Deconstruction
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| + | [[Image:Meissonier Ruins of the Tuileries.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Of [[destruction]] and deconstruction. | ||
| + | <br> | ||
| + | Illustration: ''[[Ruins of the Tuileries]]'' (1871) by Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier]] | ||
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| + | "The term ''[[deconstruction]]'' was coined by French philosopher Jacques Derrida in the 1960s and is used in contemporary humanities and social sciences to denote a philosophy that deals with the ways that meaning is constructed and understood by writers, texts, and readers. One way of understanding the term is that it involves discovering, recognizing, and understanding the underlying — and unspoken and implicit — [[world view|assumptions, ideas, and frameworks]] that form the basis for thought and belief. It has various shades of meaning in different areas of study and discussion, and is, by its very nature, difficult to define without depending on "un-deconstructed" concepts." --Sholem Stein, 2006 | ||
| + | <hr> | ||
| + | "We are bound to [[Enlightenment values]] — the [[Moral universalism|universality of moral principles]], the [[free will|sanctity of individual volition]], a detestation of wanton [[cruelty]] — and yet we have no choice but to [[oikophobia|indict the very civilization that begat those values]] as it goes careening through time leaving pain, death, bewilderment, the [[Genocide of indigenous peoples|wreckage of aboriginal tribe]]s and of [[Deforestation |rain forest]]s in its wake. But again, the terms of that indictment can be spelled out ''only'' in the language of those values. This, and not the mincing [[word game]]s of the [[deconstruction|deconstructionists]], is the true [[aporia]]. The criminal is also accuser and judge."--''[[Higher Superstition]]'' (1994) by Gross and Levitt | ||
| + | <hr> | ||
| "In actuality, the most inventive way to use a [[synthesizer]] is to [[misuse]] it. That's what we've done. That's what a lot of [[techno|techno music]]ians do now. The French call it [[deconstruction]]." --[[Irmin Schmidt]] quoted in ''[[Modulations: A History of Electronic Music]]'' | "In actuality, the most inventive way to use a [[synthesizer]] is to [[misuse]] it. That's what we've done. That's what a lot of [[techno|techno music]]ians do now. The French call it [[deconstruction]]." --[[Irmin Schmidt]] quoted in ''[[Modulations: A History of Electronic Music]]'' | ||
| <hr> | <hr> | ||
| - | "The term ''[[deconstruction]]'' was coined by French philosopher Jacques Derrida in the 1960s and is used in contemporary humanities and social sciences to denote a philosophy that deals with the ways that meaning is constructed and understood by writers, texts, and readers. One way of understanding the term is that it involves discovering, recognizing, and understanding the underlying — and unspoken and implicit — [[world view|assumptions, ideas, and frameworks]] that form the basis for thought and belief. It has various shades of meaning in different areas of study and discussion, and is, by its very nature, difficult to define without depending on "un-deconstructed" concepts." --Sholem Stein, 2006 | + | |
| + | "Derrida's original use of the word "deconstruction" was a translation of ''[[Destruktion]]'', a concept from the work of [[Martin Heidegger]] that Derrida sought to apply to textual reading. Heidegger's term referred to a process of exploring the categories and concepts that tradition has imposed on a word, and the history behind them." --Sholem Stein | ||
| + | <hr> | ||
| + | "This is the story of one computer professional's explorations in the world of postmodern literary criticism. I'm a working software engineer, not a student nor an academic nor a person with any real background in the humanities. Consequently, I've approached the whole subject with a somewhat different frame of mind than perhaps people in the field are accustomed to. Being a vulgar engineer I'm allowed to break a lot of the rules that people in the humanities usually have to play by, since nobody expects an engineer to be literate. Ha. Anyway, here is my tale." --[[How To Deconstruct Almost Anything; My Postmodern Adventure]] by Chip Morningstar, June 1993 | ||
| <hr> | <hr> | ||
| - | "Derrida's original use of the word "deconstruction" was a translation of ''[[Destruktion]]'', a concept from the work of [[Martin Heidegger]] that Derrida sought to apply to textual reading. Heidegger's term referred to a process of exploring the categories and concepts that tradition has imposed on a word, and the history behind them." --Sholem Stein | + | "But even if [[deconstruction]] cannot be defined, it can be described. For one thing, deconstruction comes with a lifetime guarantee to render discussion of any subject completely unintelligible. It does this by linguistic subterfuge. One of the central slogans of deconstruction is "[[il n'y a pas de hors-texte]]," i.e., "there is nothing outside the text." (It sounds better in French.) In other words, deconstruction is an updated version of [[nominalism]], the view that the [[meanings of words]] are completely [[arbitrary]] and that, at bottom, [[reality is unknowable]]." --"[[Derrida and the Meaninglessness of Meaning]]" - [[WSJ]], [[Roger Kimball]], 2004 |
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| |} | |} | ||
| + | [[Image:Explosion.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An [[explosion]]]] | ||
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| {{Template}} | {{Template}} | ||
| - | Originated by the philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]], '''deconstruction''' is an approach to understanding the relationship between text and meaning. Derrida's approach consisted of conducting readings of texts looking for things that run counter to the intended meaning or structural unity of a particular text. The purpose of deconstruction is to show that the usage of language in a given text, and language as a whole, are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. Throughout his readings, Derrida hoped to show deconstruction at work. | + | Originated by the philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]], '''deconstruction''' is an approach to understanding the relationship between [[Text (literary theory)|text]] and [[meaning]]. Derrida's approach consisted of conducting readings of texts looking for things that run counter to the intended meaning or structural unity of a particular text. The purpose of deconstruction is to show that the usage of language in a given text, and language as a whole, are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. Throughout his readings, Derrida hoped to show deconstruction at work. |
| - | Many debates in [[continental philosophy]] surrounding [[ontology]], [[epistemology]], ethics, [[aesthetics]], [[hermeneutics]], and philosophy of language refer to Derrida's observations. Since the 1980s, these observations inspired a range of theoretical enterprises in the humanities, including the disciplines of law [[psychoanalysis]], [[LGBT studies]], and the feminist school of thought. Deconstruction also inspired [[deconstructivism]] in architecture and remains important within art, music, | + | Many debates in [[continental philosophy]] surrounding [[ontology]], [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[aesthetics]], [[hermeneutics]], and [[philosophy of language]] refer to Derrida's observations. Since the 1980s, these observations inspired a range of theoretical enterprises in the humanities, including the disciplines of law [[psychoanalysis]], [[LGBT studies]], and the [[feminist school of thought]]. Deconstruction also inspired [[deconstructivism]] in architecture and remains important within art, music, |
| ==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
| - | [[Jacques Derrida|Jacques Derrida's]] 1967 book ''[[Of Grammatology]]'' introduced the majority of ideas influential within deconstruction.<ref name="Derrida">{{cite book|last1=Derrida|first1=Jacques|last2=Spivak|first2=Gayatri Chakravorty|authorlink2=Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak|title=Of Grammatology|date=1997|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0801858307|title-link=Of Grammatology}}</ref>{{rp|25}} Derrida published a number of other works directly relevant to the concept of deconstruction. Books showing deconstruction in action or defining it more completely include ''[[Différance]]'', ''[[Speech and Phenomena]]'', and ''[[Writing and Difference]]''. | + | [[Jacques Derrida|Jacques Derrida's]] 1967 book ''[[Of Grammatology]]'' introduced the majority of ideas influential within deconstruction. Derrida published a number of other works directly relevant to the concept of deconstruction. Books showing deconstruction in action or defining it more completely include ''[[Différance]]'', ''[[Speech and Phenomena]]'', and ''[[Writing and Difference]]''. |
| - | According to Derrida and taking inspiration from the work of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]],<ref name="Saussure">{{cite web|last1=Saussure|first1=Ferdinand de|authorlink=Ferdinand de Saussure|title=Course in General Linguistics|url=http://faculty.smu.edu/dfoster/cf3324/saussure.htm|website=Southern Methodist University|publisher=New York Philosophical Library|accessdate=8 September 2017|location=New York|pages=121–122|date=1959|quote=In language there are only differences. Even more important: a difference generally implies positive terms between which the difference is set up; but in language there are only differences without positive terms. Whether we take the signified or the signifier, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system.}}</ref> language as a system of signs and words only has meaning because of the contrast between these signs.<ref name="Theory">{{cite web|title=Deconstructionist Theory|url=http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/derrida/rorty.html|website=Stanford Presidential Lectures and Symposia in the Humanities and Arts|accessdate=8 September 2017|date=1995}}</ref><ref name="Derrida"/>{{rp|7, 12}} As [[Richard Rorty|Rorty]] contends, "words have meaning only because of contrast-effects with other words...no word can acquire meaning in the way in which philosophers from [[Aristotle]] to [[Bertrand Russell]] have hoped it might—by being the unmediated expression of something non-linguistic (e.g., an emotion, a sense-datum, a physical object, an idea, a [[Platonic Form]])".<ref name="Theory"/> As a consequence, meaning is never present, but rather is deferred to other signs. Derrida refers to the—in this view, mistaken—belief that there is a self-sufficient, non-deferred meaning as [[metaphysics of presence]]. A concept, then, must be understood in the context of its opposite, such as being/nothingness, normal/abnormal, speech/writing, etc.<ref name="Writing">{{cite book|last1=Derrida|first1=Jacques|last2=Bass|first2=Alan|title=Writing and Difference|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0203991787|page=276|edition=New|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/?id=nsyH7x41RpsC&pg=PA276|accessdate=8 September 2017|chapter=7 :Freud and the Scene of Writing|quote=The model of hieroglyphic writing assembles more strikingly—though we find it in every form of writing—the diversity of the modes and functions of signs in dreams. Every sign—verbal or otherwise—may be used at different levels, in configurations and functions which are never prescribed by its "essence," but emerge from a play of differences.}}</ref><ref name="Derrida2">{{cite book|last1=Derrida|first1=Jacques|title=Positions|date=1982|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226143316|language=en}}</ref>{{rp|26}} | + | According to Derrida and taking inspiration from the work of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], language as a system of signs and words only has meaning because of the contrast between these signs. |
| - | Further, Derrida contends that "in a classical philosophical opposition we are not dealing with the peaceful coexistence of a vis-a-vis, but rather with a violent hierarchy. One of the two terms governs the other (axiologically, logically, etc.), or has the upper hand": signified over signifier; intelligible over sensible; speech over writing; activity over passivity, etc. The first task of deconstruction would be to find and overturn these oppositions inside a text or a corpus of texts; but the final objective of deconstruction is not to surpass all oppositions, because it is assumed they are structurally necessary to produce sense. The oppositions simply cannot be suspended once and for all. The hierarchy of dual oppositions always reestablishes itself. Deconstruction only points to the necessity of an unending analysis that can make explicit the decisions and arbitrary violence intrinsic to all texts.<ref name="Derrida2"/>{{rp|41}} | + | As [[Richard Rorty|Rorty]] contends, "words have meaning only because of contrast-effects with other words...no word can acquire meaning in the way in which philosophers from [[Aristotle]] to [[Bertrand Russell]] have hoped it might—by being the unmediated expression of something non-linguistic (e.g., an emotion, a sense-datum, a physical object, an idea, a [[Platonic Form]])". As a consequence, meaning is never present, but rather is deferred to other signs. Derrida refers to the—in this view, mistaken—belief that there is a self-sufficient, non-deferred meaning as [[metaphysics of presence]]. A concept, then, must be understood in the context of its opposite, such as being/nothingness, normal/abnormal, speech/writing, etc. |
| - | Finally, Derrida argues that it is not enough to expose and deconstruct the way oppositions work and then stop there in a nihilistic or cynical position, "thereby preventing any means of intervening in the field effectively".<ref name="Derrida2"/>{{rp|42}} To be effective, deconstruction needs to create new terms, not to synthesize the concepts in opposition, but to mark their difference and eternal interplay. This explains why Derrida always proposes new terms in his deconstruction, not as a free play but as a pure necessity of analysis, to better mark the intervals. Derrida called undecidables—that is, unities of simulacrum—"false" verbal properties (nominal or semantic) that can no longer be included within philosophical (binary) opposition, but which, however, inhabit philosophical oppositions—resisting and organizing it—without ever constituting a third term, without ever leaving room for a solution in the form of Hegelian dialectics (e.g., [[différance]], [[archi-writing]], [[Pharmakon (philosophy)|pharmakon]], supplement, hymen, gram, spacing).<ref name="Derrida2"/>{{rp|19}} | + | Further, Derrida contends that "in a classical philosophical opposition we are not dealing with the peaceful coexistence of a vis-a-vis, but rather with a violent hierarchy. One of the two terms governs the other (axiologically, logically, etc.), or has the upper hand": signified over signifier; intelligible over sensible; speech over writing; activity over passivity, etc. The first task of deconstruction would be to find and overturn these oppositions inside a text or a corpus of texts; but the final objective of deconstruction is not to surpass all oppositions, because it is assumed they are structurally necessary to produce sense. The oppositions simply cannot be suspended once and for all. The hierarchy of dual oppositions always reestablishes itself. Deconstruction only points to the necessity of an unending analysis that can make explicit the decisions and arbitrary violence intrinsic to all texts. |
| + | |||
| + | Finally, Derrida argues that it is not enough to expose and deconstruct the way oppositions work and then stop there in a nihilistic or cynical position, "thereby preventing any means of intervening in the field effectively". To be effective, deconstruction needs to create new terms, not to synthesize the concepts in opposition, but to mark their difference and eternal interplay. This explains why Derrida always proposes new terms in his deconstruction, not as a free play but as a pure necessity of analysis, to better mark the intervals. Derrida called undecidables—that is, unities of simulacrum—"false" verbal properties (nominal or semantic) that can no longer be included within philosophical (binary) opposition, but which, however, inhabit philosophical oppositions—resisting and organizing it—without ever constituting a third term, without ever leaving room for a solution in the form of Hegelian dialectics (e.g., [[différance]], [[archi-writing]], [[Pharmakon (philosophy)|pharmakon]], supplement, hymen, gram, spacing). | ||
| ==Influences== | ==Influences== | ||
| - | Derrida's theories on deconstruction were themselves influenced by the work of linguists such as Ferdinand de Saussure (whose writings on [[semiotics]] also became a cornerstone of structuralist theory in the mid-20th century) and literary theorists such as [[Roland Barthes]] (whose works were an investigation of the logical ends of structuralist thought). Derrida's views on deconstruction stood in opposition to the theories of structuralists such as psychoanalytic theorist [[Jacques Lacan]], and anthropologist [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]. However, Derrida resisted attempts to label his work as "[[Post-structuralism|post-structuralist]]".{{Citation needed|reason=Correct but this entire paragraph needs references.|date=December 2013}} | + | Derrida's theories on deconstruction were themselves influenced by the work of linguists such as Ferdinand de Saussure (whose writings on [[semiotics]] also became a cornerstone of structuralist theory in the mid-20th century) and literary theorists such as [[Roland Barthes]] (whose works were an investigation of the logical ends of structuralist thought). Derrida's views on deconstruction stood in opposition to the theories of structuralists such as psychoanalytic theorist [[Jacques Lacan]], and anthropologist [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]. However, Derrida resisted attempts to label his work as "[[Post-structuralism|post-structuralist]]". |
| ===Influence of Nietzsche=== | ===Influence of Nietzsche=== | ||
| In order to understand Derrida's motivation, one must refer to Nietzsche's philosophy. | In order to understand Derrida's motivation, one must refer to Nietzsche's philosophy. | ||
| - | Nietzsche's project began with Orpheus, the man underground. This foil to Platonic light was deliberately and self-consciously lauded in ''Daybreak'', when Nietzsche announces, albeit retrospectively, "In this work you will discover a subterranean man at work", and then goes on to map the project of unreason: "All things that live long are gradually so saturated with reason that their origin in unreason thereby becomes improbable. Does not almost every precise history of an origination impress our feelings as paradoxical and wantonly offensive? Does the good historian not, at bottom, constantly contradict?".<ref>{{cite book|title=Daybreak: Thoughts on the Prejudices of Morality|last1=Nietzsche|first1=Friedrich|last2=Clark|first2=Maudemarie|last3=Leiter|first3=Brian|last4=Hollingdale|first4=R.J.|date=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=|isbn=978-0521599634|location=Cambridge, U.K.|pages=8-9}}</ref> | + | Nietzsche's project began with Orpheus, the man underground. This foil to Platonic light was deliberately and self-consciously lauded in ''Daybreak'', when Nietzsche announces, albeit retrospectively, "In this work you will discover a subterranean man at work", and then goes on to map the project of unreason: "All things that live long are gradually so saturated with reason that their origin in unreason thereby becomes improbable. Does not almost every precise history of an origination impress our feelings as paradoxical and wantonly offensive? Does the good historian not, at bottom, constantly contradict?". |
| Nietzsche's point in ''Daybreak'' is that standing at the end of modern history, modern thinkers know too much to be deceived by the illusion of reason any more. Reason, logic, philosophy and science are no longer solely sufficient as the royal roads to truth. And so Nietzsche decides to throw it in our faces, and uncover the truth of Plato, that he—unlike Orpheus—just happened to discover his true love in the light instead of in the dark. This being merely one historical event amongst many, Nietzsche proposes that we revisualize the history of the West as the history of a series of political moves, that is, a manifestation of the will to power, that at bottom have no greater or lesser claim to truth in any noumenal (absolute) sense. By calling our attention to the fact that he has assumed the role of Orpheus, the man underground, in dialectical opposition to Plato, Nietzsche hopes to sensitize us to the political and cultural context, and the political influences that impact authorship. For example, the political influences that led one author to choose philosophy over poetry (or at least ''portray'' himself as having made such a choice), and another to make a different choice. | Nietzsche's point in ''Daybreak'' is that standing at the end of modern history, modern thinkers know too much to be deceived by the illusion of reason any more. Reason, logic, philosophy and science are no longer solely sufficient as the royal roads to truth. And so Nietzsche decides to throw it in our faces, and uncover the truth of Plato, that he—unlike Orpheus—just happened to discover his true love in the light instead of in the dark. This being merely one historical event amongst many, Nietzsche proposes that we revisualize the history of the West as the history of a series of political moves, that is, a manifestation of the will to power, that at bottom have no greater or lesser claim to truth in any noumenal (absolute) sense. By calling our attention to the fact that he has assumed the role of Orpheus, the man underground, in dialectical opposition to Plato, Nietzsche hopes to sensitize us to the political and cultural context, and the political influences that impact authorship. For example, the political influences that led one author to choose philosophy over poetry (or at least ''portray'' himself as having made such a choice), and another to make a different choice. | ||
| - | The problem with Nietzsche, as Derrida sees it, is that he did not go far enough. That he missed the fact that this will to power is itself but a manifestation of the operation of writing. And so Derrida wishes to help us step beyond Nietzsche's penultimate revaluation of all western values, to the ultimate, which is the final appreciation of "the role of writing in the production of knowledge".<ref name="Zuckert"/> | + | The problem with Nietzsche, as Derrida sees it, is that he did not go far enough. That he missed the fact that this will to power is itself but a manifestation of the operation of writing. And so Derrida wishes to help us step beyond Nietzsche's penultimate revaluation of all western values, to the ultimate, which is the final appreciation of "the role of writing in the production of knowledge". |
| ===Influence of Saussure=== | ===Influence of Saussure=== | ||
| - | Derrida approaches all texts as constructed around elemental oppositions which all [[discourse]] has to articulate if it intends to make any sense whatsoever. This is so because identity is viewed in [[Non-essentialism|non-essentialist]] terms as a construct, and because constructs only produce meaning through the interplay of [[difference (philosophy)|difference]] inside a "system of distinct signs". This approach to text is influenced by the [[semiology]] of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Royle|first1=Nick|title=Jacques Derrida|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9780415229319|pages=6–623|edition=Reprint|url=https://books.google.com/?id=nNaSdb9VMTwC&pg=PA62|accessdate=8 September 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Derrida|first1=Jacques|last2=Ferraris|first2=Maurizio|title=A Taste for the Secret|date=2001|publisher=Wiley|location=|isbn=9780745623344|page=76|quote=I take great interest in questions of language and rhetoric, and I think they deserve enormous consideration; but there is a point where the authority of final jurisdiction is neither rhetorical nor linguistic, nor even discursive. The notion of trace or of text is introduced to mark the limits of the linguistic turn. This is one more reason why I prefer to speak of 'mark' rather than of language. In the first place the mark is not anthropological; it is prelinguistic; it is the possibility of language, and it is every where there is a relation to another thing or relation to an other. For such relations, the mark has no need of language.}}</ref> | + | Derrida approaches all texts as constructed around elemental oppositions which all [[discourse]] has to articulate if it intends to make any sense whatsoever. This is so because identity is viewed in [[Non-essentialism|non-essentialist]] terms as a construct, and because constructs only produce meaning through the interplay of [[difference (philosophy)|difference]] inside a "system of distinct signs". This approach to text is influenced by the [[semiology]] of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]. |
| Saussure is considered one of the fathers of [[structuralism]] when he explained that terms get their meaning in reciprocal determination with other terms inside language: | Saussure is considered one of the fathers of [[structuralism]] when he explained that terms get their meaning in reciprocal determination with other terms inside language: | ||
| - | <blockquote>In language there are only differences. Even more important: a difference generally implies positive terms between which the difference is set up; but in language there are only differences without positive terms. Whether we take the signified or the signifier, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system. The idea or phonic substance that a sign contains is of less importance than the other signs that surround it. [...] A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas; but the pairing of a certain number of acoustical signs with as many cuts made from the mass thought engenders a system of values.<ref name="Saussure"/></blockquote> | + | <blockquote>In language there are only differences. Even more important: a difference generally implies positive terms between which the difference is set up; but in language there are only differences without positive terms. Whether we take the signified or the signifier, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system. The idea or phonic substance that a sign contains is of less importance than the other signs that surround it. [...] A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas; but the pairing of a certain number of acoustical signs with as many cuts made from the mass thought engenders a system of values. |
| - | + | </blockquote> | |
| - | Saussure explicitly suggested that linguistics was only a branch of a more general semiology, a science of signs in general, human codes being only one part. Nevertheless, in the end, as Derrida pointed out, Saussure made linguistics "the regulatory model", and "for essential, and essentially metaphysical, reasons had to privilege speech, and everything that links the sign to phone".<ref name="Derrida2"/>{{rp|21, 46, 101, 156, 164}} Derrida will prefer to follow the more "fruitful paths (formalization)" of a general semiotics without falling into what he considered "a hierarchizing teleology" privileging linguistics, and to speak of "mark" rather than of language, not as something restricted to mankind, but as prelinguistic, as the pure possibility of language, working everywhere there is a relation to something else. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==Deconstruction according to Derrida== | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ===Etymology=== | + | |
| - | Derrida's original use of the word "deconstruction" was a translation of ''[[Destruktion]]'', a concept from the work of [[Martin Heidegger]] that Derrida sought to apply to textual reading. Heidegger's term referred to a process of exploring the categories and concepts that tradition has imposed on a word, and the history behind them.<ref name="Heidegger">{{cite book|last1=Heidegger|first1=Martin|last2=Macquarrie|first2=John|last3=Robinson|first3=Edward|title=Being and Time|date=2006|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=9780631197706|pages=21–23|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/?id=S57m5gW0L-MC|accessdate=8 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ===Basic philosophical concerns=== | + | |
| - | Derrida's concerns flow from a consideration of several issues: | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | # A desire to contribute to the re-evaluation of all Western values, a re-evaluation built on the 18th-century Kantian critique of pure reason, and carried forward to the 19th century, in its more radical implications, by [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]. | + | |
| - | # An assertion that texts outlive their authors, and become part of a set of cultural habits equal to, if not surpassing, the importance of authorial intent. | + | |
| - | # A re-valuation of certain classic western dialectics: poetry vs. philosophy, reason vs. revelation, structure vs. creativity, [[episteme]] vs. [[techne]], etc. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | To this end, Derrida follows a long line of modern philosophers, who look backwards to Plato and his influence on the Western metaphysical tradition.<ref name="Zuckert">{{cite book|last1=Zuckert|first1=Catherine H.|title=Postmodern Platos: Nietzsche, Heidegger, Gadamer, Strauss, Derrida|date=1996|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0226993317|chapter=7}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2017}} Like Nietzsche, Derrida suspects Plato of dissimulation in the service of a political project, namely the education, through critical reflections, of a class of citizens more strategically positioned to influence the polis. However, like Nietzsche, Derrida is not satisfied merely with such a political interpretation of Plato, because of the particular dilemma modern humans find themselves in. His Platonic reflections are inseparably part of his critique of modernity, hence the attempt to be something beyond the modern, because of this Nietzschian sense that the modern has lost its way and become mired in nihilism. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ===Différance=== | + | |
| - | {{Main|Différance}} | + | |
| - | Différance is the observation that the meanings of words come from their [[Synchrony and diachrony|synchrony]] with other words within the language and their [[Synchrony and diachrony|diachrony]] between contemporary and historical definitions of a word. Understanding language, according to Derrida, requires an understanding of both viewpoints of linguistic analysis. The focus on diachrony has led to accusations against Derrida of engaging in the [[etymological fallacy]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Soskice|first1=Janet Martin|title=Metaphor and Religious Language|date=1987|publisher=Clarendon|location=Oxford|isbn=9780198249825|pages=80–82|edition=Paperback}}</ref> | + | |
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| - | There is one statement by Derrida—in an essay on [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] in ''[[Of Grammatology]]''—which has been of great interest to his opponents.<ref name="Derrida"/>{{rp|158}} It is the assertion that "there is no outside-text" (''il n'y a pas de hors-texte''),<ref name="Derrida"/>{{rp|158–59, 163}} which is often mistranslated as "there is nothing outside of the text". The mistranslation is often used to suggest Derrida believes that nothing exists but words. [[Michel Foucault]], for instance, famously misattributed to Derrida the very different phrase "Il n'y a rien en dehors du texte" for this purpose.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Foucault|first1=Michel|last2=Howard|first2=Richard|last3=Cooper|first3=David|title=Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0415253857|page=602|edition=Reprint}}</ref> According to Derrida, his statement simply refers to the unavoidability of context that is at the heart of différance.<ref name="Limited">{{cite book|last1=Derrida|first1=Jacques|title=Limited Inc|date=1995|publisher=Northwestern University Press|location=Evanston|isbn=978-0810107885|edition=4th|title-link=Limited Inc}}</ref>{{rp|133}} | + | |
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| - | For example, the word "house" derives its meaning more as a function of how it differs from "shed", "mansion", "hotel", "building", etc. (Form of Content, that [[Louis Hjelmslev]] distinguished from Form of Expression) than how the word "house" may be tied to a certain image of a traditional house (i.e., the relationship between [[signified and signifier]]), with each term being established in reciprocal determination with the other terms than by an ostensive description or definition: when can we talk about a "house" or a "mansion" or a "shed"? The same can be said about verbs, in all the languages in the world: when should we stop saying "walk" and start saying "run"? The same happens, of course, with adjectives: when must we stop saying "yellow" and start saying "orange", or exchange "past" for "present"? Not only are the topological differences between the words relevant here, but the differentials between what is signified is also covered by différance. | + | |
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| - | Thus, complete meaning is always "differential" and ''postponed'' in language; there is never a moment when meaning is complete and total. A simple example would consist of looking up a given word in a dictionary, then proceeding to look up the words found in that word's definition, etc., also comparing with older dictionaries. Such a process would never end. | + | |
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| - | ===Metaphysics of presence=== | + | |
| - | {{Main|Metaphysics of presence}} | + | |
| - | Derrida describes the task of deconstruction as the identification of metaphysics of presence, or ''logocentrism'' in western philosophy. Metaphysics of presence is the desire for immediate access to meaning, the privileging of presence over absence. This means that there is an assumed bias in certain binary oppositions where one side is placed in a position over another, such as good over bad, speech over the written word, male over female. Derrida writes, "Without a doubt, Aristotle thinks of time on the basis of ousia as parousia, on the basis of the now, the point, etc. And yet an entire reading could be organized that would repeat in Aristotle's text both this limitation and its opposite".<ref name="Heidegger"/>{{rp|29–67}} To Derrida, the central bias of logocentrism was the now being placed as more important than the future or past. This argument is largely based on the earlier work of Heidegger, who, in ''[[Being and Time]]'', claimed that the theoretical attitude of pure presence is parasitical upon a more originary involvement with the world in concepts such as [[ready-to-hand]] and [[being-with]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} | + | |
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| - | ===Deconstruction and dialectics=== | + | |
| - | In the deconstruction procedure, one of the main concerns of Derrida is to not collapse into Hegel's dialectic, where these oppositions would be reduced to contradictions in a dialectic that has the purpose of resolving it into a synthesis.<ref name="Derrida2"/>{{rp|43}} The presence of Hegelian dialectics was enormous in the intellectual life of France during the second half of the 20th century, with the influence of Kojève and Hyppolite, but also with the impact of dialectics based on contradiction developed by Marxists, and including the existentialism of Sartre, etc. This explains Derrida's concern to always distinguish his procedure from Hegel's,<ref name="Derrida2"/>{{rp|43}} since Hegelianism believes binary oppositions would produce a synthesis, while Derrida saw binary oppositions as incapable of collapsing into a synthesis free from the original contradiction. | + | |
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| - | ==Difficulty of definition== | + | |
| - | There have been problems defining deconstruction. Derrida claimed that all of his essays were attempts to define what deconstruction is,<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|4}} and that deconstruction is necessarily complicated and difficult to explain since it actively criticises the very language needed to explain it. | + | |
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| - | ===Derrida's "negative" descriptions=== | + | |
| - | Derrida has been more forthcoming with negative ([[wikt:apophatic|apophatic]]) than with positive descriptions of deconstruction. When asked by [[Toshihiko Izutsu]] some preliminary considerations on how to translate "deconstruction" in Japanese, in order to at least prevent using a Japanese term contrary to deconstruction's actual meaning, Derrida began his response by saying that such a question amounts to "what deconstruction is not, or rather ''ought'' not to be".<ref name="Wood">{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=David|last2=Bernasconi|first2=Robert|title=Derrida and Sifférance|date=1988|publisher=Northwestern University Press|location=Evanston, Illinois|isbn=9780810107861|edition=Reprinted}}</ref>{{rp|1}} | + | |
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| - | Derrida states that deconstruction is not an analysis, a critique, or a method<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} in the traditional sense that philosophy understands these terms. In these negative descriptions of deconstruction, Derrida is seeking to "multiply the cautionary indicators and put aside all the traditional philosophical concepts".<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} This does not mean that deconstruction has absolutely nothing in common with an analysis, a critique, or a method, because while Derrida distances deconstruction from these terms, he reaffirms "the necessity of returning to them, at least under erasure".<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} Derrida's necessity of returning to a term [[sous rature|under erasure]] means that even though these terms are problematic we must use them until they can be effectively reformulated or replaced. The relevance of the tradition of negative theology to Derrida's preference for negative descriptions of deconstruction is the notion that a positive description of deconstruction would over-determine the idea of deconstruction and would close off the openness that Derrida wishes to preserve for deconstruction. If Derrida were to positively define deconstruction—as, for example, a critique—then this would make the concept of critique immune to itself being deconstructed. Some new philosophy beyond deconstruction would then be required in order to encompass the notion of critique. | + | |
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| - | ====Not a method==== | + | |
| - | Derrida states that "Deconstruction is not a method, and cannot be transformed into one".<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} This is because deconstruction is not a mechanical operation. Derrida warns against considering deconstruction as a mechanical operation, when he states that "It is true that in certain circles (university or cultural, especially in the United States) the technical and methodological "metaphor" that seems necessarily attached to the very word 'deconstruction' has been able to seduce or lead astray".<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} Commentator Richard Beardsworth explains that | + | |
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| - | <blockquote>Derrida is careful to avoid this term [method] because it carries connotations of a procedural form of judgement. A thinker with a method has already decided ''how'' to proceed, is unable to give him or herself up to the matter of thought in hand, is a functionary of the criteria which structure his or her conceptual gestures. For Derrida [...] this is irresponsibility itself. Thus, to talk of a method in relation to deconstruction, especially regarding its ethico-political implications, would appear to go directly against the current of Derrida's philosophical adventure.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Beardsworth|first1=Richard|title=Derrida & The Political|date=1996|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-1134837380|page=4}}</ref></blockquote> | + | |
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| - | Beardsworth here explains that it would be irresponsible to undertake a deconstruction with a complete set of rules that need only be applied as a method to the object of deconstruction, because this understanding would reduce deconstruction to a thesis of the reader that the text is then made to fit. This would be an irresponsible act of reading, because it becomes a prejudicial procedure that only finds what it sets out to find. | + | |
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| - | ====Not a critique==== | + | |
| - | Derrida states that deconstruction is not a [[critique]] in the Kantian sense.<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} This is because [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] defines the term critique as the opposite of [[dogmatism]]. For Derrida, it is not possible to escape the dogmatic baggage of the language we use in order to perform a pure critique in the Kantian sense. Language is dogmatic because it is inescapably [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]]. Derrida argues that language is inescapably metaphysical because it is made up of [[Sign (linguistics)|signifiers]] that only refer to that which transcends them—the signified.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} In addition, Derrida asks rhetorically "Is not the idea of knowledge and of the acquisition of knowledge in itself metaphysical?"<ref name="Allison"/>{{rp|5}} By this, Derrida means that all claims to know something necessarily involve an assertion of the metaphysical type that something ''is'' the case somewhere. For Derrida the concept of neutrality is suspect and dogmatism is therefore involved in everything to a certain degree. Deconstruction can challenge a particular dogmatism and hence desediment dogmatism in general, but it cannot escape all dogmatism all at once. | + | |
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| - | ====Not an analysis==== | + | |
| - | Derrida states that deconstruction is not an [[analysis]] in the traditional sense.<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} This is because the possibility of analysis is predicated on the possibility of breaking up the text being analysed into elemental component parts. Derrida argues that there are no self-sufficient units of meaning in a text, because individual words or sentences in a text can only be properly understood in terms of how they fit into the larger structure of the text and language itself. For more on Derrida's theory of meaning see the article on [[différance]]. | + | |
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| - | ====Not post-structuralist==== | + | |
| - | Derrida states that his use of the word deconstruction first took place in a context in which "[[structuralism]] was dominant" and deconstruction's meaning is within this context. Derrida states that deconstruction is an "antistructuralist gesture" because "[s]tructures were to be undone, decomposed, desedimented". At the same time, deconstruction is also a "structuralist gesture" because it is concerned with the structure of texts. So, deconstruction involves "a certain attention to structures"<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|2}} and tries to "understand how an 'ensemble' was constituted".<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} As both a structuralist and an antistructuralist gesture, deconstruction is tied up with what Derrida calls the "structural problematic".<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|2}} The structural problematic for Derrida is the tension between genesis, that which is "in the essential mode of creation or movement", and structure: "systems, or complexes, or static configurations".<ref name="Writing"/>{{rp|194}} An example of genesis would be the [[sense|sensory]] [[idea]]s from which knowledge is then derived in the [[empirical]] [[epistemology]]. An example of structure would be a [[binary opposition]] such as [[good and evil]] where the meaning of each element is established, at least partly, through its relationship to the other element. | + | |
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| - | It is for this reason that Derrida distances his use of the term deconstruction from [[post-structuralism]], a term that would suggest that philosophy could simply go beyond structuralism. Derrida states that "the motif of deconstruction has been associated with 'post-structuralism{{' "}}, but that this term was "a word unknown in France until its 'return' from the United States".<ref name="Wood"/>{{rp|3}} In his deconstruction of Husserl, Derrida actually argues {{em|for}} the contamination of pure origins by the structures of language and temporality. [[Manfred Frank]] has even referred to Derrida's work as "Neostructuralism", identifying a "distaste for the metaphysical concepts of domination and system".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Frank|first1=Manfred|title=What is Neostructuralism?|date=1989|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=978-0816616022}}</ref><ref>Buchanan, Ian. ''A dictionary of critical theory''. OUP Oxford, 2010. Entry: Neostructuralism.</ref> | + | |
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| - | ===Alternative definitions=== | + | |
| - | The popularity of the term deconstruction, combined with the technical difficulty of Derrida's primary material on deconstruction and his reluctance to elaborate his understanding of the term, has meant that many secondary sources have attempted to give a more straightforward explanation than Derrida himself ever attempted. Secondary definitions are therefore an interpretation of deconstruction by the person offering them rather than a summary of Derrida's actual position. | + | |
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| - | * [[Paul de Man]] was a member of the [[Yale School]] and a prominent practitioner of deconstruction as he understood it. His definition of deconstruction is that, "[i]t's possible, within text, to frame a question or undo assertions made in the text, by means of elements which are in the text, which frequently would be precisely structures that play off the rhetorical against grammatical elements."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moynihan|first1=Robert|title=A Recent imagining: interviews with Harold Bloom, Geoffrey Hartman, J. Hillis Miller, Paul De Man|date=1986|publisher=Archon Books|location=Hamden, Connecticut|isbn=9780208021205|page=156|edition=1st}}</ref> | + | |
| - | * [[Richard Rorty]] was a prominent interpreter of Derrida's philosophy. His definition of deconstruction is that, "the term 'deconstruction' refers in the first instance to the way in which the 'accidental' features of a text can be seen as betraying, subverting, its purportedly 'essential' message."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brooks|first1=Peter|title=The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism: From Formalism to Poststructuralism|date=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780521300131|edition=1st}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2017}} | + | |
| - | * [[John D. Caputo]] attempts to explain deconstruction in a nutshell by stating:<blockquote>"Whenever deconstruction finds a nutshell—a secure axiom or a pithy maxim—the very idea is to crack it open and disturb this tranquility. Indeed, that is a good rule of thumb in deconstruction. ''That'' is what deconstruction is all about, its very meaning and mission, if it has any. One might even say that cracking nutshells is what deconstruction ''is''. In a nutshell. ...Have we not run up against a paradox and an [[aporia]] [something contradictory]...the paralysis and impossibility of an aporia is just what impels deconstruction, what rouses it out of bed in the morning..."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Caputo|first1=John D.|title=Deconstruction in a Nutshell: A Conversation with Jacques Derrida|date=1997|publisher=Fordham University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780823217557|page=32|edition=3rd}}</ref></blockquote> | + | |
| - | * [[Niall Lucy]] points to the impossibility of defining the term at all, stating: <blockquote>"While in a sense it ''is'' impossibly difficult to define, the impossibility has less to do with the adoption of a position or the assertion of a choice on deconstruction's part than with the impossibility of every 'is' as such. Deconstruction begins, as it were, from a refusal of the authority or determining power of every 'is', or simply from a refusal of authority in general. While such refusal may indeed count as a position, it is not the case that deconstruction holds this as a sort of 'preference' ".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lucy|first1=Niall|title=A Derrida DIctionary|date=2004|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=978-1405137515}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2017}}</blockquote> | + | |
| - | * David B. Allison is an early translator of Derrida and states, in the introduction to his translation of ''Speech and Phenomena'': <blockquote>[Deconstruction] signifies a project of critical thought whose task is to locate and 'take apart' those concepts which serve as the axioms or rules for a period of thought, those concepts which command the unfolding of an entire epoch of metaphysics. 'Deconstruction' is somewhat less negative than the Heideggerian or Nietzschean terms 'destruction' or 'reversal'; it suggests that certain foundational concepts of metaphysics will never be entirely eliminated...There is no simple 'overcoming' of metaphysics or the language of metaphysics.</blockquote> | + | |
| - | * [[Paul Ricœur]] defines deconstruction as a way of uncovering the questions behind the answers of a text or tradition.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Klein|first1=Anne Carolyn|title=Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self|date=1994|publisher=Beacon Press|location=Boston|isbn=9780807073063|url=https://archive.org/details/meetinggreatblis00kleirich}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2013}} | + | |
| - | * Richard Ellmann defines 'deconstruction' as the systematic undoing of understanding.{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}} | + | |
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| - | A survey of the secondary literature reveals a wide range of heterogeneous arguments. Particularly problematic are the attempts to give neat introductions to deconstruction by people trained in literary criticism who sometimes have little or no expertise in the relevant areas of philosophy that Derrida is working in. These secondary works (e.g. ''Deconstruction for Beginners''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Powell|first1=Jim|title=Deconstruction for Beginners|date=2005|publisher=Writers and Readers Publishing|location=Danbury, Connecticut|isbn=978-0863169984}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2017}} and ''Deconstructions: A User's Guide'')<ref>{{cite book|last1=Royle|first1=Nicholas|title=Deconstructions: A User's Guide|date=2000|publisher=Palgrave|location=New York|isbn=978-0333717615}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2017}} have attempted to explain deconstruction while being academically criticized as too far removed from the original texts and Derrida's actual position.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} | + | |
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| - | ==Application== | + | |
| - | Derrida's observations have greatly influenced literary criticism and post-structuralism. | + | |
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| - | ===Literary criticism=== | + | |
| - | Derrida's method consisted of demonstrating all the forms and varieties of the originary complexity of [[semiotics]], and their multiple consequences in many fields. His way of achieving this was by conducting thorough, careful, sensitive, and yet transformational readings of philosophical and literary texts, with an ear to what in those texts runs counter to their apparent systematicity (structural unity) or intended sense (authorial genesis). By demonstrating the [[aporia]]s and ellipses of thought, Derrida hoped to show the infinitely subtle ways that this originary complexity, which by definition cannot ever be completely known, works its structuring and destructuring effects.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sallis|first1=John|authorlink=John Sallis|title=Deconstruction and Philosophy: The Texts of Jacques Derrida|date=1988|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0226734392|pages=3–4|edition=Paperback|quote=One of the more persistent misunderstandings that has thus far forestalled a productive debate with Derrida's philosophical thought is the assumption, shared by many philosophers as well as literary critics, that within that thought just anything is possible. Derrida's philosophy is more often than not construed as a license for arbitrary free play in flagrant disregard of all established rules of argumentation, traditional requirements of thought, and ethical standards binding upon the interpretative community. Undoubtedly, some of the works of Derrida may not have been entirely innocent in this respect, and may have contributed, however obliquely, to fostering to some extent that very misconception. But deconstruction which for many has come to designate the content and style of Derrida's thinking, reveals to even a superficial examination, a well-ordered procedure, a step-by-step type of argumentation based on an acute awareness of level-distinctions, a marked thoroughness and regularity. [...] Deconstruction must be understood, we contend, as the attempt to "account," in a certain manner, for a heterogeneous variety or manifold of nonlogical contradictions and discursive equalities of all sorts that continues to haunt and fissure even the ''successful'' development of philosophical arguments and their systematic exposition}}</ref> | + | |
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| - | Deconstruction denotes the [[Hermeneutics|pursuing of the meaning]] of a text to the point of exposing the supposed contradictions and internal oppositions upon which it is founded—supposedly showing that those foundations are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. It is an approach that may be deployed in philosophy, in [[literary analysis]], and even in the analysis of scientific writings.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hobson|first1=Marian|author-link=Marian Hobson|title=Jacques Derrida: Opening Lines|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134774449|page=51|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Kl146cNpzNQC&pg=PA51|accessdate=8 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> Deconstruction generally tries to demonstrate that any text is not a discrete whole but contains several irreconcilable and contradictory meanings; that any text therefore has more than one interpretation; that the text itself links these interpretations inextricably; that the incompatibility of these interpretations is irreducible; and thus that an interpretative reading cannot go beyond a certain point. Derrida refers to this point as an "aporia" in the text; thus, deconstructive reading is termed "aporetic."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Currie|first1=M.|title=The Invention of Deconstruction|date=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781137307033|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/?id=i3ecdVgknGkC&pg=PA80|accessdate=8 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> He insists that meaning is made possible by the relations of a word to other words within the network of structures that language is.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mantzavinos|first1=C.|title=Hermeneutics|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/#Semiotics|website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|accessdate=8 September 2017|date=2016}}</ref> | + | |
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| - | Derrida initially resisted granting to his approach the overarching name "deconstruction", on the grounds that it was a precise technical term that could not be used to characterize his work generally. Nevertheless, he eventually accepted that the term had come into common use to refer to his textual approach, and Derrida himself increasingly began to use the term in this more general way. | + | |
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| - | Derrida's deconstruction strategy is also used by [[Postmodernism|postmodernists]] to locate meaning in a text rather than discover meaning due to the position that it has multiple readings. There is a focus on the deconstruction that denotes the tearing apart of a text to find arbitrary hierarchies and presuppositions for the purpose of tracing contradictions that shadow a text's coherence.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Undermining of Beliefs in the Autonomy and Rationality of Consumers|last=O'Shaughnessy|first=John|last2=O'Shaughnessy|first2=Nicholas Jackson|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-0415773232|location=Oxon|pages=103}}</ref> Here, the meaning of a text does not reside with the author or the author's intentions because it is dependent on the interaction between reader and text.<ref name=":1" /> Even the process of [[translation]] is also seen as transformative since it "modifies the original even as it modifies the translating language."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Deconstruction and Translation|last=Davis|first=Kathleen|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=9781900650281|location=New York|pages=41}}</ref> | + | |
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| - | ===Critique of structuralism=== | + | |
| - | Derrida's lecture at [[Johns Hopkins University]], "[[Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences|Structure, Sign, and Play in the Human Sciences]]", often appears in collections as a manifesto against structuralism. Derrida's essay was one of the earliest to propose some theoretical limitations to structuralism, and to attempt to theorize on terms that were clearly no longer structuralist. Structuralism viewed language as a number of signs, composed of a signified (the meaning) and a signifier (the word itself). Derrida proposed that signs always referred to other signs, existing only in relation to each other, and there was therefore no ultimate foundation or centre. This is the basis of [[différance]].<ref>Derrida, "Structure, Sign, and Play" (1966), as printed/translated by Macksey & Donato (1970)</ref> | + | |
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| - | ==Development after Derrida== | + | |
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| - | ===The Yale School=== | + | |
| - | {{Further|Yale school}} | + | |
| - | Between the late 1960s and the early 1980s, many thinkers were influenced by deconstruction, including [[Paul de Man]], [[Geoffrey Hartman]], and [[J. Hillis Miller]]. This group came to be known as the [[Yale school (deconstruction)|Yale school]] and was especially influential in [[literary criticism]]. Derrida and Hillis Miller were subsequently affiliated with the [[University of California Irvine|University of California, Irvine]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tisch|first1=Maude|title=A critical distance|url=http://yaleherald.com/news-and-features/a-critical-distance/|website=The Yale Herald|accessdate=2017-01-27}}</ref> | + | |
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| - | Miller has described deconstruction this way: "Deconstruction is not a dismantling of the structure of a text, but a demonstration that it has already dismantled itself. Its apparently solid ground is no rock, but thin air."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=J. Hillis|title=STEVENS' ROCK AND CRITICISM AS CURE: In Memory of William K. Wimsatt (1907-1975)|journal=The Georgia Review|date=1976|volume=30|issue=1|pages=5–31|jstor=41399571|issn=0016-8386}}</ref> | + | |
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| - | ===Critical legal studies movement=== | + | |
| - | {{Further|Critical legal studies}} | + | |
| - | Arguing that law and politics cannot be separated, the founders of the "Critical Legal Studies Movement" found it necessary to criticize the absence of the recognition of this inseparability at the level of theory. To demonstrate the [[Indeterminacy (philosophy)|indeterminacy]] of legal doctrine, these scholars often adopt a method, such as [[structuralism]] in [[linguistics]], or deconstruction in [[Continental philosophy]], to make explicit the deep structure of categories and tensions at work in legal texts and talk. The aim was to deconstruct the tensions and procedures by which they are constructed, expressed, and deployed. | + | |
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| - | For example, [[Duncan Kennedy (legal philosopher)|Duncan Kennedy]], in explicit reference to semiotics and deconstruction procedures, maintains that various legal doctrines are constructed around the binary pairs of opposed concepts, each of which has a claim upon intuitive and formal forms of reasoning that must be made explicit in their meaning and relative value, and criticized. Self and other, private and public, subjective and objective, freedom and control are examples of such pairs demonstrating the influence of opposing concepts on the development of legal doctrines throughout history.<ref name="Bridge"/> | + | |
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| - | ===''Deconstructing History''=== | + | |
| - | Deconstructive readings of history and sources have changed the entire discipline of history [completely unsubstantiated and dogmatic]. In ''Deconstructing History'', [[Alun Munslow]] examines history in what he argues is a postmodern age. He provides an introduction to the debates and issues of postmodernist history. He also surveys the latest research into the relationship between the past, history, and historical practice, as well as articulating his own theoretical challenges.<ref name="Munslow"/> | + | |
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| - | ===''The Inoperative Community''=== | + | |
| - | [[Jean-Luc Nancy]] argues, in his 1982 book ''The Inoperative Community'', for an understanding of community and society that is undeconstructable because it is prior to conceptualisation. Nancy's work is an important development of deconstruction because it takes the challenge of deconstruction seriously and attempts to develop an understanding of political terms that is undeconstructable and therefore suitable for a philosophy after Derrida. | + | |
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| - | ===''The Ethics of Deconstruction''=== | + | |
| - | [[Simon Critchley]], an English philosopher, argues, in his 1992 book ''The Ethics of Deconstruction'',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Critchley|first1=Simon|authorlink=Simon Critchley|title=The Ethics of Deconstruction: Derrida and Levinas|date=2014|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|location=Edinburgh|isbn=9780748689323|page=352|edition=3rd|url=http://www.euppublishing.com/book/9780748689323 |accessdate=8 September 2017}}</ref> that Derrida's deconstruction is an intrinsically ethical practice. Critchley argues that deconstruction involves an openness to the [[Other (philosophy)|Other]] that makes it ethical in the [[Emmanuel Levinas|Levinasian]] understanding of the term. | + | |
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| - | ===''Derrida and the Political''=== | + | |
| - | Jacques Derrida has had a great influence on contemporary political theory and political philosophy. Derrida's thinking has inspired [[Slavoj Žižek|Slavoj Zizek]], [[Richard Rorty]], [[Ernesto Laclau]], [[Judith Butler]] and many more contemporary theorists who have developed a deconstructive approach to politics. Because deconstruction examines the internal logic of any given text or discourse it has helped many authors to analyse the contradictions inherent in all schools of thought; and, as such, it has proved revolutionary in political analysis, particularly ideology critiques.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McQuillan|first1=Martin|title=The Politics of Deconstruction: Jacques Derrida and the Other of Philosophy|date=2007|publisher=Pluto Press|location=London|isbn=978-0745326740|edition=1st}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2017}} | + | |
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| - | Richard Beardsworth, developing from Critchley's ''Ethics of Deconstruction'', argues, in his 1996 ''Derrida and the Political'', that deconstruction is an intrinsically political practice. He further argues that the future of deconstruction faces a perhaps undecidable choice between a [[deconstruction-and-religion|theological]] approach and a technological approach, represented first of all by the work of [[Bernard Stiegler]]. | + | |
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| - | ==Criticisms== | + | |
| - | Derrida was involved in a number of high-profile disagreements with prominent philosophers, including [[Michel Foucault]], [[John Searle]], [[Willard Van Orman Quine]], [[Peter Kreeft]], and [[Jürgen Habermas]]. Most of the criticism of deconstruction were first articulated by these philosophers and repeated elsewhere. | + | |
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| - | ===John Searle=== | + | |
| - | {{See also|Limited Inc.}} | + | |
| - | In the early 1970s, Searle had a brief exchange with [[Jacques Derrida]] regarding speech-act theory. The exchange was characterized by a degree of mutual hostility between the philosophers, each of whom accused the other of having misunderstood his basic points.<ref name="Limited"/>{{rp|29}}{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}}<!--Footnote provided only sources half the claim.--> Searle was particularly hostile to Derrida's deconstructionist framework and much later refused to let his response to Derrida be printed along with Derrida's papers in the 1988 collection ''[[Limited Inc]]''. Searle did not consider Derrida's approach to be legitimate philosophy, or even intelligible writing, and argued that he did not want to legitimize the deconstructionist point of view by paying any attention to it. Consequently, some critics<ref>{{cite book|last1=Maclachlan|first1=Ian|title=Jacques Derrida: Critical Thought|date=2004|publisher=Ashgate|location=Aldershot|isbn=978-0754608066}}</ref> have considered the exchange to be a series of elaborate misunderstandings rather than a debate, while others<ref name="Alfino">{{cite journal|last1=Alfino|first1=Mark|title=Another Look at the Derrida-Searle Debate|journal=Philosophy & Rhetoric|date=1991|volume=24|issue=2|pages=143–152|jstor=40237667}}</ref> have seen either Derrida or Searle gaining the upper hand. The level of hostility can be seen from Searle's statement that "It would be a mistake to regard Derrida's discussion of Austin as a confrontation between two prominent philosophical traditions", to which Derrida replied that that sentence was "the only sentence of the 'reply' to which I can subscribe".<ref>[[Simon Glendinning]]. 2001. ''Arguing with Derrida''. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 18</ref> Commentators have frequently interpreted the exchange as a prominent example of a confrontation between [[Analytic philosophy|analytic]] and [[Continental philosophy|Continental]] philosophies. | + | |
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| - | The debate began in 1972, when, in his paper "Signature Event Context", Derrida analyzed J. L. Austin's theory of the [[Illocutionary act|illocutionary act]]. While sympathetic to Austin's departure from a purely denotational account of language to one that includes "force", Derrida was sceptical of the framework of normativity employed by Austin. Derrida argued that Austin had missed the fact that any speech event is framed by a "structure of absence" (the words that are left unsaid due to contextual constraints) and by "iterability" (the constraints on what can be said, imposed by what has been said in the past). Derrida argued that the focus on [[intentionality]] in speech-act theory was misguided because intentionality is restricted to that which is already established as a possible intention. He also took issue with the way Austin had excluded the study of fiction, non-serious, or "parasitic" speech, wondering whether this exclusion was because Austin had considered these speech genres as governed by different structures of meaning, or hadn't considered them due to a lack of interest. In his brief reply to Derrida, "Reiterating the Differences: A Reply to Derrida", Searle argued that Derrida's critique was unwarranted because it assumed that Austin's theory attempted to give a full account of language and meaning when its aim was much narrower. Searle considered the omission of parasitic discourse forms to be justified by the narrow scope of Austin's inquiry.<ref>Gregor Campbell. 1993. "John R. Searle" in Irene Rima Makaryk (ed). Encyclopedia of contemporary literary theory: approaches, scholars, terms. University of Toronto Press, 1993</ref><ref>John Searle, "Reiterating the Différences: A Reply to Derrida", Glyph 2 (Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977).</ref> Searle agreed with Derrida's proposal that intentionality presupposes iterability, but did not apply the same concept of intentionality used by Derrida, being unable or unwilling to engage with the continental conceptual apparatus.<ref name="Alfino"/> This, in turn, caused Derrida to criticize Searle for not being sufficiently familiar with [[wikt:phenomenological|phenomenological]] perspectives on intentionality.<ref name="Hobson">Marian Hobson. 1998. Jacques Derrida: opening lines. Psychology Press. pp. 95-97</ref> Searle also argued that Derrida's disagreement with Austin turned on Derrida's having misunderstood Austin's [[type–token distinction]] and having failed to understand Austin's concept of failure in relation to [[performativity]]. Some critics<ref name="Hobson"/> have suggested that Searle, by being so grounded in the analytical tradition that he was unable to engage with Derrida's continental phenomenological tradition, was at fault for the unsuccessful nature of the exchange. | + | |
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| - | Derrida, in his response to Searle ({{nowrap|"a b c ..."}} in ''Limited Inc''), ridiculed Searle's positions. Claiming that a clear sender of Searle's message could not be established, Derrida suggested that Searle had formed with Austin a ''société à responsabilité limitée'' (a "[[limited liability company]]") due to the ways in which the ambiguities of authorship within Searle's reply circumvented the very speech act of his reply. Searle did not reply. Later in 1988, Derrida tried to review his position and his critiques of Austin and Searle, reiterating that he found the constant appeal to "normality" in the analytical tradition to be problematic.<ref name="Limited"/>{{rp|133}}<ref name="Alfino"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Farrell|first1=Frank B.|title=Iterability and Meaning: The Searle-Derrida Debate|journal=Metaphilosophy|date=1 January 1988|volume=19|issue=1|pages=53–64|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9973.1988.tb00701.x|language=en|issn=1467-9973}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fish|first1=Stanley E.|title=With the Compliments of the Author: Reflections on Austin and Derrida|journal=Critical Inquiry|date=1982|volume=8|issue=4|pages=693–721|jstor=1343193}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Edmond|title=Derrida, Searle, Contexts, Games, Riddles|journal=[[New Literary History]]|date=1982|volume=13|issue=3|pages=463–477|doi=10.2307/468793|jstor=468793}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Culler|first1=Jonathan|title=Convention and Meaning: Derrida and Austin|journal=New Literary History|date=1981|volume=13|issue=1|pages=15–30|doi=10.2307/468640|jstor=468640}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kenaan|first1=Hagi|title=Language, philosophy and the risk of failure: rereading the debate between Searle and Derrida|journal=Continental Philosophy Review|date=2002|volume=35|issue=2|pages=117–133|doi=10.1023/A:1016583115826}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Raffel|first1=Stanley|title=Understanding Each Other: The Case of the Derrida-Searle Debate|journal=Human Studies|date=28 July 2011|volume=34|issue=3|pages=277–292|doi=10.1007/s10746-011-9189-6}}</ref> | + | |
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| - | In the debate, Derrida praised Austin's work, but argued that Austin is wrong to banish what Austin calls "infelicities" from the "normal" operation of language. One "infelicity", for instance, occurs when it cannot be known whether a given speech act is "sincere" or "merely citational" (and therefore possibly ironic). Derrida argues that every iteration is necessarily "citational", due to the graphematic nature of speech and writing, and that language could not work at all without the ever-present and ineradicable possibility of such alternate readings. Derrida takes Searle to task for attempting to get around this issue by grounding final authority in the speaker's inaccessible "intention". Derrida argues that intention cannot possibly govern how an iteration signifies, once it becomes hearable or readable. All speech acts borrow from a language whose significance is determined by historical-linguistic context, and by the alternate possibilities that this context makes possible. This significance, Derrida argues, cannot be altered or governed by the whims of intention. | + | |
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| - | Derrida argued against the constant appeal to "normality" in the analytical tradition of which Austin and Searle were paradigmatic examples.<ref name="Limited"/>{{rp|133}} | + | |
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| - | {{quotation| In the description of the structure called "normal," "normative," "central," "ideal,"this possibility must be integrated as an essential possibility. The possibility cannot be treated as though it were a simple accident-marginal or parasitic. It cannot be, and hence ought not to be, and this passage from can to ought reflects the entire difficulty. In the analysis of so-called normal cases, one neither can nor ought, in all theoretical rigor, to exclude the possibility of transgression. Not even provisionally, or out of allegedly methodological considerations. It would be a poor method, since this possibility of transgression tells us immediately and indispensably about the structure of the act said to be normal as well as about the structure of law in general.}} | + | |
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| - | Derrida argued that it was problematic to establish the relation between "nonfiction or standard discourse" and "fiction," defined as its "parasite, "for part of the most originary essence of the latter is to allow fiction, the simulacrum, parasitism, to take place—and in so doing to "de-essentialize" itself as it were".<ref name="Limited"/>{{rp|133}} | + | |
| - | He would finally argue that the indispensable question would then become:<ref name="Limited"/>{{rp|133}} | + | |
| - | {{quotation|what is "nonfiction standard discourse," what must it be and what does this name evoke, once its fictionality or its fictionalization, its transgressive "parasitism," is always possible (and moreover by virtue of the very same words, the same phrases, the same grammar, etc.)? | + | |
| - | <br> This question is all the more indispensable since the rules, and even the statements of the rules governing the relations of "nonfiction standard discourse" and its fictional"parasites," are not things found in nature, but laws, symbolic inventions, or conventions, institutions that, in their very normality as well as in their normativity, entail something of the fictional.}} | + | |
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| - | In 1995, Searle gave a brief reply to Derrida in ''The Construction of Social Reality''. He called Derrida's conclusion "preposterous" and stated that "Derrida, as far as I can tell, does not have an argument. He simply declares that there is nothing outside of texts..."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Searle|first1=John R.|title=The Construction of Social Reality|date=1995|publisher=Free Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0029280454|pages=[https://archive.org/details/constructionofso00sear/page/157 157–160]|edition=3rd|url=https://archive.org/details/constructionofso00sear/page/157}}</ref> Searle's reference here is not to anything forwarded in the debate, but to a mistranslation of the phrase "''il n'y a pas dehors du texte''," ("There is no outside-text") which appears in Derrida's ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.<ref name="Derrida"/>{{rp|158–159}} | + | |
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| - | ===Jürgen Habermas=== | + | |
| - | In ''[[The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity]]'', [[Jürgen Habermas]] criticized what he considered Derrida's opposition to [[Rationality|rational discourse]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Habermas|first1=Jürgen|last2=Lawrence|first2=Frederick|title=The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures|date=2005|publisher=Polity Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0745608303|pages=185–210|edition=Reprinted}}</ref> | + | |
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| - | Further, in an essay on religion and religious language, Habermas criticized Derrida's insistence on [[etymology]] and [[philology]]<ref name=":0" /> (see ''[[Etymological fallacy]]''). | + | |
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| - | ===Walter A. Davis=== | + | |
| - | The American philosopher [[Walter A. Davis]], in ''Inwardness and Existence: Subjectivity in/and Hegel, Heidegger, Marx and Freud'', argues that both deconstruction and structuralism are prematurely arrested moments of a dialectical movement that issues from Hegelian "unhappy consciousness".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davis|first1=Walter A.|authorlink=Walter A. Davis|title=Inwardness and Existence: Subjectivity In/and Hegel, Heidegger, Marx, and Freud|date=1989|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison, Wisconsin|isbn=978-0299120146|edition=1st}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2013}} | + | |
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| - | ===In popular media=== | + | |
| - | Popular criticism of deconstruction intensified following the [[Sokal affair]], which many people took as an indicator of the quality of deconstruction as a whole, despite the absence of Derrida from Sokal's follow-up book ''[[Impostures Intellectuelles]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sokal|first1=Alan D.|title=A Physicist Experiments With Cultural Studies|url=http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/lingua_franca_v4/lingua_franca_v4.html|website=www.physics.nyu.edu|accessdate=3 April 2007|date=May 1996}}</ref> | + | |
| - | [[Chip Morningstar]] holds a view critical of deconstruction, believing it to be ''epistemologically challenged''. He claims the humanities are subject to isolation and genetic drift due to their unaccountability to the world outside academia. During the Second International Conference on Cyberspace (Santa Cruz, California, 1991), he reportedly heckled deconstructionists off the stage.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Steinberg|first1=Steve|title=Hype List|url=https://www.wired.com/1993/01/hypelist-19/|journal=WIRED|accessdate=19 May 2017|date=1 January 1993}}</ref> He subsequently presented his views in the article "How to Deconstruct Almost Anything", where he stated, "Contrary to the report given in the 'Hype List' column of issue #1 of Wired ('Po-Mo Gets Tek-No', page 87), we did not shout down the postmodernists. We made fun of them."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Morningstar|first1=Chip|title=How To Deconstruct Almost Anything: My Postmodern Adventure|url=ftp://ftp.metalab.unc.edu/pub/academic/communications/papers/habitat/deconstr.rtf|date=1993-07-05|accessdate=2017-05-19}}</ref> | + | Saussure explicitly suggested that linguistics was only a branch of a more general semiology, a science of signs in general, human codes being only one part. Nevertheless, in the end, as Derrida pointed out, Saussure made linguistics "the regulatory model", and "for essential, and essentially metaphysical, reasons had to privilege speech, and everything that links the sign to phone". Derrida will prefer to follow the more "fruitful paths (formalization)" of a general semiotics without falling into what he considered "a hierarchizing teleology" privileging linguistics, and to speak of "mark" rather than of language, not as something restricted to mankind, but as prelinguistic, as the pure possibility of language, working everywhere there is a relation to something else. |
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Current revision
Illustration: Ruins of the Tuileries (1871) by Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier
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"The term deconstruction was coined by French philosopher Jacques Derrida in the 1960s and is used in contemporary humanities and social sciences to denote a philosophy that deals with the ways that meaning is constructed and understood by writers, texts, and readers. One way of understanding the term is that it involves discovering, recognizing, and understanding the underlying — and unspoken and implicit — assumptions, ideas, and frameworks that form the basis for thought and belief. It has various shades of meaning in different areas of study and discussion, and is, by its very nature, difficult to define without depending on "un-deconstructed" concepts." --Sholem Stein, 2006 "We are bound to Enlightenment values — the universality of moral principles, the sanctity of individual volition, a detestation of wanton cruelty — and yet we have no choice but to indict the very civilization that begat those values as it goes careening through time leaving pain, death, bewilderment, the wreckage of aboriginal tribes and of rain forests in its wake. But again, the terms of that indictment can be spelled out only in the language of those values. This, and not the mincing word games of the deconstructionists, is the true aporia. The criminal is also accuser and judge."--Higher Superstition (1994) by Gross and Levitt "In actuality, the most inventive way to use a synthesizer is to misuse it. That's what we've done. That's what a lot of techno musicians do now. The French call it deconstruction." --Irmin Schmidt quoted in Modulations: A History of Electronic Music "Derrida's original use of the word "deconstruction" was a translation of Destruktion, a concept from the work of Martin Heidegger that Derrida sought to apply to textual reading. Heidegger's term referred to a process of exploring the categories and concepts that tradition has imposed on a word, and the history behind them." --Sholem Stein "This is the story of one computer professional's explorations in the world of postmodern literary criticism. I'm a working software engineer, not a student nor an academic nor a person with any real background in the humanities. Consequently, I've approached the whole subject with a somewhat different frame of mind than perhaps people in the field are accustomed to. Being a vulgar engineer I'm allowed to break a lot of the rules that people in the humanities usually have to play by, since nobody expects an engineer to be literate. Ha. Anyway, here is my tale." --How To Deconstruct Almost Anything; My Postmodern Adventure by Chip Morningstar, June 1993 "But even if deconstruction cannot be defined, it can be described. For one thing, deconstruction comes with a lifetime guarantee to render discussion of any subject completely unintelligible. It does this by linguistic subterfuge. One of the central slogans of deconstruction is "il n'y a pas de hors-texte," i.e., "there is nothing outside the text." (It sounds better in French.) In other words, deconstruction is an updated version of nominalism, the view that the meanings of words are completely arbitrary and that, at bottom, reality is unknowable." --"Derrida and the Meaninglessness of Meaning" - WSJ, Roger Kimball, 2004
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Originated by the philosopher Jacques Derrida, deconstruction is an approach to understanding the relationship between text and meaning. Derrida's approach consisted of conducting readings of texts looking for things that run counter to the intended meaning or structural unity of a particular text. The purpose of deconstruction is to show that the usage of language in a given text, and language as a whole, are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. Throughout his readings, Derrida hoped to show deconstruction at work.
Many debates in continental philosophy surrounding ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, hermeneutics, and philosophy of language refer to Derrida's observations. Since the 1980s, these observations inspired a range of theoretical enterprises in the humanities, including the disciplines of law psychoanalysis, LGBT studies, and the feminist school of thought. Deconstruction also inspired deconstructivism in architecture and remains important within art, music,
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Overview
Jacques Derrida's 1967 book Of Grammatology introduced the majority of ideas influential within deconstruction. Derrida published a number of other works directly relevant to the concept of deconstruction. Books showing deconstruction in action or defining it more completely include Différance, Speech and Phenomena, and Writing and Difference.
According to Derrida and taking inspiration from the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, language as a system of signs and words only has meaning because of the contrast between these signs.
As Rorty contends, "words have meaning only because of contrast-effects with other words...no word can acquire meaning in the way in which philosophers from Aristotle to Bertrand Russell have hoped it might—by being the unmediated expression of something non-linguistic (e.g., an emotion, a sense-datum, a physical object, an idea, a Platonic Form)". As a consequence, meaning is never present, but rather is deferred to other signs. Derrida refers to the—in this view, mistaken—belief that there is a self-sufficient, non-deferred meaning as metaphysics of presence. A concept, then, must be understood in the context of its opposite, such as being/nothingness, normal/abnormal, speech/writing, etc.
Further, Derrida contends that "in a classical philosophical opposition we are not dealing with the peaceful coexistence of a vis-a-vis, but rather with a violent hierarchy. One of the two terms governs the other (axiologically, logically, etc.), or has the upper hand": signified over signifier; intelligible over sensible; speech over writing; activity over passivity, etc. The first task of deconstruction would be to find and overturn these oppositions inside a text or a corpus of texts; but the final objective of deconstruction is not to surpass all oppositions, because it is assumed they are structurally necessary to produce sense. The oppositions simply cannot be suspended once and for all. The hierarchy of dual oppositions always reestablishes itself. Deconstruction only points to the necessity of an unending analysis that can make explicit the decisions and arbitrary violence intrinsic to all texts.
Finally, Derrida argues that it is not enough to expose and deconstruct the way oppositions work and then stop there in a nihilistic or cynical position, "thereby preventing any means of intervening in the field effectively". To be effective, deconstruction needs to create new terms, not to synthesize the concepts in opposition, but to mark their difference and eternal interplay. This explains why Derrida always proposes new terms in his deconstruction, not as a free play but as a pure necessity of analysis, to better mark the intervals. Derrida called undecidables—that is, unities of simulacrum—"false" verbal properties (nominal or semantic) that can no longer be included within philosophical (binary) opposition, but which, however, inhabit philosophical oppositions—resisting and organizing it—without ever constituting a third term, without ever leaving room for a solution in the form of Hegelian dialectics (e.g., différance, archi-writing, pharmakon, supplement, hymen, gram, spacing).
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Influences
Derrida's theories on deconstruction were themselves influenced by the work of linguists such as Ferdinand de Saussure (whose writings on semiotics also became a cornerstone of structuralist theory in the mid-20th century) and literary theorists such as Roland Barthes (whose works were an investigation of the logical ends of structuralist thought). Derrida's views on deconstruction stood in opposition to the theories of structuralists such as psychoanalytic theorist Jacques Lacan, and anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. However, Derrida resisted attempts to label his work as "post-structuralist".
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Influence of Nietzsche
In order to understand Derrida's motivation, one must refer to Nietzsche's philosophy.
Nietzsche's project began with Orpheus, the man underground. This foil to Platonic light was deliberately and self-consciously lauded in Daybreak, when Nietzsche announces, albeit retrospectively, "In this work you will discover a subterranean man at work", and then goes on to map the project of unreason: "All things that live long are gradually so saturated with reason that their origin in unreason thereby becomes improbable. Does not almost every precise history of an origination impress our feelings as paradoxical and wantonly offensive? Does the good historian not, at bottom, constantly contradict?".
Nietzsche's point in Daybreak is that standing at the end of modern history, modern thinkers know too much to be deceived by the illusion of reason any more. Reason, logic, philosophy and science are no longer solely sufficient as the royal roads to truth. And so Nietzsche decides to throw it in our faces, and uncover the truth of Plato, that he—unlike Orpheus—just happened to discover his true love in the light instead of in the dark. This being merely one historical event amongst many, Nietzsche proposes that we revisualize the history of the West as the history of a series of political moves, that is, a manifestation of the will to power, that at bottom have no greater or lesser claim to truth in any noumenal (absolute) sense. By calling our attention to the fact that he has assumed the role of Orpheus, the man underground, in dialectical opposition to Plato, Nietzsche hopes to sensitize us to the political and cultural context, and the political influences that impact authorship. For example, the political influences that led one author to choose philosophy over poetry (or at least portray himself as having made such a choice), and another to make a different choice.
The problem with Nietzsche, as Derrida sees it, is that he did not go far enough. That he missed the fact that this will to power is itself but a manifestation of the operation of writing. And so Derrida wishes to help us step beyond Nietzsche's penultimate revaluation of all western values, to the ultimate, which is the final appreciation of "the role of writing in the production of knowledge".
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Influence of Saussure
Derrida approaches all texts as constructed around elemental oppositions which all discourse has to articulate if it intends to make any sense whatsoever. This is so because identity is viewed in non-essentialist terms as a construct, and because constructs only produce meaning through the interplay of difference inside a "system of distinct signs". This approach to text is influenced by the semiology of Ferdinand de Saussure.
Saussure is considered one of the fathers of structuralism when he explained that terms get their meaning in reciprocal determination with other terms inside language:
In language there are only differences. Even more important: a difference generally implies positive terms between which the difference is set up; but in language there are only differences without positive terms. Whether we take the signified or the signifier, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system. The idea or phonic substance that a sign contains is of less importance than the other signs that surround it. [...] A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas; but the pairing of a certain number of acoustical signs with as many cuts made from the mass thought engenders a system of values.
Saussure explicitly suggested that linguistics was only a branch of a more general semiology, a science of signs in general, human codes being only one part. Nevertheless, in the end, as Derrida pointed out, Saussure made linguistics "the regulatory model", and "for essential, and essentially metaphysical, reasons had to privilege speech, and everything that links the sign to phone". Derrida will prefer to follow the more "fruitful paths (formalization)" of a general semiotics without falling into what he considered "a hierarchizing teleology" privileging linguistics, and to speak of "mark" rather than of language, not as something restricted to mankind, but as prelinguistic, as the pure possibility of language, working everywhere there is a relation to something else.
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See also
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