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations, in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as [[Shakespeare]]'s [[Shylock]] in ''The Merchant of Venice''. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype ''per se'' by its unique characterization. Thus while Shylock remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical [[Jew]], the subject of [[prejudice|prejudicial]] derision in Shakespeare's era, his many other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because one feature of a character can be categorized as being typical does not make the entire character a stereotype. | + | ==See also== |
| - | + | {{Portal|Psychology}} | |
| - | Despite their proximity in etymological roots, cliché and stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. For example a cliché is a high criticism in [[narratology]] where [[genre]] and [[categorization]] automatically associates a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as ''typical'' suggests it is fitting for its genre or category. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on cliché is to pejoratively observe a simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize [[Ian Fleming]] for a ''stereotypically'' unlikely escape for [[James Bond]] would be understood by the reader or listener, but it would be more appropriately criticized as a cliché in that it is overused and reproduced. [[Narrative]] genre relies heavily on ''typical'' features to remain recognizable and generate meaning in the reader/viewer. | + | * [[Affect heuristic]] |
| - | + | * [[Association fallacy]] | |
| - | The teen [[sitcom]] ''[[Saved by the Bell]]'' features a typical group of high school stereotypes such as a class clown ([[Zack Morris]]), a jock ([[A.C. Slater]]), a nerd ([[Samuel "Screech" Powers]]), a cheerleader ([[Kelly Kapowski]]), a feminist ([[Jessie Spano]]), and a superficial fashion plate ([[Lisa Turtle]]). Some observed the sitcom, like many teen sitcoms of that time, in addition to stereotyping people, stereotyping an institution itself, that of high school. Television stereotypes of high schools have often promoted a "typical American school" as football games, fashion styles, flirting, and not much devotion to academics or studying. | + | * [[Attribute substitution]] |
| - | + | * [[Confirmation bias]] | |
| - | In movies and TV the [[halo effect]] is often used. This is when, for example, attractive men and women are assumed to be happier, stronger, nicer people. | + | * [[List of cognitive biases]] |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==Stereotypes of groups== | + | |
| - | Common stereotypes include a variety of allegations about groups based on [[Ageing|age]], [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]], [[gender]], [[nationality]], dis/ability, [[profession]], [[sexual orientation]], [[race]], [[religion|religious]] belief, size, physical appearance, [[social class]] (see [[social stereotype]]). Stereotypes can also be based on individual impairments. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | == See also == | + | |
| - | * [[List of basic stereotype topics]] | + | |
| - | * [[Animal stereotypes]] | + | |
| - | * [[Stereotypes]] | + | |
| {{GFDL}} | {{GFDL}} | ||
Revision as of 09:10, 31 July 2010
|
Related e |
|
Featured: |
The halo effect is a cognitive bias whereby the perception of one trait (i.e. a characteristic of a person or object) is influenced by the perception of another trait (or several traits) of that person or object. An example would be judging a good-looking person as more intelligent.
Halo effects happen especially if the perceiver does not have enough information about all traits, so that he makes assumptions based on one or two prominent traits—these one or two prominent traits "overshadow" other traits, similar to the radiation of light in optical halo effects or halos in iconography (rings of light around someone's head).
Edward L. Thorndike was the first to support the halo effect with empirical research. In a psychology study published in 1920, Thorndike asked commanding officers to rate their soldiers; he found high cross-correlation between all positive and all negative traits. People seem not to think of other individuals in mixed terms; instead we seem to see each person as roughly good or roughly bad across all categories of measurement.
A study by Solomon Asch suggests that attractiveness is a central trait, so we presume all the other traits of an attractive person are just as attractive and sought after.
The halo effect is involved in Harold Kelley's implicit personality theory, where the first traits we recognize in other people influence our interpretation and perception of later ones because of our expectations. Attractive people are often judged as having a more desirable personality and more skills than someone of average appearance.
Karen Dion's 1972 study showed the same result. She set an experiment in which she showed photographs to people, and asked them to make a judgment of the people in the photos. In the result, attractive people are assumed to have a good personality as well as being sexually warm and responsive.
The term is commonly used in human resources recruitment. It refers to the risk that an interviewer will notice a positive trait in an interviewee and, as a result, will overlook their negative traits (or vice versa).
Contents |
Reverse halo effect
A corollary to the halo effect is the reverse halo effect where individuals, brands or other things judged to have a single undesirable trait are subsequently judged to have many poor traits, allowing a single weak point or negative trait to influence others' perception of the person, brand or other thing in general.
As a business model
In brand marketing, a halo effect is one where the perceived positive features of a particular item extend to a broader brand. It has been used to describe how the iPod has had positive effects on perceptions of Apple's other products. The term is also widely used in the automotive industry, where a manufacturer may produce an exceptional halo vehicle in order to promote sales of an entire marque. Modern cars often described as halo vehicles include the Dodge Viper, Ford GT, and Acura NSX.Template:Citation needed
Unconscious judgments
In the 1970s, social psychologist Richard Nisbett demonstrated that even if we were told that our judgments have been affected by the halo effect, we may have no awareness of when the halo effect influences us.
See also
- Affect heuristic
- Association fallacy
- Attribute substitution
- Confirmation bias
- List of cognitive biases
